EET302 LCS Lecture Notes Full

EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G.
Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur
EET302 – LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS (L-T-P 2-2-0)

Module 1
Feedback Control Systems (9 hours)
Open loop and closed loop control systems- Examples of automatic control systems - Transfer
function approach to feed back control systems – Effect of feedback
Control system components – Control applications of DC and AC servo motors, Tacho generator,
Synchro, Gyroscope and Stepper motor
Controllers - Types of controllers & Compensators - Transfer function and basic characteristics of
lag, lead and lag-lead phase compensators.
Module 2
Performance Analysis of Control Systems (9 hours)
Time domain analysis of control systems: Time domain specifications of transient and steady state
responses- Impulse and Step responses of first and second order systems Pole dominance for higher
order systems.
Error analysis: Steady state error analysis and error constants -Dynamic error coefficients.
Stability Analysis: Concept of BIBO stability and Asymptotic stability- Time response for various
pole locations- stability of feedback systems - Routh's stability criterion - Relative stability
Module 3
Root Locus Analysis and Compensator Design (11 hours)
Root locus technique: Construction of Root locus- stability analysis- effect of addition of poles
and zeroes- Effect of positive feedback systems on Root locus
Design of Compensators: Design of lag, lead and lag-lead compensators using Root locus
technique.
PID controllers: PID tuning using Ziegler-Nichols methods.
Simulation based analysis: Introduction to simulation tools like MATLAB/ SCILAB or
equivalent for Root locus based analysis (Demo/Assignment only)
Module 4
Frequency domain analysis (9 hours)
Frequency domain specifications- correlation between time domain and frequency domain
responses
Polar plot: Concepts of gain margin and phase margin- stability analysis
Bode Plot: Construction- Concepts of gain margin and phase margin- stability analysis,
Effect of transportation lag and non-minimum phase systems.
Module 5
Nyquist stability criterion and Compensator Design using Bode Plot (9 hours)
Nyquist criterion: Nyquist plot- Stability criterion- Analysis
Introduction to Log magnitude vs. phase plot and Nichols chart (concepts only) –
Compensator design using Bode plot: Design of lag, lead and lag-lead compensator using
Bode plot.
equivalent for various frequency domain plots and analysis (Demo/Assignment only).
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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur
REFERENCE BOOKS
1 Control System Engineering by Nagrath & Gopala (New Age International Pub)
2 Automatic Control Systems by Benjamin C Kuo & Farid Golnaraghi (Wiley India)
3 Control Systems b Nagoor Kani (RBA Publications)
4 Advanced Control Theory by Nagoor Kani (CBS Publishers)
5 Control Systems - Principles & Design by M.Gopal (McGrawHill Education)
6 Modern Control Systems by Richard Dorf & Robert Bishop (Pearson)
7 Linear Control Systems by B.S Manke (Khanna Publishers)
8 Control Systems by Ashfaq Husain & Haroon Ashfaq (Dhanpat Rai & Co.)
9 Control Systems Engineering by Anandanatarajan & Ramesh Babu (Scitech Publications)
10 Control Systems - Theory & Applications by Smarajit Ghosh (Pearson)
COURSE OUTCOMES
After the completion of the course the student will be able to
CO1 Describe the role of various control blocks and components in feedback systems
CO2 Analyse the time domain responses of the linear systems
CO3 Apply Root locus technique to assess the performance of linear systems
CO4 Analyse the stability of the given LTI systems
CO5 Analyse the frequency domain response of the given LTI systems
CO6 Design compensators using time domain and frequency domain techniques
No. of
MODULE TOPIC COVERAGE
Lectures
1 FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS 9 HRS
1.1 Terminology and basic structure of Open loop and Closed loop control 2
systems- Examples of Automatic control systems (block diagram
representations only)
1.2 Transfer function approach to feed back control systems- Effect of 2
feedback- Characteristic equation- poles and zeroes- type and order.
1.3 Control system components: Transfer functions of DC and AC servo 3
motors –Control applications of Tacho generator, Synchro, Gyroscope
and Stepper motor
1.4 Need for controllers: Types of controllers – Feedback, Cascade and Feed 2
forward controllers Compensators: Transfer function and basics
characteristics of lag, lead, and lag-lead phase compensators
2 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 9 HRS
2.1 Time domain analysis of control systems: Time domain specifications of 3
transient and steady state responses - Impulse and Step responses of First
order systems- Impulse and Step responses of Second order systems- Pole
dominance for higher order systems
2.2 Error analysis: Steady state error analysis - static error coefficient of Type 2
0, 1, 2 systems. Dynamic error coefficients
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2.3 Stability Analysis: Concept of stability-BIBO stability and asymptotic 2

stability- Time response for various pole locations- stability of feedback
systems
2.4 Application of Routh's stability criterion to control system analysis - 2
Relative stability
3 ROOT LOCUS ANALYSIS AND COMPENSATOR DESIGN 11 HRS
3.1 Root locus technique: General rules for constructing Root loci – stability 3
from root loci
3.2 Effect of addition of poles and zeros on Root locus 1
3.3 Effect of positive feedback systems on Root locus 1
3.4 Design using Root locus: Design of lead compensator using root locus. 2
3.5 Design of lag compensator using root locus. 1
3.6 Design of lag-lead compensator using root locus 1
3.7 PID Controllers: Need for P, PI and PID controllers 1
3.8 Design of P, PI and PID controller using Ziegler-Nichols tuning method. 1
3.9 Simulation based analysis: Introduction to simulation tools like
MATLAB/ SCILAB or equivalent simulation software and tool boxes for
Root locus-based analysis (Demo/Assignment only)
4 FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS 9 HRS
4.1 Frequency domain specifications- correlation between time domain and 2
frequency domain responses
4.2 Polar plot: Concepts of gain margin and phase margin- stability analysis 2
4.3 Bode Plot: Construction of Bode plots- gain margin and phase margin - 4
Stability analysis based on Bode plot
4.4 Effect of Transportation lag and non-minimum phase systems 1
5 NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION AND COMPENSATOR 9 HRS
DESIGN USING BODE PLOT
5.1 Nyquist stability criterion: Nyquist plot- Stability criterion- Analysis 3
5.2 Introduction to Log magnitude vs. phase plot and Nichols chart 1
5.3 Design using Bode plot: Design of lead compensator using Bode plot 2
5.4 Design of Lag compensator using Bode plot. 2
5.5 Design of Lag- lead compensator using Bode plot 1
5.6 Simulation based analysis: Introduction to simulation tools like
MATLAB/ SCILAB or equivalent simulation software and tool boxes
for various frequency domain plots and analysis (Demo/Assignment
only).
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MODULE 1 – FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS

Open loop and closed loop control systems- Examples of automatic control systems - Transfer
function approach to feed back control systems – Effect of feedback
Control system components – Control applications of DC and AC servo motors, Tacho generator,
Synchro, Gyroscope and Stepper motor
Controllers - Types of controllers & Compensators - Transfer function and basic characteristics of
lag, lead and lag-lead phase compensators.
INTRODUCTION
Control systems are an integral part of modern society. They find applications in manufacturing process
industries, satellites, guides missiles, navigation, biomedical engineering etc.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
System A system is one which operates on an input to produce an output. Input may be
– electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, biomedical signal or physical
variables like temperature, pressure, liquid level etc
Examples of systems are amplifier in electronic engineering, liquid level
process in chemical engineering, antenna tracking system in communication
engineering etc Each system produces some output for a given input.
Control system Control system is an arrangement of physical components to direct, regulate or
command a system so that a desired objective is obtained.
TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS (NON-FEEDBACK SYSTEMS)
An open loop control system utilizes an actuating device to control the process directly without using
feedback.
An open-loop control system is one in which the output is dependent on input, but controlling action
or input is totally independent of the output or changes in output of the system.
In an open loop system, the output can be adjusted / varied by varying the input but the output has no
effect on the input. The output of the open loop system can be determined only by its present state input.
If the output is affected due to some external disturbance, the open loop system cannot correct it. In
open loop systems, the changes in output are corrected by changing the input manually.
The block diagram of an open-loop system is shown below.
Electric clothes dryer: Depending upon the amount of clothes or how wet they
Example of are, an operator would set a timer (controller) to say 30 minutes and at the end of
open loop the 30 minutes the drier will automatically stop and turn-off even if the clothes
control system where still wet or damp. Here, the clothes dryer is an open-loop system as it does
not monitor or measure the condition of the output signal, which is the dryness of
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the clothes. Then the accuracy of the drying process, or success of drying the
clothes will depend on the experience of the operator.
Electric Furnace: The output in the system is the desired temperature. The
temperature of the system is raised by heat generated by the heating element. The
output temperature depends on the time during which the supply to heater remains
ON. The ON and OFF of the supply is governed by the time setting of the relay.
DC Motor: For a given field current, a voltage is applied to the armature to
produce the desired value of motor speed. If the motor speed changes due to
change in mechanical load the shaft, there is no way in the open-loop system to
change the value of the applied armature voltage to maintain the desired speed
automatically.
Simple in construction and design. No sensors are needed to measure the

variables to provide feedback.
Advantages of
Economical
open loop
Easy from maintenance point of view
system
No stability problem. Generally, they are stable.
These systems are convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.
Not accurate and reliable because their accuracy is dependent on the controller.
Disadvantages The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not corrected
of open loop automatically.
system Recalibration of the controller is required from time to time for maintaining
quality and accuracy.
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS (FEEDBACK SYSTEMS)
Control systems in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity in order to maintain the
desired output value are called closed-loop control systems.
An open-loop control system can be modified into a closed-loop control system by providing
feedback.
The general block diagram of an automatic control system is shown in the figure below.
The reference signal (or input signal) corresponds to the desired output. The output signal is measured
and converted to a feedback signal of the same type as that of the reference signal. The feedback signal
is proportional to the output signal and it is fed to the error detector. The error signal generated by the
error detector is the difference between the reference signal and the feedback signal. The controller
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modifies and amplifies the error signal to produce better control action. The modified error signal is fed
to the plant to correct its output.
DC motor speed control: A DC shunt motor with constant field current and
variable armature voltage is used to obtain the desired speed. The feedback is
taken by a tacho-generator. Tacho-generator generates voltage proportional to
speed and this voltage is compared with the voltage (reference input) required to
get the desired speed. This difference is given as input to the controller which
cumulatively changes the speed of the motor by controlling the armature voltage
through an amplifier.
Example of
closed loop
control system
Air Conditioner: The air conditioner measures the actual temperature of the
room, compares it with the desired input temperature, and maintains the
temperature of the room by turning the compressor ON or OFF as per the
requirement.
Traffic-light system: Some traffic-light systems are closed-loop and some are
open- loop. In the open-loop type, there is a timing mechanism that is set to switch
the lights at regular intervals, irrespective of the volume of traffic. In the closed-
loop type, however, the amount of traffic passing through the junctions is
monitored (electronically or otherwise), and the duration of the “red” and “green”
conditions are adjusted for each part of the junction accordingly.
More accurate than open loop systems because of the presence of feedback
Closed loop systems reduce the effect of noise and disturbance on the system
performance
The sensitivity of the closed-loop systems for parameter variations is made small
Advantages of
by increasing the feedback loop gain.
closed loop
The range of frequencies over which the system responds is increased because of
system
the increased bandwidth.
If an open-loop system is unstable, it is possible to make the system stable by
providing feedback.
There is reduced effect of non-linearities in these systems
Closed-loop systems are complicated in design

Disadvantages
Closed-loop systems are costlier
of closed loop
Feedback reduces the overall gain of the system
system
Stability is a major problem in closed loop system
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COMPARISON OF OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
OPEN-LOOP CLOSED-LOOP
Any change in the output has no effect on the Changes in output affect the input which is
input (no feedback) possible by use of feedback
Feedback element is absent Feedback element is present
Error detector is not present Error detector is present
Inaccurate and unreliable Highly accurate and reliable
Highly sensitive to disturbances Less sensitive to disturbances
Bandwidth is small Bandwidth is large
Simple to construct and economical Complicated to design and hence costly
Generally, are stable Stability is the major consideration while design
They can be affected by non-linearities in the They can adjust the effect of non-linearities
system present in the system
It has less maintenance It has more maintenance
Example: Washing machine, room heater Example: refrigerator, servomotor control
CLOSED LOOP SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR
The position of the potentiometer slider represents the reference input (desired speed). The
tachogenerator connected to the shaft produces a feedback signal proportional to the motor speed. The
difference between the input voltage setting and the feedback voltage level gives the error signal. Any
external disturbance like change in load will produce an error signal which the controller would
automatically respond for adjusting the motor speed. Controller works to minimize the error signal
leading to zero error which indicates actual speed equal to set point.
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace
transform of input provided that all the initial conditions are zero.
Transfer function G(s) can be written mathematically as,

Laplace transform of output
G (s) 
Laplace transform of input all initial conditions
are zero
C (s)
G (s) 
R ( s ) all initial conditions
are zero
Determine the transfer function of the electrical network shown in figure.
Vi ( s )
I (s) 
Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s )
Z 2 ( s )Vi ( s )
Vo ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) I ( s ) 
Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s )
Vo ( s ) Z 2 (s)
G (s)  
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s )
Determine the transfer function of the phase-lag network shown in figure.
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1
R2 
Vo ( s ) Z 2 (s) Cs sR 2 C  1
G (s)    
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R  R  1 s ( R1  R2 ) C  1
1 2
Cs
Determine the transfer function of the phase-lead network shown in figure.
1
R1 
1 sC1 R1
Z1 ( s )  R1 / /  
sC1 R  1 sR1C1  1
1
sC1
Vo ( s ) Z 2 (s) R2 R2 ( sR1C1  1)
G (s)    
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R1 R1  R2 ( sR1C1  1)
 R2
sR1C1  1
R2 ( sR1C1  1) R2 ( sR1C1  1)
G ( s)  
R1  R2 ( sR1C1  1) R1  R2  sR1 R2 C1
Determine the transfer function of the lag-lead compensator network shown in figure.
1
R1 
1 sC1 R1
Z1 ( s )  R1 / /  
sC1 R  1 sR1C1  1
1
sC1
1 sR C  1
Z 2 ( s )  R2   2 2
sC 2 sC 2
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sR2 C 2  1
V (s) Z 2 (s) sC 2 ( sR2C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)
G (s)  o   
Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R1 sR C  1 sR1C 2  ( sR2C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)
 2 2
sR1C1  1 sC 2
( sR2 C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)


s R1 R2 C1C 2  s ( R1C1  R2 C 2  R1C 2 )  1
2
Dividing both numerator and denominator by R1R2C1C2,
 1  1 
s  s  
 R1C1   R2 C 2 
G (s) 
 1 1 1  1
s2  s    
R C
 1 1 R C
2 2 R C
1 2  R1 2 C1C 2
R
FEEDBACK CONTROL
The feedback control is an operation in which the output is sampled and a proportional signal is
feedback to the input. The feedback output may be in phase or out-of-phase with respect to the input.
When the feedback output is in phase with the input it is termed positive feedback. When the feedback
output is out-of-phase with respect to the input it is termed negative feedback.
All control systems are usually negative feedback systems. In a negative feedback system, the difference
between the reference input and the output produces an error which is reduced gradually and bring the
output of the system to a desired level.
The positive feedback output gets added to the reference input and increases the error signal and drives
the output to instability. But, sometimes, positive feedback is used in minor loops in control systems to
amplify certain internal signals or parameters. (Ppositive feedback increases the gain and the possibility
of instability in a system which may lead to self-oscillation and as such, positive feedback is widely
used in oscillatory circuits such as Oscillators and Timing circuits)
EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK
The error between the system input and output can be reduced by using a feedback system.
Here, G(s) = open-loop gain
The overall transfer function of the closed-loop system is derived as follows: -
R (s)  C (s)H (s)  E (s)
But, C ( s )  E ( s ) G ( s ) ----- (1)
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R ( s )  E ( s )G ( s ) H ( s )  E ( s )
R ( s )  E ( s )(1  G ( s ) H ( s )) ----- (2)
From (1) and (2);
C (s) G ( s)

R ( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
Effects of feedback are as follows: -
For open loop system, gain is G(s). With negative feedback, overall gain is
C (s) G (s)
 .
R(s) 1  G (s)H (s)
1
Hence, for a negative feedback, gain is reduced by a factor
1  G (s)H (s)
Effect of feedback If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this
on overall gain case, GH is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this
case, GH is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.
In general, G and H are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase
the overall gain of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other
frequency range
A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said
to be unstable.
C (s) G (s)

Effect of feedback R(s) 1  G (s)H (s)
on stability If the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the control
system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.
Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the
control system stable
In general, a good control system should be very insensitive to parameter
variations but sensitive to input commands.
Sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system is the reciprocal
of (1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value
of (1+GH).
If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case,
Effect of feedback
GH is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.
on sensitivity
If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case,
GH is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.
In general, ’G’ and ’H’ are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase
the sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the
other frequency range. Therefore, we have to choose the values of GH in such
a way that the system is insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.
Effect of feedback To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function
on external relations with and without feedback due to noise signal alone.
disturbance or Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
noise
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C (s)
The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is  Gb ( s ) . It
N (s)
is obtained by making other input R(s) equal to zero.
Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
N(s)
Ga(s) Gb(s)
R(s) C(s)
H(s)
closed-loop noise signal
The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is
C (s) Gb ( s )
 .It is obtained by making the other input R(s)
N ( s ) 1  G a ( s ) Gb ( s ) H ( s )
equal to zero.
In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by
a factor of (1 + GaGbH) provided that the term (1 + GaGbH) is greater than one.
Effect of feedback Feedback can affect performance characteristics such as bandwidth,
on bandwidth, impedance, transient response and frequency response.
impedance,
transient response
and frequency
response
TYPE AND ORDER OF A SYSTEM
The transfer function can be written in any of the following forms:
The numerator is a polynomial of degree m and

