Physics 121 - Electricity and Magnetism

Lecture 08 - Multi-Loop and RC Circuits

Y&F Chapter 26 Sect. 2 - 5

• Kirchhoff’s Rules
• Multi-Loop Circuit Examples
• RC Circuits
– Charging a Capacitor
– Discharging a Capacitor
• Discharging Solution of the RC Circuit
Differential Equation
• The Time Constant
• Examples
• Charging Solution of the RC Circuit
Differential Equation
• Features of the Solution
• Examples
• Summary

Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013

Kirchhoff’s
Rules: i1 i
• Branch/Junction Rule (charge conservation): i2
The current through all series elements in a
branch is the same. At any junction:  iin =  iout
• Loop Rule (energy conservation):
The net change in potential difference is
zero for any closed path around a circuit:  V = 0

Generating Circuit Equations with the Kirchoff Loop Rule

• The algebraic sum of voltage changes = zero around all complete
loops through a circuit (including multi-loop).
• OK to assume either current direction.
Expect minus signs when choice is wrong.
• OK to traverse circuit with or against assumed current direction
• Across resistances, voltage drop DV = - iR if following assumed
current direction. Otherwise, set V = +iR.
• When crossing EMFs from – to +, DV = +E. Otherwise DV= -E
• Dot product i.E determines whether power is actually
supplied or dissipated in EMFs Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
Equivalent resistance for resistors in series

Junction Rule: The current through all of the resistances in

series (a single branch) is identical:

i = i1 = i2 = i3
Loop Rule: The sum of the potential differences around a
closed loop equals zero:

 − iR1 − iR 2 − iR 3 = 0 i=
R1 + R 2 + R 3

The equivalent circuit replaces the series resistors with a

single equivalent resistance:
same E, same i as above

 − iR eq = 0 i=
Req
The equivalent resistance for a series combination is the sum
of the individual resistances and is always greater than any
one of them.
n
R eq = R1 + R 2 + R 3 Req =  Ri
i=1
inverse of series capacitance rule
Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
 Equivalent resistance for resistors in parallel
Loop Rule: The potential differences across each of the
parallel branches are the same.

E − i1R1 = 0 E − i2R 2 = 0 E − i3R 3 = 0

E E E i not in
i1 = , i2 = , i3 =
R1 R2 R3 equations

Junction Rule: The sum of the currents flowing in equals the

sum of the currents flowing out. Combine equations for all the
junctions at “a” & “b”.
 1 1 1 
i = i1 + i2 + i3 = E  + + 
 1
R R 2 R 3

The equivalent circuit replaces the series resistors with a

single equivalent resistance:
same E, same i as above

 − iR eq = 0 i=
Req
The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance for a parallel combination
is the sum of the individual reciprocal resistances and is always
smaller than any one of them.

1 1 1 1 n R 1R 2
1 1 Req =
= + +
R e q R1 R 2 R 3 Req
= R R1 + R 2
i=1 i
Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
inverse of parallel capacitance rule
EXAMPLE: MULTIPLE BATTERIES
SINGLE LOOP
i
R1= 10 W i
+ +
- -
E1 = 8 V E2 = 3 V
R2= 15 W

A battery (EMF) absorbs power (charges up) when I is opposite to E

 
Pemf =  E i = E  i

Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013

Example: Multi-loop circuit with 2 EMFs

D E1 + A E2 + E
Given all resistances and EMFs in circuit:
- -
• Find currents (i1, i2, i3), then potential
drops and power dissipated by resistors
R1 R3 R2
• 3 unknowns (currents) i1 i3 i2
imply 3 independent equations needed

Apply Procedure: C B F

• Identify branches & junctions. Name all currents (3) and other variables.
• Same current flows through all elements in any series branch.
• Assume arbitrary current directions; negative result means opposite direction.
• Find junctions, write Junction Rule equations for all.

 iin =  iout
• Same equation at junctions A and B (not independent).
• Junction Rule yields only 1 of 3 equations needed
• Are points C, D, E, F junctions? (No)

i2 = i1 + i3 (1)
Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
Procedure, continued:
• Apply Loop Rule as often as needed to find D E1
- + A E2
+ -
E
equations that include all the unknowns (3).
• Traversal direction is arbitrary.
• IR’s are voltage drops when following the assumed i1 R1 i3 R3 i2 R2
current direction: use - iR
• IR’s are steps up when going against assumed current
• EMF’s are positive when traversed from – to + side
C B F
• EMF’s are negative when traversed from + to - sides