C ( s ) bm s m  bm 1 s m 1  .......  b1 s  b0 the denominator is a polynomial of degree n.
1 
R ( s) s n  a n 1 s n 1  .......  a1 s  a 0 The degree n of the denominator polynomial
is called order of the system
C ( s ) K (1  sTz1 )(1  sTz 2 )........(1  sTzm )
2  Time-constant form
R(s) (1  sT p1 )(1  sT p 2 )........(1  sT pn )
Pole-zero form
C ( s ) K '( s  z1 )( s  z 2 )........( s  z m )
3  z1 , z2 ,....zm = Roots of numerator
R(s) ( s  p1 )( s  p 2 )........( s  p n )
polynomial = zeros of the system
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p1, p2 ,.... pn = Roots of denominator

polynomial = poles of the system
Order = No. of poles
Note: For all practical systems, m is always less than or equal to n. ( m  n )
The denominator polynomial equated to zero is called characteristic equation of the system
The roots of the characteristic equation is called poles.
Consider the closed loop system shown in figure below.
C (s) G (s)

R (s) 1  G (s ) H ( s)
C ( s)
Here, = overall transfer function and
R( s)
G ( s ) H ( s ) = open-loop transfer function of closed-
loop system
General representation of open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s) of a feedback system is given as
K (1  sTz1 )(1  sTz 2 )........(1  sTzm )

G (s)H (s) 
s N (1  sT p1 )(1  sT p 2 )........(1  sT pn )
Here, N is the number of poles at the origin and it represents the type number of the system.
The type of the system is defined as the number of poles at the origin of the open-loop transfer
function G(s)H(s).
Note: For a unity feedback system, H(s) = 1 and

hence open-loop transfer function is G(s) only.
CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The basic components of an automatic control system are error detector, amplifier and controller,
actuator, plant and sensor or feedback system. The block diagram of an automatic control system is
shown below.
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CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The plant is an open-loop system whose output is automatically controlled
Plant
by closed loop system.
The combined unit of error detector, amplifier and controller is called
automatic controller. The system becomes open-loop system without
automatic controller.
In automatic control system, the reference signal will be an input signal
proportional to desired output. The feedback signal is proportional to the
Automatic controller
Error Detector
current output of the system. The effort detector compares the reference
input and feedback signal and if there is a difference it produces an error
signal. This error signal is used to correct the output if there is a deviation
from the desired value. Examples of error detector are potentiometer,
LVDT (linearly variable differential transformer), synchro etc.
Usually, the error signal is weak. An amplifier can be used to amplify the
Amplifier
error signal.
The controller itself amplifies the error signal and integrates or
Controller differentiates it to produce a control signal. The different types of
controllers are P, PI, PD and PID controllers.
The actuator is a power amplifying device that produces the input to the
plant according to the control signal. The actuator may be an electric
Actuator
motor. Examples of electric motors employed as actuator are DC
servomotor, AC servomotor and stepper motor.
The feedback system samples the output to produce a feedback signal
which is proportional to the current output. The feedback system also
Sensor or feedback converts the output variable into another suitable variable such as
system displacement, pressure or voltage so that it can be used to compare with
the reference input. Tacho-generators, transducers etc are used as the
feedback systems.
SERVOMOTOR
A servo motor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control of angular or linear
position, velocity, and acceleration. Block diagram of a typical servo system is shown below.
A reference input (typically called a velocity input) is sent to the servo amplifier, which controls the
speed of the servomotor. Directly mounted to the servomotor is a feedback device. This device changes
mechanical motion into electrical signals and is used as a feedback signal. This feedback signal is then
sent to the error detector and is compared with the reference input. If there is an error, that error is fed
directly to the amplifier, which makes the necessary corrections.
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AC SERVOMOTOR
A type of servomotor that uses AC electrical input in order to produce mechanical output in the form
of precise angular velocity is known as AC servo motor. The output power achieved from ac servomotor
ranges between some watt to a few hundred watts, while the operating frequency range is between 50
to 400 Hz. AC servomotors are of the two-phase induction motor type.
CONSTRUCTION OF AC SERVOMOTOR: Similar to a normal induction motor, this motor

comprises of a stator and rotor.
STATOR: The stator of this motor which has a laminated structure is wound with its two windings
placed 90˚electrical apart in space. One of the windings called the main winding is excited from the
constant-voltage supply source. The other winding called the control winding is energized by the
variable control voltage which is 90˚electrical out of phase with respect to the voltage across the main
winding. The control voltage is supplied from a servo amplifier.
ROTOR: The rotor is usually of the squirrel cage type with small diameter and large length to keep the
mechanical inertia as low as possible. It has high resistance in order to obtain a torque-speed
characteristic as linear as possible. The inertia of the rotor is further reduced using drag-cup rotor for
very low power applications. This type of rotor is a special form of squirrel-cage rotor in which
conductors are in the form of a drag-cup made of a non-magnetic material such as copper, aluminium
or an alloy. The sotted rotor laminations are replaced by a set of stationary ring-shaped lamination that
provide a low-reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
To minimize rotor kinetic energy, servo motors are wound with as many poles as possible so that they
operate at low speeds. This also provides corresponding increase in torque. AC servomotors have small
air gaps to reduce magnetizing current and consequent losses.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION: One phase, designated as reference phase, is excited by a constant

voltage source, the frequency of which is usually 50/60 or 400Hz. The second phase of the servomotor,
designated as the control phase, is excited by a voltage of variable magnitude and polarity. This variable
control voltage is obtained from the servo amplifier. It is to be noted here that to have a rotating magnetic
field, the voltage applied to the control winding must be 90° out of phase w.r.t the reference voltage.
The required phase difference is provided by a capacitor. Rotating magnetic field induces emf s and
hence currents in rotor conductors. The rotating magnetic field interacts with these currents producing
a torque on the rotor in the direction of field rotation. This causes the rotor to rotate in a smooth manner.
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF AC SERVOMOTOR:
d
T  K 1 ec  K 2 T ( s )  K 1 E c ( s )  K 2 s ( s )
dt
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d 2 d
T  J 2
B T ( s )   ( s )  Js 2  B s 
dt dt
K 1 E c ( s )  K 2 s ( s )   ( s )  Js 2  Bs 
K 1 E c ( s )   ( s )  s  Js  B  K 2 
K1
 (s) K1 B  K2 Km
  
Ec ( s ) s  Js  B  K 2   J  s  s m  1 
ss  1
 B  K2 
K1 J
where K m  = Motor gain constant and  m  = Motor time constant
B  K2 B  K2
TORQUE–SPEED CHARACTERISTICS: The general shape of the torque-seed characteristics of a

two-phase induction motor depends largely on the value of rotor resistance. Increasing the rotor
resistance linearizes the torque-speed characteristics. Because of this, the rotor of the servomotor is
built with high resistance so that its torque-speed characteristics is nearly linear.
Torque-speed characteristics of a servomotor for various control voltages (V1, V2, V3, V4 etc) are shown
in figure below.
It is observed that the torque (particularly starting torque) varies almost linearly with speed as well as
with control voltage. The torque for any particular value of control voltage is high in the zero speed
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range and decreases as the motor speeds up. The drop in torque serves as a stabilizing feature for the
control system.
FEATURES
1. These are low weight devices.

2. It offers reliability as well as stability in operation.
3. There is not much noise generated at the time of operation.
4. It offers almost linear torque-speed characteristics.
5. As brushes and slip rings are not present here thus it reduces maintenance cost.
APPLICATIONS: Because of this ruggedness, light-in-weight construction, high torque-to-weight

ratio, reliability, freedom from ratio noise, and the simplicity of their driving circuits, AC servo motors
are widely used particularly in instrument servos, computers, tracking and guidance systems, self-
balancing recorders, remote-positioning devices, process controllers, robotics, machine tools, special
purpose machines, and in other numerous applications where precise angular motion is required.
DC SERVOMOTOR
Except some minor differences in constructional features, a DC servo motor is essentially an ordinary
DC motor. To meet the requirement for low inertia, DC servomotors are designed with large length-to-
diameter ratio for their armatures. Further, to attain linear torque-speed characteristics, they are
generally separately excited.
DC servomotors can be controlled either by field current or armature current. Accordingly they are
classified as i) armature controlled DC servomotor or ii) field controlled DC servomotor.
ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC SERVOMOTOR
In this case, the output (ie control signal) of the servo-amplifier is applied to the armature winding and
the field current is kept constant. In comparison with field control, armature control gives nearly, ideal
linear performance with rapid response. For large size motors, use of armature control becomes more
economical.
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
Representation of an armature-controlled DC motor is shown in figure. An external DC source supplies

a constant current if to the field winding. Control signal is applied to the armature.
Let
Ra = armature winding resistance
La = armature winding inductance
ea = applied armature voltage
eb = back emf
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 = angular velocity in rad/sec

 = angular displacement of the rotor in rad
J = moment of inertia of rotor and load
B = viscous friction coefficient
dia
e a  i a R a  La  eb E a ( s )  I a ( s )  Ra  sLa   Eb ( s )
dt
d
eb  K b E b ( s )  K b s ( s )
dt
T  K T ia T (s)  K T Ia (s)
d 2 d T ( s )   ( s )  Js 2  B s 
T  J 2
B
dt dt
E a ( s )  I a ( s )  Ra  sLa   Eb ( s )  I a ( s )  Ra  sLa   K b s ( s )
T ( s )  ( s )  Js  B s 
2
But, I a ( s )  
KT KT
 ( s )  Js 2  B s 
Ea (s)   R a  sL a   K b s ( s )
KT
KT
 (s)

KT

 Js  B  Ra  sLa   1
E a ( s ) s  Js  B  Ra  sLa   K T K b s 1  KT Kb s
 Js  B  Ra  sLa 
This is of the form,  ( s )  G


1
Ea (s) 1  GH s
Hence, block diagram of armature-controlled DC motor is given by,
TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
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APPLICATIONS: The inertia of DC servomotors tends to be larger than that of squirrel-cage AC

motors. This and added frictional drag of brushes are the main factors which discourage their use in
instrument servos. In small sies, DC servomotors are primarily used in air-craft control systems where
wight and space limitations require motors to deliver maximum power per unit volume. They are often
used for intermittent duty or where unusually high starting torques are required e.g. for fan and blower
drives. They may also be used for electromechanical actuators, process controllers, programming
devices, robotics, machine tools, special purpose machines, and for a host of other applications of a
similar nature.
FIELD CONTROLLED DC SERVOMOTOR
In this type of motor, the output (ie. control signal) from the servo-amplifier is applied to the field
winding keeping the armature current constant.
di f
ef  if Rf  Lf E f ( s )  I f ( s )  R f  sL f 
dt
T  K T 'i f T (s)  K T ' I f (s)
d 2
d T ( s )   ( s )  Js 2  B s 
T  J 2
B
dt dt
E f ( s )  I f ( s )  R f  sL f 
T ( s )  ( s )  Js  B s 
2
But, I f ( s )  
KT ' KT '
 ( s )  Js 2  Bs 
E f (s) 
KT '
R f  sL f 
 (s) KT '

E f ( s ) s  Js  B   R f  sL f 
Block diagram of a field-controlled DC motor is shown below
Even though the power required for field control is only a fraction of the power required for armature
control, it is less common. This is because the time constant of the field circuit (Lf/Rf) is large compared
with the armature circuit time constant (La/Ra). Consequently, field control does not give as rapid
response as armature control. Also, the torque-speed characteristics under field control is not as linear
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as under armature control. Field control is normally used for small size motors as only a low power
servo-amplifier is required, while the armature current which is not large can be supplied from an
inexpensive constant-current source.
COMPARISON OF DC & AC SERVOMOTORS
DC SERVOMOTOR AC SERVOMOTOR
It delivers high power output Delivers low output of about 0.5 W to 100 W
It has more stability problems It has less stability problems
It requires frequent maintenance due to the It requires less maintenance due to the absence of
presence of commutator commutator
It provides high efficiency The efficiency of AC servo motor is less and is
about 5 to 20%
The life of DC servo motor depends on the life The life of AC servo motor depends on bearing
on brush life life
It includes permanent magnet in its construction The synchronous type AC servo motor uses
permanent magnet while induction type doesn’t
require it.
These motors are used for high power These motors are used for low power
applications applications
GYROSCOPE
Gyroscopes are devices mounted on a frame and able to sense an angular velocity if the frame is rotating.
They are classified into mechanical gyroscopes; optical gyroscopes, micro-electromechanical system
(MEMS) gyroscopes.
A mechanical gyroscope essentially consists of a spinning mass that rotates around its axis. In particular,
when the mass is rotating on its axis, it tends to remain parallel to itself and to oppose any attempt to
change its orientation. If a gyroscope is installed on gimbals that allow the mass to navigate freely in
the three directions of space, its spinning axis will remain oriented in the same direction, even if it
changes direction.
The primary application of gyroscopic effects consists in the measurement of the angular position of a
moving vehicle. The spinning mass is mounted upon a gimbaled frame, allowing rotation along two
perpendicular axes. The gimbaled frame of the gyroscope is attached to the vehicle and it is free to
rotate, while the rotation axis of the spinning mass keeps its angular position during the motion of the
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vehicle. The variation of the absolute angle of the vehicle can be simply associated to the relative
variation of the angle between the rotation axis of the mass and a ﬁxed direction on the frame of the
gyroscope.
Another useful application of this physical effect is that exploited in gyrocompasses: when external
torques are not applied to the frame, the gyrocompass keeps the angular position of a pointer to North
direction, independently of the path followed by the vehicle. The advantage of such a mechanical system
is that it is immune to magnetic ﬁelds that can cause deviations on the pointer angle.
(Refer for animation: https://www.smlease.com/entries/mechanical-design-basics/what-is-gyroscope-

how-gyroscopes-work-and-their-applications/)
Applications of Gyroscope
1. Gyroscopes find applications in the compasses of boats, spacecraft, and aeroplanes. The
orientation and the pitch of the aeroplane are determined against the steady spin of the
gyroscope.
2. In spacecraft, the navigation of the desired target is done with the help of a gyroscope. The
spinning centre of the gyroscope is used as the orientation point.
3. The stabilization of the large boats and satellites is done with the help of massive gyroscopes.
4. Gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites for the maintenance of the direction in tunnel mining.
5. Gyroscopes along with accelerometers are used in the design of smartphones providing
excellent motion sensing.
DC TACHOGENERATOR
A DC tachogenerator consists of a small armature which is coupled to the machine whose speed is to
be measured. This armature revolves in the field of a permanent magnet. The emf generated is
proportional to the produce of flux and speed. Since the flux of the permanent magnet is constant, the
voltage generated is proportional to the speed. The polarity of the output voltage indicates the direction
of rotation. Commutator and brushes are used to convert the alternating current of the armature into
direct current.
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If e(t) is the output voltage of the tachogenerator and  is the angular speed in rad/sec,
d  ( t ) where K is the sensitivity of the tachogenerator
e (t )  K t t
dt
Then transfer function of the DC tachogenerator is given by
E (s)
 sK t
 (s)
APPLICATIONS: Tachometer generators are often utilized to gauge engine and motor speed, along
with the matching rate of powered equipment such as conveyors, mixers, fans, as well as equipment
devices. They are consequently used as feedback elements in speed control circuits.
AC TACHOGENERATOR
AC tachogenerator resembles a two-phase induction motor. It comprises two stator windings (referred
to as reference winding and output winding) arranged in space quadrature and the squirrel cage rotor.
The reference winding is excited by a sinusoidal voltage with frequency c. When the rotor is stationary,
no emf is induced in the output winding. When the rotor rotates, an emf will be induced in the output
winding. Magnitude of the output voltage will be proportional to the rotational speed. A change in the
direction of shaft rotation causes a 180˚ phase shift in the output voltage.
If the reference winding is excited by the voltage er (t )  E r sin  c t , an emf of em ( t )  e ( t ) sin  c t is

induced in the output winding if the rotor is rotating. The output voltage of an AC tachogenerator is,
thus, in a modulated form. The information about shaft speed is stored not in e m(t) rather in e(t). The
voltage e(t) is separated by using a demodulator (signal conditioner).
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d  ( t ) where K is the sensitivity of the tachogenerator.

e (t )  K t t
dt
The transfer function of an AC tachogenerator is

E (s)
 sK t
 (s)
SYNCHRO (SELSYN)
The Synchro is a type of transducer which transforms the angular position of the shaft into an electric
signal. It is used as an error detector and as a rotary position sensor. The error occurs in the system
because of the misalignment of the shaft.
Synchros are used for error detection in position control systems. Their systems consist two units. They
are
1. Synchro Transmitter
2. Synchro receiver
SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER –It has a stator and rotor. The stator of the synchro is made of steel for
reducing the iron losses. Stator winding is made up of conductors insulated from each other arranged
in the slots of the stator core. There are three windings on the stator side, they are connected in star and
are physically displaced by 120˚ from each other around the periphery. The rotor is made up of a stack
of sheet steel stampings with good magnetic property. Rotor core may be dumb-bell shaped (salient
pole type), umbrella shaped or drum-shaped cylindrical rotor.
The single-phase AC voltage is applied to the rotor with the help of slip rings and brushes. The resultant
current produces an alternating flux in the air-gap and induces voltage in the stator coils by mutual
induction. The induced voltage in the stator coil depends on the angular position of the coil axis with
respect to the rotor axis.
Let e (t )  E sin  t is the AC voltage is applied to the rotor of the transmitter. When the rotor is in the
position corresponding to  = 0, the voltage induced across the stator winding S2 and the neutral is
maximum and is written as
e S 2 n ( t )  K E sin  t where K is a proportionality constant.
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When the rotor is in the position corresponding to  = 90˚, the voltage e S 2 n ( t )  0 .
In general, for any position  of the rotor.

e S 2 n ( t )  K E cos  sin  t
If S2 winding is taken as reference,

e S 3 n ( t )  K E co s(  12 0 ) sin  t
e S1 n ( t )  K E co s(  1 2 0 ) sin  t
Then, the terminal voltage between S1 and S2 is
eS1S2  eS1 n  eS2 n  3KE sin(  240) sin t
eS2 S3  eS2 n  eS3 n  3KE sin(  120)sin t
eS3S1  eS3 n  eS1 n  3KE sin  sin t
SYNCHRO CONTROL TRANSFORMER: The constructional features of synchro control transformer

are similar to that of synchro transmitter, except the shape of rotor. The rotor of the control transformer
is umbrella-shaped so that the air gap is practically uniform. The induced emf in the stator of the synchro
transmitter is applied as input to the stator coils of control transformer. The rotor shaft is connected to
the load whose position has to be maintained at the desired value. Depending on the angular position of
the rotor and the stator emf, an emf is induced on the rotor winding. This emf can be measured and used
to drive a motor so that the position of the load is corrected.
SYNCHRO AS ERROR DETECTOR
The synchro error detector is formed by the interconnection of a synchro transmitter and synchro control
transformer. In this arrangement, the stator leads of the transmitter are directly connected to the stator
leads of the control transformer. The synchro transmitter has dumb-bell shaped rotor core. The rotor
winding is connected to single-phase ac supply. The synchro control transformer has umbrella-shaped
rot core. Error signal is available across the rotor winding of the control transformer.
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Consider that the rotor of synchro transmitter is connected to one shaft and its angular position indicates
the set point (reference input). The rotor of control transformer is connected to the servomotor shaft
whose position is the desired output.
Rotor of the synchro transmitter is connected to single-phase ac supply. It establishes alternating flux
in the core and air gap. It links with the three stator windings of the synchro transmitter. The stator
winding has induced voltages in phase for all the three windings. The magnitudes of the voltages are
dependent on the relative position of each stator winding with the rotor. Circulating currents flow
between the stator windings of synchro transmitter and control transformer.
Consider that the rotor of control transformer is arranged perpendicular to the rotor of synchro
transmitter.
Let  = rotor position for synchro transmitter
 = rotor position for control transformer
e (t )  E sin  t = instantaneous value of input voltage
eo ( t ) = output voltage from control transformer rotor (error voltage)
Let the rotor of the transmitter rotate through an angle θ from its electrical zero position. Now the rotor
of the control transformer will rotate in the same direction through an angle α from its null position.
The net angular separation of the two rotors is equal to (90-θ+α) and the voltage induced in the control
transformer rotor is proportional to the cosine of this angle.
Output voltage can be written as, eo (t )  KE cos(90     ) sin  t where K is proportionality

constant.
eo (t )  KE sin(   ) sin  t
Output voltage eo(t) is zero when     0  .
Let  (t )    
eo ( t )  KE sin  ( t ) sin  t
For small value of  ( t ) , eo (t )  KE (t ) sin  t
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Thus, the output voltage from the rotor of the control transformer is directly proportional to the
difference of two shaft positions and hence it can be used as error detector.
The output voltage of the synchro error detector is a modulated signal with carrier frequency, ω (which
is same as supply frequency of the transmitter rotor).
The magnitude of the modulated carrier wave is proportional to φ(t). The signal conditioning circuit
demodulates the output voltage and develops a demodulated and amplified error voltage to drive the
servomotor (actuator).
The transfer function of the synchro-error detector is ,
Eo ( s )
K
 (s)
STEPPER MOTOR
Stepper motor rotates through a fixed angular step in response to each input current pulse received from
its controller. Stepping motors are ideally suited for situations where either precise positioning or
precise speed control or both are required in automation systems.
The angle through the motor shaft rotates for each command pulse is called the step angle. Smaller the
step angle, greater the number of steps per revolution and higher the resolution or accuracy of
positioning obtained. The steps angles can be as small as 0.72˚ or as large as 90˚.
The value of step angle  can be expressed either in terms of the rotor and stator poles (teeth) Nr and Ns
respectively or in terms of the number of stator phases (m) and the number of rotor teeth.
N  Nr 360 
  s  360 
Ns  Nr mN r
TYPES OF STEPPER MOTORS

Variable reluctance It has wound stator poles but the rotor poles are made of a ferromagnetic
stepper motor material as shown.
It can be of the single stack type or multi-stack type which gives smaller step
angles. Direction of motor rotation is independent of the polarity of the stator
current. It is called variable reluctance motor because the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit formed by the rotor and stator teeth varies with the angular
position of the rotor.
Page 26 of 187
Permanent magnet It also has wound stator poles but its rotor poles are permanently magnetized.
stepper motor It has a cylindrical rotor as shown in figure. Its direction of rotation depends
on the polarity of the stator current.
Hybrid stepper It has wound stator poles and permanently-magnetized rotor poles. As it is a
motor hybrid motor it has a combination of advantages of both permanent as well as
variable reluctance rotor, which mainly consists of high speed, resolution, and
torque. Due to its hybrid nature, its costs and construction are more complex.
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR
A variable-reluctance motor is constructed from ferromagnetic material with salient poles as shown in
figure. The stator is made from a stack of steel laminations and has six equally-spaced projecting poles
(or teeth) each wound with an exciting coil. The rotor which may be solid or laminated has four
projecting teeth of the same width as the stator teeth. As seen, there are three independent stator circuits
or phases A, B and C and each one can be energized by a direct current pulse from the drive circuit.
The six stator coils are connected in 2-coil groups to form three separate circuits called phases. Each
phase has its own independent switch. Diametrically opposite pairs of stator coils are connected in series
such that when one tooth becomes a N-pole, the other one becomes a S-pole.
When there is no current in the stator coils, the rotor is completely free to rotate. Energizing one or
more stator coils causes the rotor to step forward (or backward) to a position that forms a path of least
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reluctance with the magnetized stator teeth. The step angle of this three-phase, four rotor teeth motor is
360
   30 .
3 4
Fig. (a) shows the position of the rotor when switch S1 has been closed for energizing phase A. A
magnetic field with its axis along the stator poles of phase A is created. The rotor is therefore, attracted
into a position of minimum reluctance with diametrically opposite rotor teeth 1 and 3 lining up with
stator teeth 1 and 4 respectively. Closing S2 and opening S1 energizes phase B causing rotor teeth 2 and
4 to align with stator teeth 3 and 6 respectively as shown in Fig. (b). The rotor rotates through full-step
of 30º in the clockwise (CW) direction. Similarly, when S3 is closed after opening S2, phase C is
energized which causes rotor teeth 1 and 3 to line up with stator teeth 2 and 5 respectively as shown in
Fig. (c). The rotor rotates through an additional angle of 30º in the clockwise (CW) direction. Next if
S3 is opened and S1 is closed again, the rotor teeth 2 and 4 will align with stator teeth 4 and 1 respectively
thereby making the rotor turn through a further angle of 30º as shown in Fig. (d). By now the total angle
turned is 90º.
As each switch is closed and the preceding one opened, the rotor each time rotates through an angle of
30º. By repetitively closing the switches in the sequence 1-2-3-1 and thus energizing stator phases in
sequence ABCA etc., the rotor will rotate clockwise in 30º steps. If the switch sequence is made 3-2-1-
3 which makes phase sequence CBAC (or ACB), the rotor will rotate anticlockwise. This mode of
operation is known as 1-phase-ON mode or full-step operation and is the simplest and widely-used way
of making the motor step.
Page 28 of 187
PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR

Its stator construction is similar to that of the single-stack VR motor discussed above but the rotor is
made of a permanent-magnet material like magnetically ‘hard’ ferrite. As shown in the Fig. (a), the
stator has projecting poles but the rotor is cylindrical and has radially magnetized permanent magnets.
The operating principle of such a motor can be understood with the help of Fig. (a) where the rotor has
two poles and the stator has four poles. Since two stator poles are energized by one winding, the motor
has two windings or phases marked A and B. The step angle of this motor   3 6 0   9 0 
22
When a particular stator phase is energized, the rotor magnetic poles move into alignment with the
excited stator poles. The stator windings A and B can be excited with either polarity current (A+ refers
to positive current iA+ in the phase A and A- to negative current iA-).
Fig. (a) shows the condition when phase A is excited with positive current iA+. Here,  = 0º. If excitation
is now switched to phase B as in Fig. (b), the rotor rotates by a full step of 90º in the clockwise direction.
Next, when phase A is excited with negative current iA-, the rotor turns through another 90º in CW
Page 29 of 187
direction as shown in Fig. (c). Similarly, excitation of phase B with i B- further turns the rotor through
another 90º in the same direction as shown in Fig. (d). After this, excitation of phase A with i A+ makes
the rotor turn through one complete revolution of 360º.
Since the permanent magnets of the motor do not require external exciting current, it has a low power
requirement but possesses a high detent torque as compared to a VR stepper motor. This motor has
higher inertia and hence slower acceleration. However, it produces more torque per ampere stator
current than a VR motor. Since it is difficult to manufacture a small permanent-magnet rotor with large
number of poles, the step size in such motors is relatively large ranging from 30º to 90º.
TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS
Pull-out torque: The maximum torque which can be applied to a motor, running at a given stepping rate,
without losing synchronism.
Pull-in torque: The maximum torque against which a motor will start, at a given pulse rate, and reach
synchronism without losing a step.
Dynamic torque: The torque developed by the motor at very slow stepping speeds.
Holding torque: The maximum torque which can be applied to an energized stationary motor without
causing spindle rotation.
Pull-out rate: The maximum switching rate at which a motor will remain in synchronism while the
switching rate is gradually increased.
Pull-in rate: The maximum switching rate at which a loaded motor can start without losing steps.
Slew range: The range of switching rates between pull-in and pull-out in which a motor will run in
synchronism but cannot start or reverse.
During the application of each sequential pulse the rotor of a stepper motor accelerates rapidly towards
the new step position. However, on reaching the new position there will be some overshoot and
oscillation unless sufficient retarding torque is provided to prevent this happening. These oscillations
can cause rotor resonance at certain pulse frequencies, resulting in loss of torque, or perhaps even pull-
out conditions. As variable-reluctance motors have very little inherent damping they are more
susceptible to resonances than either the permanent magnet or the hybrid types. Mechanical and
electronic dampers are available which can be used to minimize the adverse effects of rotor resonance.
If at all possible, however, the motor should be selected such that its resonant frequencies are not critical
to the application under consideration.
Page 30 of 187
APPLICATIONS: Stepper motors are used for operation control in computer peripherals, textile
industry, IC fabrications and robotics etc. Applications requiring incremental motion are typewriters,
line printers, tape drives, floppy disk drives, numerically-controlled machine tools, process control
systems and X -Y plotters. Usually, position information can be obtained simply by keeping count of
the pulses sent to the motor thereby eliminating the need for expensive position sensors and feedback
controls. Stepper motors also perform countless tasks outside the computer industry. It includes
commercial, military and medical applications where these motors perform such functions as mixing,
cutting, striking, metering, blending and purging.
CONTROLLERS OR COMPENSATORS
It should be stable
The controlled output should follow the changes in the reference input
Desired specifications without unduly oscillations or overshoots. That is, it should have suitable
of a good feedback damping.
system It should be less sensitive to system parameter changes.
It should be able to reduce the effect of undesirable disturbances
It should have as little steady-state error as possible.
NEED OF COMPENSATION: A control system is designed to perform a certain task while meeting
some specifications. Sometimes, a closed loop system may not be satisfactory with regard to its stability
characteristics, speed of response and steady-state accuracy. The system may be oscillatory or even
unstable. It may have either extremely fast or very sluggish response. The errors under steady-state
between the actual and desired values may be excessive and not acceptable. Therefore, a necessity arises
to modify the system or system parameters to provide the desired performance with respect to the above
characteristics. This has certain practical limitations, such as size, range, and cost of available
components.
In such cases the performance of the control system is improved by adding additional components to it.
The method of improving the performance in this way is called compensation. The additional
component changes the transfer function of the overall system and gives the desired performance. In
feedback systems the compensation added is simple and less expensive and provides substantial
improvement in the performance.
A controller or a compensator is a device which when introduced in forward or feedback path of a

system, controls the steady-state and transient response according to the requirement.
A compensator
i) Make an unstable system table
ii) Minimize overshoot
iii) Increase steady-state accuracy
iv) Improves transient response
TYPES OF COMPENSATION
A compensator is inserted into the system at a suitable location depending upon the requirement.
Compensation is usually classified as follows:
1. Cascade (or series) compensation

2. Feedback (or parallel) compensation
Page 31 of 187
3. Series-parallel compensation
4. Feed-forward compensation
Cascade (or
series)
compensation In this type of compensated system, the compensator is included in the forward path
of the system.
The addition of compensator in the forward path adjusts the gain of a system which
reduces the response time and peak overshoot of the system. In addition, the stability
of the system gets reduced.
Feedback (or
parallel)
compensation
The addition of compensator in the feedback path increases the response time of the
system that makes it accurate and more stable
Series-
parallel
compensation
It is a combination of both series and parallel compensation.
Feed-forward
compensation
The feed forward controller is placed in parallel with the closed-loop system which
has a controller in the forward path.
LEAD COMPENSATOR
The lead compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having phase lead
when a sinusoidal input is applied.
Page 32 of 187
1
R1 
1 sC  R1
Z 1 ( s )  R1 / / 
sC R  1 sR1C  1
1
sC
Vo ( s ) Z 2 (s) R2 R2 ( sR1C  1)
G (s)    
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R1 R1  R2 ( sR1C  1)
 R2
sR1C  1
R2 ( sR1C  1)
G (s) 
R1  R2 ( sR1C  1)
R2 ( sR1C  1) R2 1  sR1C  (1  sT )
G (s)   
1  sR1C  1   sT
R1  R 2 ( sR1C  1) R1  R2 1  R2
R1  R 2
R2
Let T  R1C and   1
R1  R 2
Dividing both numerator & denominator by T,
1
s
G (s)  T ;  1
1
s
T
1 1
Lead network has a zero at s  and a pole at s  . Since 0    1 , the zero is always located
T T
to the right of the pole in the complex s-plane. Since zero is always nearer to the origin as compared to
pole, the effect of zero is dominant.
Page 33 of 187
The damping of a closed loop system is increased

The overshoot is reduced and the transient response is improved
Effects of lead Bandwidth of the system is increased and hence the response is faster
compensator Relative stability is improved
The steady state error is not affected
Phase margin of the closed loop system is increased
Since an additional increase in the gain is required, it results in larger

space, more elements, greater weight and higher cost
From a single lead network, the maximum lead angle available is about
Limitations of lead
60˚. For lead of more than 70˚ to 90˚, a multistage lead compensator is
compensator
required
Due to increased bandwidth, noise level at the system output is
increased
LAG COMPENSATOR
A lag compensator is a circuit that is designed to generate a steady-state sinusoidal signal having a
phase lag to the applied input sinusoidal signal.
1
R2 
Vo ( s ) Z 2 (s) Cs sR 2 C  1
G (s)    
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R  R  1 s ( R1  R 2 ) C  1
1 2
Cs
R1  R2
Let T  R2 C and   1
R2
 R1  R2 
T    R2 C   R1  R2  C
 R2 
1
s
sR2 C  1 sT  1 1 T
G (s)    
s ( R1  R2 )C  1 s  T  1  s  1
T
Page 34 of 187
It has a high gain at low frequencies and low gain at higher frequencies.
Effects of lag
Hence, a lag compensator acts as a low-pass filter.
compensator
Steady-state performance is improved
Limitations of lag Bandwidth is reduced and transient response becomes slower.

compensator More sensitive to parameters variation
LEAD-LAG COMPENSATOR
Lead compensators are employed to improve transient response. To meet the steady-state requirements,
lag compensators are used. Only single compensator, lag or lead, can not meet both the requirements
simultaneously. Lag-lead compensators are used when both transient as well as steady-state responses
are to be improved.
Lag-Lead compensator is an electrical network which produces phase lag at one frequency (low
frequency) region and phase lead at other frequency (high frequency) region. It is a combination of both
the lag and the lead compensators.
1
R1 
1 sC1 R1
Z1 ( s )  R1 / /  
sC1 R  1 sR1C1  1
1
sC1
1 sR C  1
Z 2 ( s )  R2   2 2
sC 2 sC 2
Page 35 of 187
sR2C 2  1
V ( s) Z 2 (s) sC 2 ( sR2 C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)
G (s)  o   
Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R1 sR C  1 sR1C 2  ( sR2C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)
 2 2
sR1C1  1 sC 2
( sR2 C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)


s R1 R2 C1C 2  s ( R1C1  R2 C 2  R1C 2 )  1
2
 1  1 
s  s  
 R1C1   R2 C 2 
G ( s) 
 1 1 1  1
s2  s    
 R1C1 R2 C 2 R1C 2  R1 R2 C1C 2
 1  1 
 s   s  
T1   T2 
G ( s)  
   1 
 s   s  
 T1    T2 
T1
where  > 1, R1C1  T1 , R2C2  T2 , R1C1  R2 C 2  R1C 2    T2

lead lag s-plane
pole zero zero pole

-1 -1 -1 -1 0
T1 T1 T2 T2
The lead characteristics provide improvement in the overall bandwidth