 V = 0
Loop equations for the example circuit:
ADCBA - CCW E1 −i1 R1 + i3R 3 = 0 • Only 2 of these
three are independent
ADCBFEA - CCW E1 −i1 R1 − i2R 2 −E2 = 0 • Now have 3 equations
ABFEA - CCW −i3 R 3 − i2R 2 − E2 = 0 in 3 unknowns

Solution: (after a lot of algebra) E1R 2 + E1R 3 − E2R 3

i1 =
Define: 
  = R1R 2 + R 2R 3 + R1R 3 E1R 3 − E2R 3 − E2R1
i2 =

− E2R1 − E1R 2
=
i3Copyright

R. Janow Fall 2013
 Example: find currents, voltages, power
6 BRANCHES → 6 CURRENTS.
•JUNCTION RULE:
Branches C,E,G are the
same point, as are D, F,
H. 4 currents left.
Remaining 2 junction
equations are dependent
1 junction equation
i = i1 + i2 + i3
LOOP RULE:
ABCDA - CW E − i1 R1 = 0  E = i1 R1  i1 = E/R1 = 12 / 3 = 4.0 A.
CEFDC - CW − i2R 2 + i1R1 = 0  i2 = i1R1/R 2 = 4x3 / 8 = 1.5 A.
EGHFE - CW − i3R 3 + i2R 2 = 0  i3 = i2R 2/R 3 = 1.5x8 / 6 = 2.0 A.
CHECK: i = i1 + i2 + i3 = 4.0 + 1.5 + 2.0 = 7.5 A. R eq = 1.6 W
E should = VR1 = i1R1 = 4.0x3.0 = 12.0 Volts
POWER: PR1 = i12R1 = 48.0 Watts 
PE = E  i = 90.0 Watts
PR2 = i22R 2 = 18.0 Watts = PR1 + PR2 + PR3
PR3 = i23R 3 = 24.0 Watts Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
Multiple EMF Example: find currents, voltages, power
R1 = 2 W R2 = 4 W
E1 = 3 V E2 = 6 V

MULTIPLE
EMF
CIRCUIT

JUNCTION RULE at A & B: i3 = i1 + i2 USE THE

SAME RULES
LOOP ACDBA:

− i1R1 − E1 − i1R1 + E2 + i2R 2 = 0 i2 = i1 − 3/4

LOOP BFEAB:

− i3R1 + E2 − i3R1 − i2R 2 − E2 = 0 i3 = − i2

USE JUNCTION EQUATION: For power use:
i3 = − i2 = i1 + i2 i1 = − 2 i2
V = iiRi Pi = ii2Ri
EVALUATE
i = 1/2, i2 = - 1/4, i3 = + 1/4
NUMERICALLY: 1 Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
RC Circuits: Time dependance
27.8
+
i a
R Can constant current flow through
a capacitor indefinitely?
E +
b Vc • Given Capacitance + Resistance + EMF
- C - • Loop Rule + Junction Rule
• Find Q, i, V, U for capacitor
as functions of time
i

First charge C (switch to “a”) then discharge (switch to “b”)

• Assume current i through R is clockwise

Charging: Switch to “a”. • Expect largest current at t = 0,
Loop equation: • Expect zero current as t → infinity
E − iR − Vc = 0 • Vcap→ E = Vinf as t → infinity
• Energy stored in C, plus some dissipated in R

Discharging: Switch to “b”. • Energy stored in C now dissipated in R

no EMF, Loop equation: • Arbitrarily assume current is still CW
• Vcap= E at t =0, but it must die away
− iR − Vc = 0 • Q0= full charge = CVinf= CE
• Result: i through R is actually CCW
Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
RC Circuit: solution for discharging
Loop Equation is : iR + Vc = 0 Circuit Equation:
dQ Q(t )
dQ Q( t ) =−
Substitute : i(t ) = Vc (t ) = dt RC
dt C
First order differential equation, form is Q’ = -kQ → Exponential solution
Charge decays Q0
exponentially:
Q(t ) = Q 0e − t / RC
• t/RC is Q
e−1 = 0.37
dimensionless

RC = t = the TIME CONSTANT t 2t 3t

t
Q falls to 1/e of original value

Voltage across C
Q 0 = CE
also decays
Q(t ) = CVc (t) Vc (t) = E e − t / RC
exponentially:
Current also
dQ E Q0
decays i(t )  = i0e − t / RC i0  =
exponentially: dt R RC
Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
Solving for discharging phase by direct integration

dQ Q( t ) RC is Initial conditions (“boundary conditions”)