Effects of lead-lag and the response becomes faster.
compensator Due to the use of the lag network, the steady-state performance of the
system gets improved.
TYPES OF CONTROLLERS
Generally, system performance can be improved by using any of the following linear control methods:
1. Proportional control
2. Proportional Derivative (PD) control
3. Proportional plus Integral (PI) control
4. Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID) control
Page 36 of 187
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
The proportional controller is a device that produces a control signal which is proportional to the input
error signal e(t). The error signal is the difference between the reference input signal and the feedback
signal obtained from the output.
ea (t )  K p e (t )
Transfer function of the proportional controller is
Ea ( s )
 Kp
E (s)
The proportional controller amplifies the error signal by an amount Kp.
Introduction of P controller increases the forward path gain by Kp. If the forward path gain is increased,
the peak overshoot increases while the steady-state error is reduced. In actual systems, both peak
overshoot and steady-state errors are desired to be small. Hence, a compromised value of Kp is selected
for which the peak overshoot and the steady-state error are within specified limits.
PROPORTIONAL plus DERIVATIVE (PD) CONTROLLER
The proportional plus derivative controller, the actuating signal ea(t) varies in proportion to the error
signal as well as with the derivative of the error signal.
de ( t )
ea (t )  K p e (t )  K D
dt
Transfer function of PD controller is
Ea ( s )
 K p  sK D
E (s)
The proportional derivative controller is used to improve the stability of control system without
affecting the steady state error.
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PROPORTIONAL plus INTEGRAL (PI) CONTROLLER
The proportional plus integral controller, the actuating signal ea(t) varies in proportion to the error signal
as well as with the integral of the error signal.
t
ea (t )  K p e(t )  K I  e(t ) dt
0
Transfer function of PI controller is
Ea ( s ) K
 Kp  I
E ( s) s
The proportional integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error without affecting the
stability of the control system.
PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE (PID) CONTROLLER
The proportional plus integral controller, the actuating signal ea(t) varies proportional to the error signal
and also with the integral of the error signal.
t
de (t )
ea (t )  K p e(t )  K I  e(t ) dt  K D
0
dt
Transfer function of PI controller is
Ea ( s ) K
 K p  I  KDs
E (s) s
The proportional integral derivative controller is used to improve the stability of the control system and
to decrease steady state error.
Page 38 of 187
MODULE 2 – PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Module 2
Time domain analysis of control systems: Time domain specifications of transient and steady state
responses- Impulse and Step responses of first and second order systems Pole dominance for higher
order systems.
Error analysis: Steady state error analysis and error constants -Dynamic error coefficients.
Stability Analysis: Concept of BIBO stability and Asymptotic stability- Time response for various
pole locations- stability of feedback systems - Routh's stability criterion - Relative stability
TIME RESPONSE
When an excitation is applied at the input terminals of a system, an output c(t) is produced at the output
terminals. The output varies with time.
The time response of a system is the output of the system as a function of time, when subjected to a
known input.
The time response of a control system is divided into two parts:
i) Transient response
ii) Steady-state response
In control system, the transient response is defined as that part of the time response that goes to zero
as time becomes very large.
The steady-state response of the system is the response of the system for a given input that remains
after the transient has died out.
In steady-state, the output response settles to its final steady-state value or steady oscillations.
STANDARD TEST SIGNALS
The inputs to many practical control systems are not exactly known ahead of time. For the purpose of
analysis and design, it is necessary to assume some basic types of test inputs so that the performance of
a system can be evaluated. Most commonly used test inputs are i) step function ii) ramp function iii)
parabolic function and iv) impulse function. When the response of a linear time-invariant system is
analyzed in the frequency domain, a sinusoidal input with variable frequency is used.
STEP FUNCTION RAMP FUNCTION

r (t )  0; t  0 For unit step, r (t )  0; t  0 For unit ramp,
r (t )  A; t  0 A =1; r (t )  At; t  0 A =1;
1 1
A R (s)  A R(s) 
R (s)  s R(s)  s2
s s2
Page 39 of 187
PARABOLIC FUNCTION UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION

r (t )  0; t  0 For unit parabolic,  (t )  0; t  0
At 2 A =1; 
r (t ) 
2
;t  0 1
R (s)  3
Lt
 0   (t )dt  1

s
A
R (s)  It is a pulse of width A and height 1/A where A is
s3
nearly zero. Area of the pulse is unity.
R(s)  1
The derivative of a parabolic function is a ramp function

The derivative of a ramp function is a step function
The derivative of a step function is an impulse function
C (s) G (s)

R (s) 1  G (s ) H ( s)
C ( s)
Here, = closed-loop transfer function and
R( s)
loop system
For a unity feedback system, H(s) = 1.
Here, c(t) is the time response.
TIME-RESPONSE FOR A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM
For a first order system with unity feedback, G ( s )  1 and H (s )  1 .

sT
1
Closed loop transfer function, C ( s ) sT 1
 
R ( s ) 1  1 1  sT
sT
Page 40 of 187
RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM WITH UNIT STEP INPUT
For a first order system, closed loop transfer function is given by,
C (s) 1

R ( s ) 1  sT
1
C (s)  R (s)
1  sT
For unit step input, R ( s )  1 .

s
1 1
C (s)  
1  sT s
1
T A B 1 1
C (s)     
1 s s 1 s s 1
s(s  )
T T T
t

c (t )  1  e T
c (0)  0 and c ()  1
At t = T, c (t  T )  1  0.368  0.632 ; output reaches 63.2% of its final value.
Time constant is defined as the time required for the output response to attain 63.2% of its final or
steady-state value.
For t = 4T, the response reaches around 98.2% of final value. Time required for the response to settle
down and stay within a tolerance band of 2% is called settling time Ts. (Sometimes tolerance may be
5%).
Settling time, Ts  4T
Smaller the time constant, the faster the system response.
Page 41 of 187
RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM WITH UNIT IMPULSE INPUT
For a first order system, closed loop transfer function is given by,
C (s) 1

R ( s ) 1  sT
1
C (s)  R (s)
1  sT
For unit impulse input, R ( s )  1 .
1 1 1
C (s)   
1  sT T s  1
T
1  Tt
c (t )  e
T
RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM
Standard form of closed loop transfer function of a second order system is,
C (s) n2 n = undamped natural frequency

 2
R ( s ) s  2  n s   n 2  = damping ratio
n 2 n 2
s ( s  2n ) s 2  2n s  n 2
Characteristic equation is
s 2  2  n s   n 2  0
Roots of characteristics equation will be
 2 n  4  2  n 2  4 n 2
s1 , s 2     n   n  2  1
2
 0 s1 , s 2   j n Roots are purely imaginary; system is undamped

 1 s1 , s 2    n Roots are real and equal; system is critically damped
 1 s1 , s2   n   n  2  1 Roots are real and unequal; system is overdamped
Page 42 of 187
0   1 s1 , s2   n  j n 1   2 Roots are complex conjugate; system is underdamped

d = damped frequency of oscillations
d  n 1   2
UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM (0 <  < 1)
C (s) n2 ; 0   1
 2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2
n2
C (s)  R (s)
s  2  n s   n 2
2

s
n2 A Bs  C
C (s)    2
s ( s 2  2 n s   n 2 ) s s  2 n s   n 2
A  sC(s) s0  1
 n 2  ( s 2  2  n s   n 2 )  B s 2  C s
 n 2  (1  B ) s 2  (2  n  C ) s   n 2
1 B  0 B  1
2 n  C  0 C   2 n
1 s  2 n 1 s  2 n
C (s)   2  
s s  2 n s   n 2
s ( s   n ) 2   2 n 2   n 2
1 s  2 n
 
s ( s   n ) 2   n 2 (1   2 )
1 s   n  n
  
s ( s   n )   d
2 2
( s   n ) 2   d 2
1 s   n  n d
  
s ( s   n )   d
2 2
 d ( s   n ) 2   d 2
1 s  n  d
  
s ( s  n )  d
2 2
1   ( s  n )   d
2 2 2
 e   n t
c (t )  1  e   n t cos  d t  e  n t sin  d t  1  ( 1   2 cos  d t   sin  d t )
1  2
1  2
Let cos    ; sin   1   2
Page 43 of 187
e   n t e  n t
c (t )  1  (sin  cos  d t  cos  sin  d t )  1  sin( d t   )
1 2 1  2
e   n t
c (t )  1  sin( d t   )
1 2
c (0)  0
c ()  1
UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF CRITICALLY-DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM ( = 1)
C (s) n2 n2 ;  1

 2 
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2 ( s   n ) 2

s
n2 A B C
C (s)    
s(s  n ) 2
s (s  n ) 2
s  n
A  sC ( s ) s  0  1
B  (s  n )2 C (s)   n
s  n
d d n2  n 2
C  (s  n )2 C (s)    1
ds s  n ds s s  n
s2 s  n
n2 1 n 1
C (s)    
s(s  n ) 2
s (s  n ) 2
s  n
c ( t )  1   n te   n t  e   n t
Page 44 of 187
UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF UNDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM ( = 0)
C (s)  2
 2 n 2 ;  0
R (s) s  n

s
n2 A Bs  C
C (s)   
s(s  n2 ) s s 2  n2
2
A  sC ( s ) s  0  1
 n 2  s 2   n 2  Bs 2  Cs
1 B  0
B = -1
C=0
n2 1 s
C (s)    2
s(s  n ) s s  n2
2 2
c (t )  1  cos  n t
This response does not die out with time.

UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF OVERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM ( > 1)
C (s) n2 ;  1
 2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2
Roots are, s1 , s2   n   n  2  1
n2
C (s)  R (s)
s  2  n s   n 2
2

s
n2 n2 A B C
C (s)     
s ( s  2 n s   n ) s ( s  s1 )( s  s 2 )
2 2
s s  s1 s  s 2
n2
A 1 since s1 s 2   2  n 2   n 2 ( 2  1)
s1 s 2
n 2 n 1
B   since s1  s 2  2 n  2  1
s1 ( s1  s2 ) 2  1 2 s1
n 2  n 1
C  
s2 ( s2  s1 ) 2  1
2 s2
1 n  1 1 
C ( s)     
s 2   1  s1 ( s  s1 ) s 2 ( s  s 2 ) 
2
Page 45 of 187
n  e s1t e s2 t 
c (t )  1     where s1   n   n  2  1 and s2   n   n  2  1
2  2  1  s1 s2 
No oscillations in the response; but takes longer time for the response to reach the final steady value.
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS CASES OF STEP RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS
UNIT IMPULSE RESPONSE OF UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM (0 <  < 1)
C (s) n2 ; 0   1
 2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2
Page 46 of 187
n2
C (s)  R (s)
s 2  2  n s   n 2
For unit impulse input, R ( s )  1 .
n2 1  n 2 (1   2 ) 1 d 2
C (s)     
s  2 n s   n
2 2
(1   ) ( s   n )   n (1   )
2 2 2 2
(1   ) ( s   n ) 2   d 2
2
d d
C (s)  
(1   ) ( s   n ) 2   d 2
2
n
c (t )  e n t sin d t
1  2
TIME RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS
The performance of a system in time domain is usually evaluated in terms of the following qualities
1. How fast it is able to respond to the input?

2. How fast it is reaching the desired output?
3. What is the error between the desired output and the actual output, once the transients die down
and steady state is achieved?
4. Does it oscillate around the desired value?
5. Is the output continuously increasing with time or is it bounded?
6. Our system is Stable or not?
Page 47 of 187
In specifying the transient response characteristics of a control system to a unit step function, the
following quantities are commonly specified:
1. Delay time
2. Rise time
3. Peak time
4. Maximum overshoot
5. Settling time
Delay time td The time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value n first
attempt
Rise time tr The time required for the response to reach 100% if the final value in first
attempt (for overdamped system, the time required to rise from 10% to 90%
of its final value)
Peak time tp The time required to reach the first peak of the time response.
Settling time ts The time required for the response to reach and stay within the specified
range (2% to 5%) of its final value.
Peak overshoot Normalised difference between the peak of time response and steady
output.
c (t p )  c ( )
%M p   100
c ( )
Steady-state error Difference between the actual output and the desired output at steady state.
ess  Lt  r ( t )  c ( t ) 
t 
RISE TIME
e n tr
c (t r )  1  sin( d t r   )  1
1 2
sin( d t r   )  0
 d tr    
  ;
tr   d   n 1   2 ; cos   
d
PEAK TIME
e   n t
c (t )  1  sin( d t   )
1 2
When c(t) is maximum, d c ( t )  0

dt
  n t p
e  n   n t p
cos( d t p   )   d  sin( d t p   )  e 0
1 2
1 2
 d cos( d t p   )   n sin( d t p   )  0
Page 48 of 187
1   2  cos( d t p   )    sin( d t p   )  0
sin   co s( d t p   )  cos   sin( d t p   )  0
sin(   d t p   )  0
sin( d t p )  0
dtp  
 
tp  
d n 1   2
MAXIMUM OVERSHOOT Mp
  n t p
e
c (t p )  1  sin( d t p   )
1  2


1 2
e
 1 sin(   )
1  2
 
  
1  2 1  2 
e e 1  2
 1 sin   1   1   1 e2
1  2 1  2

c (t p )  c (  ) 
1  2
%M p   100  e  100
c ( )
SETTLING TIME Ts
For 2% tolerance,
e n ts
 0.02
1 2
e nts  0.02
 n t s   4
4 1
ts   4T where T  = time constant
 n  n
For 5% tolerance,
e   n ts
 0.05
1 2
e nts  0.05
 n t s   3
Page 49 of 187
3
ts   3T
 n
DELAY TIME
e   n td 1
c (t d )  1  sin( d t d   ) 
1 2 2
1  0.7
td 
n
TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

 
Rise time tr 
d
 
Peak time tp  
d n 1   2


Peak overshoot %M p  e 1 2
100
4
Settling time for 2% error ts 
 n
3
Settling time for 5% error ts 
 n
1  0.7
Delay time td 
n
4
Obtain the response of unity feedback system whose open loop transfer function is G ( s ) 
s ( s  5)
and the input is unit step.
C (s) G (s) 4 4
  
R ( s ) 1  G ( s ) s 2  5 s  4 ( s  1)( s  4)
4 A B C
C (s)    
s ( s  1)( s  4) s s  1 s  4
1 4 1 1 1
C (s)     
s 3 s 1 3 s  4
4  t 1 4t
c (t )  1  e  e
3 3
Page 50 of 187
The closed loop transfer function of a second order unity feedback control system is
C (s) 8
 . Determine the type of the damping in the system.
R ( s ) s 2  3s  8
C (s) 8

R ( s ) s 2  3s  8
Standard form of second order system is C ( s )  n2 .

R(s) s 2  2 n s   n 2
Hence,  n 2  8 and 2  n  3
 n  2.82 rad / s
3 3
   0.53
2 n 2  2.82
Since 0    1 , system is under damped.
C (s) 2
 2 . Determine the type of the damping in the system.
R( s) s  4s  2
C (s) 2
 2
R( s) s  4s  2

R (s) s  2 n s   n 2
2
Hence,  n 2  2 and 2  n  4
 n  1.414 rad / s
4 4
    1.41
2 n 2  1.414
Since   1 , system is over damped.
C (s) 2
 . Determine the type of the damping in the system.
R( s) s 2  2s  1
C (s) 2

R( s) s 2  2s  1
Standard form of second order system is C ( s )  n2 . (n2 must be compared with
R (s) s  2 n s   n
2 2
denominator only)
Hence,  n 2  1 and 2  n  2
 n  1rad / s
Page 51 of 187
2 2
  1
2 n 2 1
Since   1 , system is critically damped.
C (s) 4
The closed loop transfer function of a second order unity feedback control system is  2
R ( s ) s  16
. Determine the type of the damping in the system.
Here,  n 2  1 and 2  n  0
 n  1rad / s
 0
Since   0 , system is undamped.
4
The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is G ( s )  . Determine the rise
s ( s  1)
time, peak time, peak overshoot and settling time.
C (s) G (s) 4
 
R( s) 1  G ( s) s 2  s  4

R(s) s 2  2 n s   n 2
Hence,  n 2  4 and 2 n  1
 n  2 rad / s
4 4
   0.25
2 n 2  2
 d   n 1   2  2  1  0.252  1.936rad / s
  cos  1   cos  1 0.25  1.31rad
Rise time, t r        1.31  0.945 s

d 1.936
Peak time, t p 
 
  1.622 s
 d 1.936
  0.25
 
1 2
% Maximum overshoot, % M p  e  100  e 1 0.252
100  43.26%
4 4
Settling time for 2% error, t s    8s
 n 0.25  2
Page 52 of 187
Settling time for 5% error, t s  3  3

 6s
 n 0.25  2
If r(t) is input and c(t) is the output of the system described by a differential equation
d 2 c (t ) dc (t )
  4c (t )  4 r (t ) . Determine the rise time, peak time, peak overshoot and settling
dt 2 dt
time.
C (s) G (s) 4
 
R(s) 1  G (s) s 2  s  4

R(s) s 2  2 n s   n 2
Hence,  n 2  4 and 2 n  1
 n  2 rad / s
4 4
   0.25
2 n 2  2
 d   n 1   2  2  1  0.252  1.936 rad / s
  cos  1   cos  1 0.25  1.31rad
Rise time, t r 
     1.31
  0.945 s
d 1.936
Peak time, t p      1.622 s

 d 1.936
  0.25
 
1 2
% Maximum overshoot, % M p  e  100  e 1 0.252
100  43.26%
Settling time for 2% error, t s  4  4

 8s
 n 0.25  2
3 3
Settling time for 5% error, t s    6s
 n 0.25  2
A unity-feedback second order system has  n  4 rad / s and   0.7 subjected to unit sept input.
Determine the open loop transfer function.
C (s) n2 16
 2  2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2 s  5.6 s  16
The open-loop transfer function is
n2 16
G (s)  
s ( s  2 n ) s ( s  5.6)
Page 53 of 187
K
The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is G ( s )  where K and T are
s (1  sT )
constants. Determine the factor by which K should be multiplied to reduce the overshoot from 85%
to 35%.
K K
C (s) G (s) s (1  sT ) K T
   2 
R ( s) 1  G ( s) 1  K s T  s  K s2  1 s  K
s (1  sT ) T T
Here,  n 2  K and 2 n  1

T
K
n  rad / s
T
1 1
 
2nT 2 KT


1 2
Peak overshoot, % M p  e 100
For 85% peak overshoot,

1

1 12
e  0.85
1
   0.1625
112
1  0.0515
For 35% peak overshoot,

 2

1  2 2
e  0.35
 2
   1.05
1 2 2
 2  0.317
1 K2

2 K1
K 2  0.0264 K1
STEADY STATE ERROR
A steady-state error is defined as the difference between the desired value and the actual value of a
system when the response has reached the steady state. It is a measure of system accuracy.
Page 54 of 187
STATIC ERROR CONSTANTS
Steady-state error for a control system is found during the steady-state period. Hence steady-state error
is also called static error.
C (s) G (s)

R ( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
C ( s)
Here, = closed-loop transfer function and
R( s)
loop system
E ( s)  R ( s )  C ( s ) H ( s )
R ( s )G ( s ) H ( s )
 R(s) 
1  G ( s) H (s)
R ( s )[1  G ( s ) H ( s )]  R ( s )G ( s ) H ( s )

1  G (s) H (s)
R( s)

1  G (s)H (s)
sR ( s )
Steady-state error, ess  Lt e(t )  Lt sE ( s ) = ess  Lt
t  s0 s0 1  G ( s) H ( s)
sR ( s )
ess  Lt
s0 1  G ( s) H ( s)
For step input, R ( s )  1
s
1 1 1
ess  Lt   where Kp = static position error constant
s 0 1  G ( s) H ( s) 1  Lt G ( s ) H ( s ) 1  K p
s 0
1
K p  Lt G ( s ) H ( s ) ess 
s0 1 K p
For type 0 system, K p  c o n s ta n t ; Note: General representation of open-loop transfer

1 function G(s)H(s) of a feedback system is given as
ess  K (1  sTz1 )(1  sTz 2 )........(1  sTzm )
1 K p G (s) H ( s)  N
s (1  sT p1 )(1  sT p 2 )........(1  sT pn )
For type 1 system, K p   ; ess  0
Here, N is the number of poles at the origin and it
For type 2 system, K p   ; ess  0 represents the type number of the system.
For type 1 and above; for unit step input, ess = 0
For ramp input, R ( s )  12

s
Page 55 of 187
1 1 1 1
ess  Lt  Lt   where Kv = static velocity error
s 0 s 1  G ( s ) H ( s )  s  0 sG ( s ) H ( s ) Lt sG ( s ) H ( s ) K v
s0
constant
For type 0 system, K v  0 ; ess 

For type 1 system, K v  constant ; e ss  constant
For type 2 system, K v   ; ess  0
For type 2 and above; for unit ramp input, ess = 0
For parabolic input, R ( s )  13

s
1 1 1 1
ess  Lt  Lt 2   where Ka = static acceleration
s0 s 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) 
2 s  0 2
s G ( s ) H ( s ) Lt s G ( s ) H ( s ) K a
s0
error constant
For type 0 system, K a  0 ; ess 

For type 1 system, K a  0 ; ess 
For type 2 system, K a  constant ; e ss  constant
For type 3 system, K a  ; ess  0
For type 3 and above; for unit parabolic input, ess = 0
steady-state error ess

Type unit step unit ramp unit parabolic
K p  Lt G ( s ) H ( s ) K v  Lt sG ( s ) H ( s ) K a  Lt s 2 G ( s ) H ( s )
s0 s0 s0
0 1  
1 K p
1 0 1 
Kv
2 0 0 1
Ka
3 0 0 0
DISADVANTAGES OF STATIC ERROR COEFFICIENT METHOD
1. They do not give any information on the steady-state error when the inputs are other than the
three standard test inputs – step, ramp and parabolic.
2. This method does not provide precise value of error. In most of the cases, the error found is
either zero or infinity.
3. This method is applicable only to stable system.
4. It does not provide variation of error with respect to time which may be needed for design
purposes.
Page 56 of 187
The open loop transfer function of a control system is G ( s ) H ( s )  2( s 2  3 s  20) .

s ( s  2)( s 2  4 s  10)
Determine the static error coefficients and steady state error for the input given as a) 5 b) 4t and c)
4t2/2.
(a) K p  Lt G ( s ) H ( s )  Lt 2( s 2  3 s  20) 1
 ess  5  0
s0 s  0 s ( s  2)( s 2  4 s  10) 1 K p
(b) K v  Lt sG ( s ) H ( s )  Lt 2( s 2  3 s  20) 1 1
2 ess  4   4  2
s0 s  0 ( s  2)( s 2  4 s  10) Kv 2
2 s ( s 2  3 s  20)
K a  Lt s 2 G ( s ) H ( s )  Lt 0
s0 s  0 ( s  2)( s 2  4 s  10) 1 1
(c) ess  4   4  
Ka 0
K ( s  2)
The open loop transfer function of a control system is G ( s ) H ( s )  . Determine a)
s ( s  7 s 2  12 s )
3
type of system b) error constants Kp, Kv, Ka and c) steady-state error for unit parabolic input.
Ans: ess = 6/K
K (2 s  1)
A unity feedback system has the forward path transfer function G ( s )  . The input
s (5s  1)(1  s ) 2
r(t) = 1 + 6t is applied to the system. Determine the minimum value of K if the steady state error is
to be less than 0.1.
1 6
R (s)  
s s2
1 6 6 s6
sR ( s )    1 
s s2 s s
sR ( s )
ess  Lt
s0 1  G ( s) H ( s)
s6 6
ess  Lt 
s0 s  sG ( s ) H ( s ) K
6
e ss   0.1
K
K > 60
Minimum value of K = 60
C ( s) Ks  
The closed loop transfer function of a unity-feedback control system is  .
R(s) s 2   s  
Determine the steady-state error for unit ramp input.
C (s) G (s) Ks  
  2
R(s) 1  G (s) s   s  
Page 57 of 187
G ( s )( s 2   s   )  ( Ks   )(1  G ( s ))
G ( s )( s 2   s   )  ( Ks   ) G ( s )  Ks  
Ks  
G ( s) 
s  s (  K )
2
E (s) 1 1
 
R( s) 1  G ( s) 1  Ks  
s  s (  K )
2
1
R(s) 
s2
1
E (s) 
 Ks   
s 2 1  2 
 s  s (  K ) 
1  K
ess  Lt sE ( s )  Lt 
s0 s 0  Ks    
s 1  2 
 s  s (  K ) 
DYNAMIC ERROR COEFFICIENTS or GENERALIZED ERROR COEFFICIENTS
Static error coefficients do not give any information on the steady-state error when the inputs are other
than the three standard test inputs – step, ramp and parabolic
The dynamic error coefficients provide a simple way of estimating error signal e(t) to arbitrary inputs
and the steady sate error.
For unity feedback system,
E (s) 1
  F (s)
R( s) 1  G (s) H (s)
The function F(s) can be expanded as a power series in s by Taylor’s series expansion as
E (s) C C
F (s)   C o  C1 s  2 s 2  3 s 3  ......
R(s) 2! 3!
C2 2 C
E ( s )   C o R ( s )  C 1 sR ( s )  s R ( s )  3 s 3 R ( s )  ......
2! 3!
. C 2 .. C ...
e ( t )   C o r ( t )  C1 r (t )  r ( t )  3 r ( t )  ......
2! 3!
Here, C o , C 1 , C 2 , C 3 ...... are called dynamic error coefficients or generalized error coefficients.
The generalized error coefficients can be evaluated as follows:
C o  Lt F ( s )
s0
dF (s)
C1  L t
s 0 ds
Page 58 of 187
d 2 F (s)
C2  Lt
s 0 ds 2
d 3 F (s)
C3  Lt
s0 ds 3
.
.
.
d n F (s )
Cn  Lt
s 0 ds n
CORRELATION BETWEEN STATIC AND DYNAMIC ERROR COEFFICIENTS
1
C0 
1 K p
1
C1 
Kv
1
C2 
Ka
1
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is G ( s )  . Determine
s ( s  2)
the steady-state error using the dynamic error coefficient method for input of r ( t )  2  3 t  2 t 3 .
1 1 s2  2s
F (s)    2
1  G (s) H (s) 1  1 s  2s  1
s  2s
2
s 2  2s
C o  Lt F ( s )  Lt 0
s0 s0 s 2  2 s  1
dF ( s ) d  s 2  2s   ( s 2  2 s  1)(2 s  2)  ( s 2  2 s )(2 s  2) 
C1  Lt  Lt   Lt
 s0  
s0 ds s  0 ds s 2  2 s  1 ( s 2  2 s  1) 2
   
 2( s  1)   2 
 Lt   Lt  2
s  0 ( s  1) 4  s  0 ( s  1) 4 
   
d 2 F (s) d  2  6
C 2  Lt  Lt  3 
 Lt  6
s 0 ds 2 s  0 ds  ( s  1)  s  0 ( s  1) 4
d 3F (s) d  6  24
C 3  Lt  Lt  ( s  1) 4   sLt  24
ds 3 s  0 ds  0 ( s  1) 5
s0
 
r (t )  2  3t  2 t 3

r (t )  3  6t 2
Page 59 of 187

r ( t )  12 t

r (t )  12
. C 2 .. C ...
e (t )   C o r (t )  C1 r (t )  r ( t )  3 r ( t )  ......
2! 3!
e (t )  2(3  6 t 2 )  3  12 t  4  12  54  36 t  12 t 2
Alternative Method:
1 1 s2  2s 2s  s 2 (Note: Arrange both numerator &

F (s)    2 
1  G (s) H (s) 1  1 s  2s  1 1  2s  s2
s  2s
2
denominator in ascending powers of s)
1  2s  s 2  2s  s 2  2 s  3s 2  4 s 3
2s  4s2  2s3
 3s 2  2 s 3
 3s 2  6 s 3  3s 4
4 s 3  3s 4
F ( s )  2 s  3 s 2  4 s 3  ......
But, F ( s )  C o  C 1 s  C 2 s 2  C 3 s 3  ......
2! 3!
Comparing,
Co  0 C1  2 C 2  6 C3  24
r (t )  2  3t  2 t 3

r (t )  3  6t 2

r ( t )  12 t

r (t )  12
. C 2 .. C ...
e (t )   C o r (t )  C1 r (t )  r ( t )  3 r ( t )  ......
2! 3!
e (t )  2(3  6 t 2 )  3  12 t  4  12  54  36 t  12 t 2
50
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is G ( s )  . Determine
s ( s  10)
dynamic error and steady-state error using the dynamic error coefficient method for input of
r (t )  1  2 t  t 2 .
r (t )  1  2 t  t 2
Page 60 of 187

r (t )  2  2t

r (t )  2

r (t )  0
. C 2 ..
e (t )   C o r ( t )  C 1 r (t )  r (t )
2!
1 1 s 2  10 s 10 s  s 2
F (s)    2 
1  G (s)H (s) 1  50 s  10 s  50 50  10 s  s 2
s  10 s
2
 10 1 2
50  10 s  s 2 10 s  s 2  s s
 50 50
10 s  2 s 2  0.2 s 3
 s 2  0.2 s 3
 s 2  0.2 s 3  0.02 s 4
 0.02 s 4
F ( s )  0.2 s  0.02 s 2
C2 2 C3 3
F ( s )  C o  C1 s  s  s  ......
2! 3!
Comparing,
Co  0 C1  0.2 C 2   0.0 4 C3  0
e(t )  0.4(1  t )  0.08
ess  Lt e (t ) 
t 
A unity feedback system is characterized by the open loop transfer function

1
G (s)  . Determine the steady state errors for unit-step, unit ramp and unit
s (0.5s  1)(0.2 s  1)
acceleration inputs.
1 1 1
Ans: e ss  0 ess  1 ess  
1 K p Kv Ka
POLE DOMINANCE FOR HIGHER ORDER SYSTEMS
For a standard 2nd order system, closed loop transfer function is given by C ( s )  n2 .
R (s) s 2  2 n s   n 2
The formulas describing percent overshoot, settling time, and peak time were derived only for a system
with two complex poles and no zeros. s. If a system has more than two poles or has zeros, we cannot
use the formulas to calculate the performance specifications that we derived. However, under certain
conditions, a system with more than two poles or with zeros can be approximated as a second-order
system that has just two complex dominant poles. Once we justify this approximation, the formulas for
Page 61 of 187
percent overshoot, settling time, and peak time can be applied to these higher-order systems by using
the location of the dominant poles.
Effect of an additional pole on the second order response: Consider a three-pole system with
complex poles and a third pole on the real axis. Assuming that the complex poles are at
 n  j n 1   2 and the real pole is at r , the step response of the system can be determined from
a partial-fraction expansion. Thus, the output transform is
A B ( s   n )  C  d D
C (s)   
s ( s   n )   d
2 2
s  r
c ( t )  A  e   n t ( B co s  d t  C sin  d t )  D e   r t
If r is much larger than  n , the pure exponential will die out much more rapidly than the second-
order underdamped step response. If the pure exponential term decays to an insignificant value at the
time of the first overshoot, such parameters as percent overshoot, settling time, and peak time will be
generated by the second-order underdamped step response component. Thus, the total response will
approach that of a pure second-order system.
If αr is not much greater than ζωn, the real pole’s transient response will not decay to insignificance at
the peak time or settling time generated by the second-order pair. In this case, the exponential decay is
significant, and the system cannot be represented as a second-order system.
Note: If the real pole is five times farther to the left than the dominant poles, we assume that the system
is represented by its dominant second-order pair of poles.
STABILITY
Stability of a system implies that small changes in input do not result in large effects on the system
response.
In an unstable system, any perturbation, no matter how small, will make states or outputs grow
unbounded or until the system disintegrates or saturates.
The response of a LTI system is composed of response to initial conditions and response to inputs.
BIBO Stability. A system is BIBO (bounded-input bounded-output) stable if every bounded input
produces a bounded output. BIBO stability is associated with the response of the system with zero initial
state.
Page 62 of 187
A single-input single output (SISO) system is BIBO stable if and only if its impulse response g(t) is

absolutely integrable in the interval [0, ∞). That is, if  g (t ) dt  M for some finite constant M
0
 0 .
Bounded and unbounded signals:

Unbounded signal has an infinite value at any Bounded signal has a finite value at all instants
instant of time. of time
Examples are i) ramp ii) parabolic iii) tan(t). Examples are i) step ii) sin(t) iii) cos(t).
(b) Bounded signal

(a) unbounded signal
Asymptotic stability: Asymptotic stability is associated with the response of the system with zero
input. A system is said to be asymptotically stable if its response to any initial conditions decays to zero
asymptotically in the steady state.
If y(t) is the response due to the initial conditions, the system is asymptotically stable if Lt y (t )  0
t 
LOCATION OF ROOTS ON THE S-PLANE FOR STABILITY
C (s) b s m  bm 1 s m 1  .......  b1 s  b0
 M (s)  m n
R (s) s  a n 1 s n 1  .......  a1 s  a 0
C (s) K '( s  z1 )( s  z 2 )........( s  z m )

 M (s) 
R(s) ( s  p1 )( s  p 2 )........( s  p n )
z1, z2, z3 ….. zm = zeros (roots of numerator polynomial)
Page 63 of 187
p1, p2, p3 ….. pn = poles (roots of denominator polynomial) = roots of characteristic equation
A1 A1 An
M (s)    .......... 
( s  p1 ) ( s  p 2 ) ( s  pn )
1 If all the roots of the characteristic equation are on the left-hand side of the s-plane, i.e. all
the roots have negative real parts, then the system is stable.
2 If there is at least one root on the right-hand side of the s- plane or there are repeated poles
on the imaginary axis, then the system is unstable and the response will increase without
bounds with time.
3 If there is at least one root on the imaginary axis, and there are no unstable roots, the response
neither decreases to zero, nor increases without bounds. The system is called marginally
stable.
Page 64 of 187
The response for the following pole locations in s-plane are shown above.
i) Root real & negative – response is decaying exponential (bounded)
ii) Simple root at origin – response is constant (bounded)
iii) Repeated roots at origin – response is ramp (unbounded)
iv) Root real & positive – response is exponentially raising (unbounded)
v) Roots complex conjugate in LHS – response is decaying sine (bounded)
vi) Roots complex conjugate in RHS – response is exponentially raising sine (unbounded)
vii) Simple roots on imaginary axis – response is sinusoidal (marginally stable)
viii) Repeated poles on imaginary axis – response is raising sine (unbounded)
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR STABILITY (NOT SUFFICIENT)
All the coefficients of the characteristic equation q(s) = 0 must be real and have the same sign. None
of the coefficients should be zero.
a 0 s n  a1 s n 1  .......  a n 1 s  a n  0; a0  0
Note: For first and second order systems, positiveness of the coefficients of characteristic equation is
necessary and sufficient condition for stability.
If some of the coefficients are zero or negative, the system is unstable.
If all the coefficients are positive, check for sufficient condition.
ROUTH-HURWITZ STABILITY CRITERION
q ( s )  a 0 s n  a1 s n 1  .......  a n  1 s  a n  0
This criterion is based on ordering the coefficients of characteristic equation into an array, called
Routh array.
s n a o a 2 a4 a 6
s n 1 a1 a3 a5
s n  2 b1 b2 b3
. c1 c2
.
s2
s1
s0 an
a1a2  a0 a3 a a  a 0 a5
where b1  ; b2  1 4 ……..
a1 a1
b1a3  a1b2 b a  a3b3

c1  ; c1  2 5 …….
b1 b1
For a system to be stable, it is necessary and sufficient that each term of first column of Routh array be
positive if ao > 0. If this condition is not met, the system is unstable and number of sign changes of the
terms of the first column corresponds to the number of roots of the characteristic equation in the right
half of the s-plane.
Page 65 of 187
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is s 4  8s 3  18s 2  16 s  5  0

.
s 4 1 18 5
s 3 8 16 0
s 2 16 5
s1 13.5 0
s0 5
The elements of the first column are all positive, hence the system is stable.
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is 3s 4  10s 3  5s 2  5s  2  0

.
s4 3 5 2
s 3 10 5
s 2 3.5 2
s  .714
1
0
s0 2
The elements of the first column have 2 sign changes, hence there are two roots in the right half of the
s-plane and the system is unstable.
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is s 5  2 s 3  2 s 2  11s  10  0

.
Coefficient of s4 is missing; hence the system is unstable.
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is ( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)(s  4)  0
.
All the roots of the characteristic equation are on the left-half of the s-plane; hence the system is
stable.
SPECIAL CASE 1: First term in any row of the Routh array is zero while rest of the row has at least
one non-zero term.
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is

s 5  s 4  2 s 3  2 s 2  3s  5  0 .
s5 1 2 3
s4 1 2 5
s3 0  2
s2
s1
s0
 = small positive number near to zero
Page 66 of 187
1 2 3
s5
1 2 5
s4
 2
s3
2  2
s2 5
1

s 2
s0 5
2  2
  2  5
 5 2
 2 
2  2 2  2

5 2
When  → 0,  2   2
2  2
Note: We are interested only in the signs of the terms in the first column, not in their magnitudes.
Here, there are 2 sign changes, hence there are two roots in the right side of s-plane and the system is
unstable.

s  2 s  3s  6s  5s  3  0 .
5 4 3 2
Ans: unstable
SPECIAL CASE 2: All the elements in any one row of the Routh Array are zeros.