=−
dt RC constant Q(t) = Q0 at t = 0 where Q0 = CE

dQ dt dQ' 1 t Q t
=− Q
) =−
Q RC Q0 Q' = −
RC 0
dt' ln (
Q0 RC

exponentiate both sides of above right eln (x) = x

Q t
ln ( )
Q − exponential
Q(t ) = Q 0e − t / RC
Q0
e = =e RC
Q0 decay

RC = time constant = time for Q to fall to 1/e of its initial value

RC  t
Time t 2t 3t 4t 5t
1 1
e −1 = =  .37 Value e-1 e-2 e-3 e-4 e-5
e 2.71828
% left 36.8 13.5 5.0 1.8 0.67
After 3-5 time constants
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Units for RC
8-1: We defined t = RC, which of the choices best conveys the
physical units for the decay constant t ?

[t] = [RC] =[(V/i)(Q/V)]=[Q/Q/t]=[t]

A. WF (ohmfarad)
B. C/A (coulomb per ampere)
C. WC/V (ohmcoulomb per volt)
D. VF/A (voltfarad per ampere)
E. s (second)

Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013

Examples: discharging capacitor C through resistor R
a) When has the charge fallen to half of it’s initial value Q0?
1 1
set: Q(t) = Q 0 = Q 0e − t / t = e− t / t (solvefor t - depends only on t)
2 2
take log: ln( 12 ) = − t / t ln(1) = 0 ln(a/b) = ln(a) - ln(b)
− ln(2) = - t/t ln(2) = 0.69  t = 0.69 t

b) When has the stored energy fallen to half of its original value?
Q2
recall: U(t ) = and Q(t ) = Q 0e − t / RC
2C Q 02
at any time t: U(t) = U0 e−2t / RC at t = 0: U(t = 0)  U0 =
2C
U0
set: U(t ) = = U0 e − 2t / t
2
take log: ln( 12 ) = − 2t / t  t = 0.69 t /2 = 0.35 t

c) How does the power delivered to C vary with time?

power: P  dU = U0 d [ e − 2t / t ] = U0 [ − 2 ]e − 2t / t = − 2 Q 0 Q 0 e − 2t / t
dt dt t 2 C RC
recall: Q 0  i0 Q0
E C supplies rather than absorbs power
RC C Drop minus sign

power supplied P = i0 e − t / t  Ee − t / t = i(t)  V(t)

P(t ) = i(t) V(t)
by C:  P0 e −2t / t Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
RC Circuit: solution for charging
Loop Equation is : E - iR − Vc = 0 Circuit Equation:
dQ Q( t ) E
dQ Q( t ) =− +
Substitute : i(t ) = Vc (t ) = dt RC R
dt C

• First order differential equation again: form is Q’ = - kQ + constant

• Same as discharge equation, but i0 = E / R is on right side
• At t = 0: Q = 0 & i = i0. Large current flows (C acts like a wire)
• As t → infinity: Current → 0 (C acts like an open circuit)
Q → Qinf = CE = same as Q0 for discharge
Solution: Charge starts from zero, grows as a saturating exponential.

( )
Qinf
Q(t ) = Qinf 1 − e − t / RC
Q

• RC = t = TIME CONSTANT
1 − e−1 = 0.63
describes time dependance again
• Q(t) → 0 as t → 0 t 2t 3t
• Q(t) → Qinf as t → infinity t
Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
RC Circuit: solution for charging, continued
Voltage across C while charging:
Q = CVc and Qinf = CE Vc (t) = E (1- e − t / RC )
Voltage across C also starts from zero and saturates exponentially

Current in the charging circuit:

i(t ) = i0e − t / RC
i(t ) 
dQ(t )
= Qinf
d
(
1 − e − t / RC )
dt dt E Qinf
1 − t / RC i0  =
= Qinf e R RC
RC
Current decays exponentially just as in discharging case
Growing potential Vc on C blocks current completely at t = infinity
At t=0 C acts like a wire. At t=infinity C acts like a broken wire
Voltage drop VR across the resistor:
VR (t ) = i(t )R = i0 Re − t / RC VR (t ) = E e − t / RC
Voltage across R decays exponentially, reaches 0 as t→ infinity
Form factor: 1 – exp( - t / t )

Factor .63 .865 .95 .982 .993 .998 After 3-5 time
constants the
Time t 2t 3t 4t 5t 6t
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RC circuit – multiple resistors

8-2: Consider the circuit shown, The battery has no internal resistance.
The capacitor has zero charge.
Just after the switch is closed, what is the current through the battery?