s  2 s  8 s  12 s  20 s  16 s  16  0 .
6 5 4 3 2
s 6 1 8 20 16
s 5 2 12 16
s 4 2 12 16
s3 0 0 0
2
s
s1
s0
2s 4  12s 2  16  0
A(s)  s 4  6 s 2  8  0
dA(s)
 4 s3  12 s
ds
Page 67 of 187
s 6 1 8 20 16
s 5 2 12 16
s 4 2 12 16
s3 4 12 0
s 2
6 16
s 1.33
1
s 0 16
No change of sign; hence no roots have positive real parts.
s 4  6s 2  8  0
( s 2  2)( s 2  4)  0
s   j 2 and s   j 2
Since there are simple roots on imaginary axis, the system is marginally stable.
Note: Roots of auxiliary equation will be the roots of the characteristic equation.

s  2s  2s  4s  s  2  0 .
5 4 3 2
s5 1 2 1
s4 2 4 2
s3 0 0
s2
s1
s0
2s 4  4s 2  2  0
A( s )  s 4  2 s 2  1  0
dA ( s )
 4s3  4s  0
ds
s3  s  0
s5 1 2 1
s4 2 4 2
s3 1 1
2
s 1 1
s1 0 0
s0
A '( s )  s 2  1  0
Page 68 of 187
dA '( s )
2
ds
s5 1 2 1
s4 2 4 2
s3 1 1
s2 1 1
s1 2 0
s0 1
No change of sign; hence no roots have positive real parts.
2s 4  4s 2  2  0
s 4  2s2  1  0
( s 2  1) 2  0
s   j,  j
Since there are repeated roots on imaginary axis, the system is unstable.
K
The open loop transfer function of unity feedback system is G ( s )  . Find the
s (1  0.4 s )(1  0.25 s )
restriction of K so that the closed loop system is absolutely stable.
K
G ( s) 
s (1  0.4 s )(1  0.25 s )
1  G (s) H (s)  0
s (1  0.4 s )(1  0.25s)  K  0
s 3  6.5 s 2  10 s  10 K  0
1 10
s3
6.5 10 K
s2
65  10 K
s1
6.5
s0
10 K
For stability, K  0
65  10 K  0
65  10 K
0  K  6 .5
Page 69 of 187
K
The open loop transfer function of unity feedback system is G ( s )  .
( s  2)( s  4)( s 2  6 s  25)
By applying Routh criterion, determine the stability of the closed loop system as a function of K.
Ans:- 0  K  6 6 6 .2 5
The characteristic equation of a closed loop system is s 3  2 Ks 2  ( K  2) s  4  0 . Determine the

range of values of K for the system to be stable.
Ans:- K  0 .7 3
Page 70 of 187
MODULE 3 – ROOT LOCUS & COMPENSATOR DESIGN

Root locus technique: Construction of Root locus- stability analysis- effect of addition of poles
and zeroes- Effect of positive feedback systems on Root locus
Design of Compensators: Design of lag, lead and lag-lead compensators using Root locus
technique.
PID controllers: PID tuning using Ziegler-Nichols methods.
equivalent for Root locus based analysis (Demo/Assignment only)
Consider a unity feedback system with forward K

K s ( s  2)
path transfer function, G ( s )  .
s ( s  2)
Characteristic equation is 1  G ( s ) H ( s )  0
s 2  2s  K  0
Roots of characteristic equation, s1 , s2  1  1  K
s1  1  1  K and s1  1  1  K
K=0 s1  0 s2   2 Originates from open loop poles

0<K<1 Real and negative Real and negative
K=1 s1   1 s2  1 Break-away point
K>1 Complex with real part -1 Complex conjugate
with real part -1
K=∞ Terminates at infinity
The path taken by the roots of the characteristic equation when open loop gain K is varied
from 0 to ∞ (or any other system parameter is varied) is called root locus.
Here, root locus originates from s1 = 0 and s2 = -2 and moves along negative real axis and reaches at -
1. The two root loci meet at -1 and then proceeds to infinity at angle ±90˚ to the real axis.
Page 71 of 187
1 Root locus is symmetrical about real axis

2 Number of branches = order of characteristic equation
3 All branches of root locus start at open loop poles (when K = 0) and ends at either open loop
zeros or infinity (when K = ∞)
4 Number of branches terminating at infinity = n – m where n = No. of poles of G(s)H(s) and
m = No. of zeros of G(s)H(s)
5 A point on real axis lies on the root locus if the sum of the poles and zeros on the real axis to
the right of the point is an odd number.
MAGNITUDE AND ANGLE CRITERION
For a general closed loop system,
C (s) G ( s)

R(s) 1  G (s)H (s)
Characteristic equation is given by,
1  G (s) H (s)  0
G ( s ) H ( s )   1  1  180  (angle shall be odd multiple of 180˚)
G(s) H (s)  1 ----- magnitude criterion
G ( s ) H ( s )   (2 q  1)180 ; q = 0, 1, 2, ----- angle criterion
The values of s which fulfill both the angle and magnitude criteria are the roots of the
characteristic equation or the closed-loop poles.
We first apply the angle criterion to determine whether a point in the s-plane lies on the root
locus. If this condition is satisfied, then we can use the magnitude condition to obtain the
value of K for which this will be a root of the characteristic equation.
K
The open loop transfer function is G ( s )  . Check whether s = -1 is on the root locus.
s ( s  4)( s  5)
K K K
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  1     180 
1 3  4 12 12
G ( s ) H ( s )  180 Angle criterion is satisfied; hence s = -1 is on root locus.
Magnitude criterion, G(s) H (s)  1
K K = 12.
1
12
For K = 12, one of the roots is located at s = -1.
K
The open loop transfer function is G ( s )  . Check whether s = -1 + j2 is on the root locus.
s ( s  2)
Page 72 of 187
K K K
G ( s ) H ( s ) s 1 j 2      180
( 1  j 2)(1  j 2) 5180 5
G ( s ) H ( s )  180 Angle criterion is satisfied; hence s = -1 + j2 is on root locus.
Magnitude criterion, G(s) H (s)  1
K K = 5.
1
5
For K = 5, one of the roots is located at s = -1 + j2.
RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF ROOT LOCUS

1 Root locus is symmetrical about the real axis and the number of branches is equal to the order
of the characteristic polynomial.
2 Each branch of the root locus originates from an open loop pole corresponding to K = 0 and
ends at either open loop zero or infinity corresponding to K = ∞.
Number of branches terminating at infinity equals to the difference between the number of
poles and number of zeros of G(s)H(s).
3 A point on the real axis lies on the root locus if the sum of the poles and zeros on the real
axis to the right of the point is an odd number.
4 The (n-m) root locus branches that proceed to infinity do so along the asymptotes with angles
 180(2 q  1)
A  q  0,1, 2, ....( n  m  1)
nm
n = number of open loop poles and m = number of open loop zeros
5 The centroid, the point of intersection of the asymptotes with real axis is given by
sum of poles - sum of zero s
A 
nm
6 The breakaway points (points at which multiple roots of the characteristic equation occur) of
the root locus are the solution of dK  0
ds
7 The angle of departure/arrival (if RL leaves from a complex pole/arrives at a complex zero):
The angle of departure at open loop pole is given by
 d  180   where  is net angle contribution to this pole by all other open loop poles and
zeros
    p   z
  = sum of angles subtended by the phasors drawn to this pole from other poles
p
 = sum of angles subtended by the phasors drawn to this pole from all the zeros
z
The angle of arrival at open loop zero is given by

 a  180   where  is net angle contribution to the zero under consideration by all other
open loop poles and zeros.
    p   z
  = sum of angles subtended by the phasors drawn to this zero from other zeros
p
 = sum of angles subtended by the phasors drawn to this zero from all the poles
z
Page 73 of 187
8 The intersection of root locus with imaginary axis can be determined by using the Routh
criterion or by separating real and imaginary parts.
9 The open loop gain K at any point on the root locus is given by
n
 s  pi
Product of phasor lengths of open loop poles to the point
K  i 1
n

Product of phasor lengths of open loop zeros to the point
i 1
s  zi
K
Consider the root-locus of G ( s )  shown in figure.
( s  3)( s  4)
Net angle contribution at P = G ( s )   K

.  180
( 3.5  j1  3)( 3.5  j1  4)
Net angle contribution at P1 = G ( s )   K

.  71.6
(  5  j1  3)( 5  j1  4)
Net angle contribution at P1 = G ( s )   K

.  71.6
( 2  j1  3)( 2  j1  4)
Net angle contribution on root-locus is always 180˚. Net angle contribution towards left of root locus is
positive and towards right is negative.
K
Plot the root locus of a system whose forward path transfer function is G ( s )  .
( s  3)( s  4)
1 Number of branches of root locus = order of the characteristic polynomial = 2

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = -3 and s = -4 and both ends
at infinity.
3 On the real axis, the root locus is found between section s = -3 and s = -4 because the sum of
number of poles and zeros to the right of this section is odd.
4 2 branches proceed to infinity along the asymptotes with angles
 180(2 q  1)
A  q  0,1
nm
q  0   A   90
q  1   A   270
Page 74 of 187
5 The centroid (intersection of asymptotes on real axis) is given by

sum of poles - sum of zeros 4  3
A     3.5
nm 2
6 Breakaway points
dK
0
ds
s 2  7 s  12  K  0
K   s 2  7 s  12
dK
 2 s  7  0
ds
s   3 .5
7 Since there is no complex poles and zeros, no angle of departure or arrival.
8 Intersection with imaginary axis
s 2  7 s  12  K  0
Substitute s = j,
  2  j 7  12  K  0
Equating real and imaginary parts,
7   0 and  2  12  K  0
  0 and K   12 ; K is negative
No intersection with imaginary axis.
Page 75 of 187
K
s ( s  2)( s  3)

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = 0 at s = -2 and s = -3 and
all end at infinity.
3 On the real axis, the root locus is found (a) between section s = 0 and s = -2 and (b) between
section s = -3 and s = -∞ because the sum of number of poles and zeros to the right of this
section is odd.
 180 (2 q  1)
A  q  0,1, 2
nm
q  0   A   60 
q  1   A   180 
q  2   A   300  (same as 60˚)
5 The centroid (intersection of asymptotes) is given by
sum o f poles - sum of zeros 023
A     1.67
nm 3
6 Breakaway points
dK
0
ds
s 3  5s 2  6 s  K  0
K   s 3  5s 2  6 s
dK
  3 s 2  10 s  6  0
ds
3s 2  10 s  6  0
s  0.785 or  2.549 (But, -2.549 does not lie on root locus)
s  0.785
s 3  5s 2  6 s  K  0
1 6
s3
5 K
s2
30  K
s1
5
s0
K
K>0
30 - K > 0
K < 30
0 < K < 30
For K = 30, all elements in one row equal zeros
s3  5s 2  6s  30  0
Auxiliary equation, 5s 2  30  0
Page 76 of 187
 30
s   j 2.45
5
OR (alternate method to find K and )
s 3  5s 2  6 s  K  0
 j 3  5 2  j 6   K  0
 3  6  0 and 5 2  K  0
   2 .4 5 and K  3 0
K
s ( s 2  4 s  13)

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = 0 at s = -2 + j3 and s = -2
– j3 and all end at infinity.
3 The entire negative real axis is part of the root locus because the sum of number of poles and
zeros to the right of this section is odd.
Page 77 of 187

 180 (2 q  1)
A  q  0,1, 2
nm
q  0   A   60 
q  1   A   180 
q  2   A   300  (same as 60˚)
sum o f poles - sum of zero s 0  2  j3  2  j3
A     1.33
nm 3
6 Breakaway points
dK
0
ds
Characteristic equation is s 3  4s 2  13s  K  0
K   s 3  4 s 2  13s
dK
  3 s 2  8 s  13  0
ds
3s 2  8s  13  0
s  1.33  j1.16
Note: Breakaway point may be real or complex. In order to determine the actual breakaway
point, substitute the breakaway point value in the equation of K to get the value of K. If the
value of K is real positive, the breakaway point is valid one.
K   s 3  4 s 2  13s
When s  1.33  j1.16 ,
K   (  1.33  j1.16) 3  4(  1.33  j1.16) 2  13(  1.33  j1.16)  12.6  j 8.17
When s  1.33  j1.16 ,
K   (  1.33  j1.16) 3  4(  1.33  j1.16) 2  13(  1.33  j1.16)  12.6  j 8.17
Hence, s  1.33  j1.16 is not a valid breakaway point.
7 The angle of departure at open loop pole (-2+j3) is given by
 d  180  
Net angle contribution to this pole,
    p   z =  02  j 3   22  jj 33  123.7  90  213.7
 d  180  213.7   33.7 
The angle of departure at open loop pole (-2-j3) is given by
 d  180  
    p   z =  0 2  j 3   22  jj 33   123.7  90   213.7
 d  180  213.7  393.7    33.7 
s 3  4s 2  13s  K  0
 j 3  4 2  j13  K  0
Page 78 of 187
 3  13  0 and 4 2  K  0

   3 .6 and K  5 2
Plot the root locus of a system whose forward path transfer function is
K
G (s)  .
s ( s  4)( s 2  4 s  20)

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = 0, s = -4, at s = -2 + j4 and
s = -2 – j4 and all end at infinity.
3 On the real axis, the root locus is found between s = 0 and s = -4 because the sum of number
of poles and zeros to the right of this section is odd.
 180 (2 q  1)
A  q  0,1, 2, 3
nm
q  0   A   45 
q  1   A   135 
q  2   A   225  (same as ±135˚)
q  3   A   315  (same as ±45˚)
Page 79 of 187
sum of p oles - su m of zeros 0  4  2  j4  2  j4

A    2
nm 4
6 Breakaway points: -
Characteristic equation is s ( s  4)( s 2  4 s  20)  K  0
s 4  8s 3  36 s 2  80 s  K  0
K   s 4  8 s 3  36 s 2  80 s
dK
  4 s 3  24 s 2  72 s  80  0
ds
4 s 3  24 s 2  72 s  80  0
s 3  6 s 2  18s  20  0
s1   2; s 2   2  j 2.45; s3   2  j 2.45
K   s 4  8 s 3  36 s 2  80 s
For s1   2 ,
K   (  2) 4  8(  2) 3  36(  2) 2  80(  2)  64
For s 2   2  j 2.45 ,
K   (  2  j 2.45) 4  8(  2  j 2.45) 3  36(  2  j 2.45) 2  80(  2  j 2.45)  100
For s3   2  j 2.45 ,
K   (  2  j 2.45) 4  8(  2  j 2.45) 3  36(  2  j 2.45) 2  80(  2  j 2.45)  100
Hence, s1   2; s 2   2  j 2.45; s3   2  j 2.45 are valid breakaway points.
 d  180  
    p   z =  0 2  j 4   24  j 4   22  jj 44  116.57  63.43  90  270
 d  180  270   90 
 d  180  
    p   z =  02  j 4   24  j 4   22  jj 44   116.57  63.43  90   270
 d  180  270  450    90 
s 4  8s 3  36 s 2  80 s  K  0
 4  j 8 3  36 2  j 80  K  0
8 3  80  0 and  4  36 2  K  0
   3 .1 6 and K  2 6 0
Page 80 of 187
Page 81 of 187
K
s ( s  4)
2

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = 0 at s = +j2 and s = -j2 and
3 The entire negative real axis is part of the root locus because the sum of number of poles and
zeros to the right of this section is odd.
 180 (2 q  1)
A  q  0,1, 2
nm
q  0   A   60 
q  1   A   180 
q  2   A   300  (same as 60˚)
sum of p oles - sum of zeros 0  j3  j3
A   0
nm 3
6 Breakaway points
dK
0
ds
Characteristic equation is s 3  4s  K  0
K   s 3  4s
dK
 3s 2  4  0
ds
3s 2  4  0
s   j1.15
K  s 3  4s
When s   j1.15 ,
K   ( j1.155) 3  4( j1.155)   j 3.08
When s   j1.155 ,
K   j3.08 (complex conjugate)
Hence, s   j1.155 is not a valid breakaway point.
7 The angle of departure at open loop pole (+j2) is given by
 d  180  
    p   z =  0 j 2    jj 22  90  90  180 
 d  180  180  0 
The angle of departure at open loop pole (-j2) is given by
 d  180  
Page 82 of 187
    p   z =  0 j 2    jj 22   90  90   180 
 d  180  180  360   0 
s 3  4s  K  0
 j 3  j 4   K  0
 3  4  0 and K  0
   2 and K  0
When K = 0, root locus crosses the j axis at j  2
K ( s  1)
s ( s  3.6)
2

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = 0, at s = 0, at s = -3.6 and
one ends at zero s = -1 and two end at infinity.
Page 83 of 187
3 Points between -1 and -3.6 on negative real axis is part of the root locus because the sum of
number of poles and zeros to the right of this section is odd.
 180(2 q  1)
A  q  0,1
nm
q  0   A   90 
q  1   A   270  (same as 90˚)
su m of po les - sum of zero s 0  0  3.6  1
A     1.3
nm 2
6 Breakaway points
dK
0
ds
Characteristic equation is s 3  3.6 s 2  Ks  K  0
 s 3  3.6 s 2 s 3  3.6 s 2
K 
s 1 s 1
dK ( s  1)(3 s 2  7.2 s )  ( s 3  3.6 s 2 )
 0
ds ( s  1) 2
( s  1)(3 s 2  7.2 s )  ( s 3  3.6 s 2 )  0
3s 3  7.2s 2  3s 2  7.2s  s 3  3.6 s 2  0
2 s 3  6.6 s 2  7.2 s  0
s3  3.3s 2  3.6s  0
s  0 ; s  1.65  j 0.936
s 3  3.6 s 2
K 
s 1
When s  0 ,
K  0;
S = 0 is a valid breakaway point
When s  1.65  j 0.936 ,
K  6.8349.785
Hence, s  1.65  j 0.936 are not valid breakaway point.
7 Since there are no complex poles or complex zeros, there is not need of calculating the angle
of departure or arrival.
s 3  3.6 s 2  Ks  K  0
 j 3  3.6 2  jK   K  0
 3  K   0 and 3.6 2  K  0
  0 and K  0
Page 84 of 187
Plot the root locus of a system whose forward path transfer function is
K
G ( s)  . Also, comment on the stability of the system.
s ( s  6)( s 2  4 s  13)

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = 0, s = -4, at s = -2 + j3 and s
= -2 – j3 and all end at infinity.
3 On the real axis, the root locus is found between s = 0 and s = -6 because the sum of number of
poles and zeros to the right of this section is odd.
 1 80(2 q  1)
A  q  0,1, 2, 3
nm
q  0   A   45 
q  1   A   135 
q  2   A   225  (same as ±135˚)
q  3   A   315  (same as ±45˚)
sum of poles - su m of zeros 0  6  2  j3  2  j3
A     2.5
nm 4
Page 85 of 187
6 Breakaway points: -
Characteristic equation is s ( s  6)( s 2  4 s  13)  K  0
s 4  10 s 3  37 s 2  78 s  K  0
K   s 4  10s 3  37 s 2  78s
dK
  4 s 3  30 s 2  74 s  78  0
ds
4 s 3  30 s 2  74 s  78  0
s1   4.2; s 2   1.65  j1.386; s 3   1.65  j1.386
K   s 4  10s 3  37 s 2  78s
For s1   4 .2 ,
K   (  4.2) 4  10(  4.2) 3  37(  4.2) 2  78(  4.2)  104.6
For s 2   1.65  j1.386 ,
K   (  1.65  j1.386) 4  10(  1.65  j1.386) 3  37(  1.65  j1.386) 2  78(  1.65  j1.386)
 69.15  j18.12
For s 3   1.65  j1.386 ,
K  69.15  j18.12 (complex conjugate)
Hence, only s1   4.2 is valid breakaway point.
 d  180  
    p   z =  02  j 3   26  j 3   22  jj 33  123.7  36.87  90  250.57 
 d  180  250.57   70.57 
 d  180  
    p   z =  02  j 4   24  j 4   22  jj 44   123.7  36.87  90   250.57 
 d  180  250.57  430.57    70.57 
s 4  10 s 3  37 s 2  78 s  K  0
 4  j10 3  37  2  j 78  K  0
10 3  78  0 and  4  37 2  K  0
   2 .8 and K  2 2 8
For 0 < K < 228, the system is stable because roots lie on the left-hand side of s-plane.
For K = 228, the system is marginally stable because roots lie on the imaginary axis.
For K > 228, the system is unstable because roots lie on the right-hand side of s-plane.
Page 86 of 187
K ( s  3)
s ( s  2)

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = 0 and at s = -2 and end at
open loop zeros at s = -3 and s = -∞.
section s = -3 and s = -∞ because the sum of number of poles and zeros to the right of this
section is odd.
4 1 branch proceed to infinity along the asymptotes with angles
 1 80 (2 q  1)
A  q  0 (here n – m – 1 = 0)
nm
q  0   A   180 
sum o f p o les - su m o f zeros 023
A   1
nm 2 1
6 Breakaway points
Page 87 of 187
dK
0
ds
K ( s  3)
1 . 0
s ( s  2)
s 2  2 s  K ( s  3)  0
s 2  2s
K 
s3
dK
  ( s  3 )( 2 s  2 )  ( s 2  2 s )  0
ds
2 s 2  8s  6  s 2  2 s  0
 s 2  6s  6  0
s2  6s  6  0
s  1.268 or  4.732 (Both lie on root locus; hence they are breakaway points)
(since s = -4.732 lies between two zeros, it is a break-in point)
7 s 2  2 s  K ( s  3)  0
s 2  (2  K ) s  3 K  0
  2  j (2  K )  3 K  0
  0 and K = -2 (not possible)
The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis.
Page 88 of 187
K ( s  2)( s  3)
s ( s  1)

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = 0 and at s = -1 and end at
open loop zeros at s = -2 and s = -3.
section s = -2 and s = -3 because the sum of number of poles and zeros to the right of this
section is odd.
4 Breakaway points
dK
0
ds
K ( s  2)( s  3)
1 . 0
s ( s  1)
s2  s
K 
s 2  5s  6
dK
  ( s 2  5 s  6 )( 2 s  1)  ( s 2  s )( 2 s  5 )  0
ds
4 s 2  12 s  6  0
2s 2  6s  3  0
Page 89 of 187
s  0.634 or  2.366 (Both lie on root locus; hence they are breakaway points)
(since s = -2.366 lies between two zeros, it is a break-in point)
5 s 2  s  K ( s 2  5 s  6).  0
(1  K ) s 2  (1  5 K ) s  6 K  0
 (1  K ) 2  j (1  5 K )  6 K  0
  0 and K = -1/5 (not possible)
The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis.
EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POLES
1 Shape of root locus changes and it shifts towards the imaginary axis (towards right)
2 Relative stability decreases
3 System becomes more oscillatory in nature
4 Range of K for stability decreases
5 Settling time increases
Page 90 of 187
EFFECT OF ADDITION OF ZEROS
1 Shape of root locus changes and it shifts towards left of s-plane

2 Relative stability increases
3 System becomes less oscillatory in nature
4 Range of K for stability increases
5 Settling time decreases
Use PI Controller
To improve steady-state error
Use Lag compensator
Use PD Controller
To improve dynamic response
Use Lead compensator
To improve dynamic response and steady-state Use PID Controller
error Use Lead-lag compensator
DESIGN OF COMPENSATORS USING ROOT LOCUS

The root locus approach is used for design purpose when the specification is given in time domain. The
two main specifications which are used in the root locus compensation are damping factor  and
undamped natural frequency n. The dominant closed-loop poles near j-axis are decided by these two
specifications. Therefore, the compensation using root locus reshapes the root locus near j-axis and
origin, so that the dominant closed-loop poles at the desired locations are placed. It is possible to achieve
root locus compensation using lead, lag or lag-lead network.
Complex pole, s1  n  jn 1   2

  cos 1  s1

Peak overshoot, M p  e 1 2 n n 1   2

Settling time, ts  4 
n
n
 
Rise time, tr 
n 1   2
What is the best damping ratio to use? Selection of ξ of industrial control applications requires trade-
off between relative stability & speed of response. A smaller ξ decreases normalized rise time (=ω ntr)
but increases %Mp. Practically, ξ is between 0.4 & 0.7 (ie. Mp is between 5 to 25%).
For accurate system design, ξ should be small as possible to reduce steady state error, e ss since ess is
proportional to ξ.
Page 91 of 187
IMPROVING TRANSIENT RESPONSE

Assume that the desired transient response, defined by percent overshoot
and settling time, is represented by point B.
On the current root locus, A is the point at which the percentage
overshoot is same (ξ is same). By a simple gain adjustment, we can
obtain this point. But, settling time is large (ξωn is small) at point A. With
an existing system, we cannot achieve both the requirements (Mp & ts)
by a simple gain adjustment, since point B does not lie on the root locus.
One way to solve our problem is to replace the existing system with a system whose root locus intersects
the desired design point, B. Unfortunately, this replacement is expensive and counterproductive. Most
systems are chosen for characteristics other than transient response. For example, an elevator cage and
motor are chosen for speed and power. Components chosen for their transient response may not
necessarily meet, for example, power requirements.
Rather than change the existing system, we compensate the system with additional poles and zeros, so
that the compensated system has a root locus that goes through the desired pole location for some value
of gain. One of the advantages of compensating a system in this way is that additional poles and zeros
can be added at the low-power end of the system before the plant. Addition of compensating poles and
zeros need not interfere with the power output requirements of the system or present additional load or
design problems. The compensating poles and zeros can be generated with a passive or an active
network.
A possible disadvantage of compensating a system with additional open-loop poles and zeros is that
the system order can increase, with a subsequent effect on the desired response.
Note: Adding only zero is often problematic because such controller amplifies the high frequency noise.
Adding only pole if often problematic because such controller generates a less stable system (by moving
the closed loop poles to the right).
LEAD COMPENSATOR
1 1
s s
For lead compensator, G ( s )  K T where 0    1 and lag compensator, G (s)  K T
c
c
1 1
s s
T T
where   1 .
Both a lead compensator and a lag compensator have the same shape: So they have a zero at s   1
T
1
and a pole at s   1 or s  . For lead compensators the pole lies more to the left in the complex
T T
plane than the zero and vice versa for lag compensators
RULES FOR DESIGN OF LEAD COMPENSATOR USING ROOT LOCUS

1 List the system specifications and translate them into a desired root location for the dominant
roots.
2 Sketch the uncompensated root locus, and determine whether the desired root locations can
be realized with an uncompensated system (with gain adjustment only)
3 If a compensator is necessary, place the zero of the phase-lead network directly below the
desired root location or to the left of the first to real poles.
Page 92 of 187
4 Determine the pole location so that the total angle at the desired root location is 180˚ and
therefore is on the compensated root locus.
5 Evaluate the total system gain at the desired root location and then calculate the error
constant.
6 Repeat the steps if the error constant is not satisfactory.
K
Consider a unity feedback system with open loop transfer function, G ( s )  . Design a lead
s ( s  8)
compensator to meet the following specifications i) % Mp = 9.5% ii) natural frequency of oscillations,
n = 12 rad/sec iii) velocity error constant K v  10

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = 0 and s = -8 and both ends
at infinity.
3 On the real axis, the root locus is found between section s = 0 and s = -8 .
 180(2 q  1)
A  q  0,1
nm
q  0   A   90
q  1   A   270
sum of poles - su m o f zero s 08
A    4
nm 2
6 Breakaway points
dK
0
ds
s 2  8s  K  0
K   s 2  8s
dK
 2 s  8  0
ds
s  4
7 Since there is no complex poles and zeros, no angle of departure or arrival; no intersection
with imaginary axis.
Page 93 of 187
1 DOMINANT POLE:

1 2
Mp  e

 ln  M p   2.354
1  2
  2.354  1   2
   2.354 2  1   2 
2
2.354
  0.6
2.354 2   2
Dominant pole, sd   n  j n 1   2 =  0.6  12  j12 1  0.6 2  7.2  j 9.6
P does not lie on root locus and hence simple gain adjustment is not possible.
2 ANGLE TO BE CONTRIBUTED BY LEAD NETWORK
   n  180
Net angle contribution by poles and zeros of uncompensated system to this pole,
n   p  z =  07.2  j 9.6   87.2  j 9.6  126.9  85.2  212
  212.1  180  32
Note:  zc   pc  32 
3 POLE & ZERO OF LEAD COMPENSATOR
Page 94 of 187
Draw horizontal line PA

Draw line PO
Draw bisector PB so that  A P B   B P O   A P O
2
Draw PC and PD so that  C P B   B P D   3 2   1 6 
2 2
Pole of compensator Pc = -16
Zero of compensator Zc = -9
1
Zc    9
T
T = 0.11
1
Pc    16
T
 = 0.56
Transfer function, Gc ( s )  s  9
s  16
4 OPEN LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION OF COMPENSATED SYSTEM
K ( s  9)
GO ( s ) 
s ( s  8)( s  16)
Magnitude criterion, GO ( s ) 7.2  j 9.6  1
K ( 7.2  j 9.6  9)
 0.00649 K 180 
(  7.2  j 9.6)( 7.2  j 9.6  8)( 7.2  j 9.6  16)
0 .0 0 6 4 9 K  1
K  154
154( s  9)
GO ( s ) 
s ( s  8)( s  16)
5 ERROR REQUIREMENT
154  9
K v  L t sG O ( s )   1 0 .8
s 0 8  16
Kv is greater than 10.
NOTE:
Net angle contribution of uncompensated system at desired pole location s  7.2  j 9.6 ,
K
G ( s ) s 7.2  j 9.6   0.009 K 148
(  7.2  j 9.6)(  7.2  j 9.6  8)
Angle contribution of lead network at desired pole location s  7.2  j 9.6 ,
( 7.2  j 9.6  9)
Gc ( s ) s  7.2  j 9.6   0.75 32
( 7.2  j 9.6  16)
Net angle contribution of compensated system at desired pole location s  7.2  j 9.6 ,
K ( 7.2  j 9.6  9)
Go ( s ) s  7.2  j 9.6   0.0065 K 180
( 7.2  j 9.6)( 7.2  j 9.6  8)( 7.2  j 9.6  16)
Page 95 of 187
K
Consider a unity feedback system with open loop transfer function, G ( s )  . Design
s ( s  4)( s  7)
a lead compensator to meet the following specifications i) % Mp = 12.63% ii) natural frequency of
oscillations, n = 8 rad/sec iii) velocity error constant K v  2.5

section s = -7 and s = -∞
 180 (2 q  1)
A  q  0,1, 2
nm
q  0   A   60 
q  1   A   180 
q  2   A   300  (same as 60˚)
sum o f poles - sum of zero s 047
A     3.6 7
nm 3
6 Breakaway points
dK
0
ds
s 3  11s 2  28s  K  0
K   s 3  11s 2  28s
dK
 3s 2  22 s  28  0
ds
3s 2  22s  28  0
s   1 .6 4
7 s 3  11s 2  28s  K  0
 j 3  11 2  j 28  K  0
 3  28  0 and 11 2  K  0
   5 .3 and K  3 0 8
Page 96 of 187
1 DOMINANT POLE:

1 2
Mp  e

 ln  M p   2.07
1 2
  2.07  1   2
   2.07 2  1   2 
2
2.07
  0.55
2.07 2   2
Dominant pole, sd   n  j n 1   2 =  0.55  8  j8 1  0.552  4.4  j 6.7
   n  180
n   p  z =  04.4  j 6.7   4.4
4
 j 6.7
  7
4.4  j 6.7
 123.3  93.4  68.8  286 
  286  180  106
Since the angle contribution is more than 60˚, the lead compensator is realized as cascade of
two compensators with each compensator contributing half of the required angle.
Page 97 of 187
106 
   53 
2
Draw line PO
2

Draw PC and PD so that  C P B   B P D   5 3   26.5 
2 2
Pole of compensator Pc = -13.5
Zero of compensator Zc = -4.6
1
Zc     4 .6
T
T = 0.217
1
Pc     13.5
T
 = 0.34
Transfer function, Gc ( s)  ( s  4.6) 2 (Two compensators in cascade)
2
( s  13.5)
K ( s  4.6) 2
GO ( s ) 
s ( s  4)( s  7)( s  13.5) 2
K ( 4.4  j 6.7  4.6) 2

GO ( s ) 
( 4.4  j 6.7)(  4.4  j 6.7  4)(  4.4  j 6.7  7)(  4.4  j 6.7  13.5) 2
 0.00091K 180 
0 .0 0 0 9 1 K  1
K  1099
1099( s  4.6) 2
GO ( s ) 
s ( s  4)( s  7)( s  13.5) 2
5 ERROR REQUIREMENT
1099  4.6 2
K v  Lt sGO ( s )   4.56
s0 4  7  13.52
Kv is greater than 2.5.
Page 98 of 187
Note: See the zero of the lead compensator is directly below the desired root location in both problems.
Consider a unity feedback system with open loop transfer function, G ( s )  K2 . Design a lead
s
compensator to meet the following specifications i) %M p  35% ii) settling time (with 2% criterion)
< 4 s iii) acceleration error constant K a  2
1 DOMINANT POLE:

1 2
Mp  e

 ln  M p   1.05
1 2
  1.05  1   2
   1.05 2  1   2 
2
1.05
   0.32
1.05 2   2
Page 99 of 187
For %M p  35% ,   0.32 . Select   0.4

4
ts 
 n
4
n   2.5rad/sec
0.4  4
Dominant pole, sd   n  j n 1   2 =  0.4  2.5  j 2.5 1  0.4 2  1  j 2.3
   n  180
n   p  z =  0 1 j 2.3   01 j 2.3  113.5  113.5  227
  227  180  47
Place the zero of the compensator directly below the desired location at s = -1 (point D).
Draw line PC at   47
Point C gives pole of the compensator.
Pole of compensator Pc = -3.8
Zero of compensator Zc = -1
1
Zc    1
T
T=1
1
Pc     3.8
T
 = 0.26
(s  1)
Transfer function, Gc (s) 
(s  3.8)
K (s  1)
Go ( s)  2
s (s  3.8)
Magnitude criterion, GO ( s ) 1 j 2.5  1
K ( 1  j 2.5  1)
Go ( s)   0.0758 K
( 1  j 2.5) 2 ( 1  j 2.5  3.8)
0 .0 7 5 8 K  1
K  1 3 .2
13.2(s  1)
Go ( s) 
s 2 (s  3.8)
5 ERROR REQUIREMENT
1 3.2  1
K a  L t s 2GO ( s )   3 .47
s 0 3.8
Ka is greater than 2.
Page 100 of 187

LAG COMPENSATOR
RULES FOR DESIGN OF LAG COMPENSATOR USING ROOT LOCUS

roots.
3 If a compensator is necessary, calculate the loop gain at the desired root location and thus the
system error constant.
4 Compare the uncompensated error constant with the desired error constant, and calculate the
necessary increase that must result from the pole-zero ratio  of the compensator.
5 With the known ratio of the pole-zero combination of the compensator, determine a suitable
location of the pole and zero of the compensator so that the compensated root locus will still
pass through the desired root location. Locate the pole and zero near the origin of the s-plane
in comparison to n.
Page 101 of 187

K
Design a lag compensator for a system with open loop transfer function, G ( s )  to
s ( s  1)( s  3)
satisfy the following specifications i) damping ratio 0.5 ii) settling time = 10sec iii) velocity error
constant K v  5.5

section s = -3 and s = -∞.
 180 (2 q  1)
A  q  0,1, 2
nm
q  0   A   60 
q  1   A   180 
q  2   A   300  (same as 60˚)
sum of poles - sum of zeros 0 1 3
A     1.33
nm 3
6 Breakaway points
dK
0
ds
s 3  4 s 2  3s  K  0
K  s 3  4s 2  3s
dK
 3s 2  8s  3  0
ds
3s 2  8s  3  0
s   0 .4 5
s 3  4 s 2  3s  K  0
 j 3  4 2  j 3  K  0
 3  3  0 and 4 2  K  0
   j1.73 and K  1 2
Page 102 of 187