A. 0.
C
B. /2R.
C. 2/R.
D. /R.  R R
E. impossible to determine

Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013

RC circuit – multiple resistors
8-3: Consider the circuit shown. The battery has no internal resistance.
After the switch has been closed for a very long time, what is the current
through the battery?

A. 0.
B. /2R.
C

C. 2/R.
D. /R.  R R
E. impossible to determine

Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013

Discharging Example: A 2 mF capacitor is charged and
then connected in series with a resistance R. The
original potential across it drops to ¼ of it’s starting
value in 2 seconds. What is the value of the
resistance?
Use: Vc (t) = V0 e − t / RC Set: Vc (t ) 1
= = e − t / RC
V0 4
Take natural log of both sides:
−2
ln(1) − ln(4) = ln[ e − 2 / RC ] =
RC
ln(4) = 1.39 ln(1) = 0 ln[ e x ] = x
2 1
1.39 RC = 2  R =
1.39 2x10 − 6

R = 0.72 MW

Define: 1 MW = 106 W
Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
Example: Discharging
C = 500 mF R = 10 KW V0 = E = 12 V
Capacitor C is charged for a
E
long time, then discharged.

a) Find current at t = 0
dQ E Q E 0 12
i(t )  = i0e − t / RC i0  = 0 i(t = 0) = e = 4
= 1.2 mA
dt R RC R 10
b) When does VCap (voltage on C) reach 1 Volt?
Vcap (t ) = E e − t / RC RC = 104 x 5 x 102 x 10−6 = 5 sec V0 = E = 12 Volts
Vcap 1
= = e− t / 5 − ln(12) = − t / 5 t = 5 ln(12) = 12.4 sec
V0 12
c) Find the current in the resistor at that time

dQ i(t = 12.4 sec) = 1.2 mA x e −12.4 / 5

i(t )  = i0e − t / RC
dt
i(t = 12.4 sec) = 0.1 mA
Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
Charging Example: How many time constants does it take
for an initially uncharged capacitor in an RC circuit to
become 99% charged?
Use: (
Q( t ) = Q  1 − e − t / t ) t  RC = time constant
Require: Q( t )
= 0.99 = 1 − e − t / t 0.01 = e − t / t
Q
Take natural log of both sides:
ln (0.01) = - 4.61 = - t/t  t/t = 4.61 = # of time constants

Did not need specific values of RC

Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013

Example: Charging a 100 mF R
capacitor in series with a 10,000 W E
resistor, using EMF E = 5 V.
C

a) How long after voltage is applied does Vcap(t) reach 4 volts?

Vc (t) = E (1- e − t / RC ) RC = 10 4 x 100 x 10-6 = 1.0 sec

Vc (t )
4
= 0.8 = 1- e − t / RC
=  e − t / RC = 0.2
E 5
Take natural log of both sides:
−t
ln( 0.2 ) = − 1.61 = ln [e- t/RC ] = = −t t = 1.61 sec
RC

b) What’s the current through R at t = 2 sec?

E
i(t ) = i0e − t / RC i0 
R
E − 2.0 / 1.0 5
i(t = 2) = i0 e − 2.0 / 1.0 = e = 4 (0.37)2 = 6.77 x 10- 5
R 10
i(t = 2) = 6.8 mA.
Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
Example: Multiple loops and EMFs
• Switch S is initially open for a long
time.
• Capacitor C charges to potential of battery 2
• S is then closed for a long time

What is the CHANGE in charge on C?

First: E2 charges C to have:
Vc = E2 = 3 volts with current i1 = 0
Q0 = final charge for first phase = CE2 = 3.0 x 10-5
Q 0 = inital charge for second phase = 30 mC
Second: Close switch for a long time
At equilibrium, current i3 though capacitor → zero
Find outer loop current i = i1 = 12 using loop rule
E2 − iR 2 − iR1 − E1 = 0 i = 2.0/0.6 = 3.33 A.
3 − i(0.4 + 0.2) − 1 = 0
Now find Voltage across C, same as voltage across right hand branch
Vb − Va = E2 − iR 2 = 3 - 3.33x0.4 = 1.67 V
Final charge on C:
Q final = C (Vb − Va ) = 10x10-6 x 1.67
Q final = 16.7 mC Q final −Q 0 = - 13.3 mC R. Janow
Copyright Fall 2013
Lecture 8A Chapter 27 - Circuits, Part 1

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Summary: Lecture 8B Chapter 27 – RC Circuits, Part 2

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Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013