1 DOMINANT POLE:
4
ts 
 n
4
n   0.8rad/sec
0.5 10
Dominant pole, sd   n  j n 1   2 =  0.5  0.8  j 0.8 1  0.52  0.4  j 0.693
2 GAIN K AT DOMINANT POLE
K
G (s)  1
s ( s  1)( s  3) s 4  j 0.693
K
 0.5067 K  1
(  0.4  j 0.693)( 0.4  j 0.693  1)( 0.4  j 0.693  3) s 0.4  j 0.693
K = 1.973
3 DETERMINATION OF 
1.973
G (s) 
s ( s  1)( s  3)
1 .97 3
K v  L t sG ( s )   0 .65 7
s 0 1 3
Desired Kv = 5.5
Page 103 of 187

Factor by which Kv is to be increased = A  5.5  8.37

0.657
  1.2  A  1.2  8.37  10
4 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF LAG COMPENSATOR
The pole and zero of the compensator are placed very close to the origin. There are one open
loop pole at origin and second pole at s = -1. Place the zero of the compensator at s = 0.1 x
second open loop pole ie. at s = 0.1 x -1 = -0.1.
Zero of compensator z c  1   0 .1
T
1  0.1
Pole of compensator pc     0.01
T 10
1
s
Transfer function of lag compensator, Gc ( s)  T s  0.1

1 s  0.01
s
T
5 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF COMPENSATED SYSTEM
1.973(s  0.1)
Transfer function of lag compensator, GO (s) 
s(s  1)(s  3)(s  0.01)
6 ERROR REQUIREMENT
1.973  0.1
K v  L t sG O ( s )   6.58
s 0 1  3  0.01
Kv is greater than 5.5.
The design is acceptable.
K
Design a lag compensator for a system with open loop transfer function, G ( s )  to satisfy
s ( s  2)
the following specifications i) damping ratio 0.45 ii) settling time = 4sec iii) velocity error constant
K v  20

2 Branches of the root locus originates from open loop poles at s = 0 and s = -2 and both ends
at infinity.
3 On the real axis, the root locus is found between section s = 0 and s = -2 .
 180(2 q  1)
A  q  0,1
nm
q  0   A   90
q  1   A   270
sum of poles - sum of zero s 02
A    1
nm 2
6 Breakaway points
dK
0
ds
Page 104 of 187

s 2  2s  K  0
K   s 2  2s
dK
 2 s  2  0
ds
s  1
7 Since there is no complex poles and zeros, no angle of departure or arrival; no intersection
with imaginary axis.
1 DOMINANT POLE:
4
ts 
n
4
n   2.22rad/sec
0.45  4
Dominant pole, sd   n  j n 1   2 =  0.45  2.22  j 2.22 1  0.452  1  j 2
2 GAIN K AT DOMINANT POLE
K
G (s)  1
s ( s  2) s 1 j 2
Page 105 of 187

K
 0.2 K  1
(  1  j 2)(  1  j 2  2)
K=5
5
G(s) 
s ( s  2)
5
K v  L t sG ( s )   2 .5
s 0 2
Desired Kv = 20
20
Factor by which Kv is to be increased = A  8
2.5
  1.2  A  1.2  8  10
loop pole at origin and second pole at s = -2. Place the zero of the compensator at s = 0.1 x
second open loop pole ie. at s = 0.1 x -2 = -0.2.
Zero of compensator z c  1   0.2
T
1  0.2
Pole of compensator pc     0.02
T 10
1
s
Transfer function of lag compensator, Gc (s)  T  s  0.2
1 s  0.02
s
T
5(s  0.2)
Transfer function of lag compensator, GO ( s) 
s(s  2)( s  0.02)
6 ERROR REQUIREMENT
5  0 .2
K v  L t sG O ( s )   25
s 0 2  0.02
LEAD-LAG COMPENSATOR
RULES FOR DESIGN OF LEAD-LAG COMPENSATOR USING ROOT LOCUS

roots.
3 If a compensator is necessary, place the zero of the phase-lead network directly below the
desired root location or to the left of the first to real poles.
4 Determine the pole location so that the total angle at the desired root location is 180˚ and
therefore is on the compensated root locus.
Page 106 of 187

5 Evaluate the total system gain at the desired root location and then calculate the error
constant. If error requirement is satisfied, then only lead compensation is sufficient and
otherwise provide lag compensation.
6 Compare the uncompensated error constant with the desired error constant, and calculate the
necessary increase that must result from the pole-zero ratio  of the compensator.
7 With the known ratio of the pole-zero combination of the compensator, determine a suitable
location of the pole and zero of the compensator so that the compensated root locus will still
pass through the desired root location. Locate the pole and zero near the origin of the s-plane
in comparison to n.
8 Determine the transfer function of lead-lag compensator and compensated system. Check the
error constant of compensated system. If it is satisfied, then the design is accepted and
otherwise, repeat the design by modifying the locations of poles and zeros of the
compensator.
K
Design a lead-lag compensator for a system with open loop transfer function, G ( s )  to
s ( s  0.5)
satisfy the following specifications i) damping ratio 0.5 ii) undamped natural frequency of
oscillations n = 5 rad/s iii) velocity error constant K v  80 sec 1
1 DOMINANT POLE:
Dominant pole, sd   n  j n 1   2 =  0.5  5  j 5 1  0.52  2.5  j 4.3
P does not lie on root locus and hence simple gain adjustment is not possible.
   n  180
n   p  z =  0 2.5  j 4.3   2.5
0.5
 j 4.3
 120.2  115  235.2 
  235.2  180  55.2
Draw line PO
2
Draw PC and PD so that  C P B   B P D   55.2 
  2 7.6 
2 2
Pole of compensator Pc = -10
Zero of compensator Zc = -2.6
1
Zc     2.6
T
T = 0.385
1
Pc    10
T
 = 0.26
Transfer function, Gc ( s )  s  2.6
s  10
Page 107 of 187


K ( s  2.6)
GO ( s ) 
s ( s  0.5)( s  10)
K ( 2.5  j 4.3  2.6)
 0.0211K 180 
( 2.5  j 4.3)(  2.5  j 4.3  0.5)(  2.5  j 4.3  10)
0 .0 2 1 1 K  1
K  4 7 .4
47.4( s  2.6)
GO ( s ) 
s ( s  0.5)( s  10)
5 ERROR REQUIREMENT
4 7 .4  2 .6
K v  L t sG O ( s )   2 4 .6
s 0 0 .5  10
Kv is insufficient.
K v  2 4.6
Desired Kv = 80
Factor by which Kv is to be increased = A  80  3.25
24.6
  1.2  A  1.2  3.25  4
loop pole at origin and second pole at s = -0.5. Place the zero of the compensator at s = 0.1
x second open loop pole ie. at s = 0.1 x -0.5 = -0.05.
Zero of compensator z c  1   0.05
T
1 0.05
Pole of compensator pc    0.0125
T 4
1
s
Transfer function of lag compensator, Gc (s)  T  s  0.05
1 s  0.0125
s
T
5(s  2.6)(s  0.05)
Transfer function of lag compensator, GO (s) 
s(s  0.5)(s 10)(s  0.0125)
9 ERROR REQUIREMENT
4 7.4  2.6  0.0 5
K v  L t sG O ( s )   98 .6
s 0 0.5  10  0.0125
Page 108 of 187

TUNING OF PID CONTROLLER BY ZIEGLER-NICHOLS METHOD
If the mathematical model of the plant can be derived, then it is possible to apply various design
techniques for determining the parameters of the controller that will meet the transient and steady-state
specifications of the closed-loop system. However, if the plant is so complicated that its mathematical
model cannot be easily obtained, then an analytical approach to the design of a PID controller is not
possible. Then, we must resort to an experimental approach to the design of PID controllers. The process
of selecting the controller parameters to meet given specifications is known as controller tuning.
 1 
K p 1   Td s  Plant
R(s)  Ti s  C(s)
Ki  1 
The transfer function of a PID controller is Gc ( s)  K p   K d s  K p 1   Td s 
s  Ti s 
ZIEGLER-NICHOLS OPEN LOOP TUNING METHOD
Ziegler and Nichols suggested rules for tuning PID controllers (to determine the values of proportional
gain Kp, integral time Ti and derivative time Td) based on the experimental step response characteristics
of the plant.
First obtain experimentally the response of the plant to a unit step input as shown in figure below.
The first tuning method is applied for plants that show an S-shaped characteristic for their step response.
The S-shaped curve is characterized by two constants—the delay time, L and time constant, T. A tangent
is drawn to the S-shaped curve at the point of inflection (where the slope of the step response has its
maximum value). The delay time, L is determined by the intersection of the tangent line with the time
axis and time constant, T is determined by intersection of tangent line with final value of step response
c(t)=K.
Ziegler and Nichols suggested setting the values of the parameters Kp, Ti, and Td according to the
following Table.
Page 109 of 187

Type of Kp Kp Kd
Ti  Td 
controller Ki Kp
P T ∞ 0
L
PI 0.9T L 0
L 0.3
PID 1.2T 2L 0.5L
L
PID controller tuned by open loop tuning gives

2
 1
0.6T  s  
 1  1.2T  1   L 
Gc ( s)  K p 1   Td s   1   0.5Ls  
 Ti s  L  2 Ls  s
PID controller has a pole and origin and double zeros at s = -1/L.
Features of Ziegler Nichols open loop tuning:
1. applicable to stable object with no oscillations
2. easy to use
3. some processes do not permit step response tests or it gives a little information about the
process, the step input applied should be small enough for the response to stay within the bounds
of linearity
Page 110 of 187

MODULE 4 – FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS

Frequency domain specifications- correlation between time domain and frequency domain
responses
Polar plot: Concepts of gain margin and phase margin- stability analysis
Bode Plot: Construction- Concepts of gain margin and phase margin- stability analysis,
Effect of transportation lag and non-minimum phase systems.
Frequency response of a control system refers to the steady state response of a system subject to
sinusoidal input of fixed (constant) amplitude but frequency varying over a specific range, usually from
0 to ∞.
For linear systems the frequency of input and output signal remains the same, while the ratio of
magnitude of output signal to the input signal and phase between two signals may change. Frequency
response analysis deals with only steady state and measurements are taken when transients have
disappeared. Hence frequency response tests are not generally carried out for systems with large time
constants.
The transfer function of a system can be described in frequency domain by the relation,
G ( j )  G ( s ) s  j
The closed loop transfer function is frequency domain is

C ( j )
 M ( j )  M ( j )  M ( j )
R ( j )
G ( j ) H ( j ) = open loop transfer function in frequency domain
FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS
RESONANT PEAK It is the maximum value of magnitude of closed-loop frequency response

(Mr) |M(j)|.
Mr gives indication on the relative stability of a stable closed loop system.
Large Mr corresponds to a large maximum overshoot of the step response.
RESONANT It is the frequency at which resonant peak occurs.
FREQUENCY (r) r gives an indication of the speed of transient response.
BANDWIDTH (b) For feedback control systems, the range of frequencies over which |M(j)|
is equal to or greater than -3dB.
Large BW corresponds to small rise time.
BW also gives an indication of the noise-filtering characteristics and
robustness of the system. (A robust system is one that is insensitive to
parameter variations)
CUT-OFF RATE The slope of |M(j)| near the -3dB cut-off frequency is called the cut-off
rate.
Bandwidth alone is inadequate to indicate the ability of a system in
distinguishing signals from noise. Two systems can have the same
bandwidth, but the cut-off rates may be different.
GAIN MARGIN It is the amount of gain in dB that can be added to the loop before the closed
(GM) loop system becomes unstable.
Page 111 of 187

It is the reciprocal of the magnitude of open loop transfer function at phase

cross over frequency.
Phase cross-over frequency pc is the frequency at which the phase of the
open loop transfer function is 180˚.
1
GM 
G ( j pc )
1
Gain Margin in dB = 20 log  20 log G ( j pc )
G ( j pc )
Gain margin of second-order system is infinite.
PHASE MARGIN The amount of additional phase shift in degrees that can be added to the
loop before the closed-loop system becomes unstable.
It is the amount of additional phase lag at the gain cross-over frequency
required to bring the system to the verge of instability.
Gain cross-over frequency is the frequency at which the open loop transfer
function is unity (or the frequency at which the gain in dB is zero).
Phase margin = 180 + gc
gc  G ( j gc )
Typical gain – phase characteristics of a feedback control system is shown below.
EXPRESSION FOR RESONANT FREQUENCY

The closed loop transfer function of a standard second-order system is
C (s) n2
M (s)   2
R ( s ) s  2  n s   n 2
The sinusoidal transfer function is given by
Page 112 of 187

n2 1 1
M ( j )   
  2  j 2 n    n 2   
2
        
2
   j 2   1 1  j 2   
 n   n   n   n 
Let u  
n
1 1
M ( j )  
1  j 2 u  u 2
1  u  j 2 u
2
Magnitude M ( j )  1
1  u    2 u  2 2 2
M ( j ) is maximum when 1  u    2  u  is minimum or when its derivative is zero.

2 2 2
d  1  u    2  u  
2 2 2

du
   
   4 u 1  u  4 u  2  0 2
4 u 1  u    4  u   2 
2
1  u 2  2 2
u 2  1  2 2
2
 r 
  1  2
2

 n 
 r   n 1  2 2
EXPRESSION FOR RESONANT PEAK

At resonant frequency, M ( j )  M r
1
M ( j ) 
1  u    2 u 
2 2 2
Resonant peak, M  1 1 1
 
 
r
4   4   8 2 1   2
1  (1  2 ) 
2 2 4 2 4
2
 2 ( 1  2 2 )
1
Mr 
2 1   2
EXPRESSION FOR BAND WIDTH
At cut-off frequency, M ( j )  1 1

1  u    2 u  2
2 2 2
1  u    2 u 
2 2
2
2
1  2 u 2  u 4  4 2 u 2  2
u 4  2(1  2 2 ) u 2  1  0
u 2  (1  2 2 )  (1  2  2 ) 2  1  (1  2 2 )  4 4  4 2  2
1
When M ( j )  ,   b
2
Page 113 of 187

 b   n (1  2 2 )  4 4  4  2  2
CORRELATION BETWEEN TIME AND FREQUENCY RESPONSES
TIME RESPONSE FREQUENCY RESPONSE

SPECIFICATION SPECIFICATION
d  n 1   2  r   n 1  2 2
 1

1 2 Mr 
Mp e 2 1   2
Note 1
When   1  0.707 ,  r   n 1  2 2  0 ; M r  1
1
2 2 1   2
Note 2 When   0.707 , there is no resonant peak and  r  0 .
Note 3 When 0    0.707 , M r  1 and  r   n .
Note 4 When   0 , M r  and  r   n .
Note 5 BW decreases as  increases.
100
Find the resonant peak and resonant frequency of a unity feedback system with G ( s )  .
s ( s  10)
G (s) 100
M (s)   2
1  G ( s ) H ( s ) s  10 s  100
C (s) n2
 2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2
 n  10 rad/sec
  0.5
Resonant peak, M r  1 1
  1.154
2 1   2
2  0.5 1  0.5 2
Resonant frequency,  r   n 1  2 2  10  1  2  0.5 2  7.071 rad/sec
Find the resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth of a unity feedback system with
36
G (s)  .
s ( s  8)
G (s) 36
M (s)   2
1  G ( s ) H ( s ) s  8 s  36
C (s) n2
 2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2
 n  6 rad/sec
Page 114 of 187

  0.667
Resonant peak, M r  1 1
  1.006
2 1   2
2  0.667 1  0.667 2
Resonant frequency,  r   n 1  2 2  6  1  2  0.667 2  1.99 rad/sec
Bandwidth,  b   n (1  2  2 )  4 4  4  2  2 
 6 (1  2  0.667 2 )  4  0.667 4  4  0.667 2  2

 6.339 rad/sec
A second order system has overshoot of 50% and period of oscillation 0.2s in step response.
Determine resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth.
1

1 12
e  0.5
1
   0.6931
112
  0.2154
1
fd   5 Hz
0.2
 d  2    5  31.41rad/sec
d  n 1   2  31.41
n  32.16rad/sec
Resonant peak, M r  1
 2.377
2 1   2
Resonant frequency,  r   n 1  2 2  30.64 rad/sec
Bandwidth,  b   n (1  2  2 )  4  4  4  2  2  48.3rad/sec
Page 115 of 187

BODE PLOT
Magnitude plot - Plot of 20 log G ( j ) against log 
Phase plot – Plot of  G ( j ) against log 
K (1  sT1 )
Consider an open loop transfer function, G ( s ) 
s (1  sT2 )(1  sT3 )
K (1  jT1 )
Frequency response, G ( j ) 
j (1  jT2 )(1  jT3 )
20 log G ( j )  20 log K  20 log 1   2T1 2  20 log   20 log 1   2T2 2  20 log 1   2T3 2
 G ( j )  0  tan  1  T1  90  tan  1  T 2  tan  1  T3
The four different kinds of factors that may occur in a transfer function are as follows:-
1. Constant gain K
2. Poles or zeros at the origin
3. Poles or zeros on the real axis
4. Complex conjugate poles
BASIC FACTORS of G(j)
1 Constant Gain K G ( s )  K
G ( j )  K
20 log G ( j )  20 log K  A ; has constant magnitude
Phase angle,    G ( j )  0
When K > 1, A is positive
When K = 1, A = 0
When K < 1, A is negative
2 1
G (s) 
s
1
G ( j ) 
j
1
20 log G ( j )  A  20 log   20 log 

Phase angle,    G ( j )   90 
When  = 0.1, A = 20 dB
When  = 1, A = 0 dB
When  = 10, A = -20 dB
When  = 100, A = -40 dB
Page 116 of 187

As the frequency increases by a factor of 10, the corresponding magnitude in dB increases by a factor
of 20.
An interval of two frequencies with a ratio equal to 10 is called a decade.
An interval of two frequencies with a ratio equal to 2 is called a octave.
A Vs log  is a straight line with slope equal to -20dB/decade.
3 1
G (s) 
sn
1
G ( j ) 
 j 
n
1
20 log G ( j )  A  20 log   20 n log 
n
Phase angle,    G ( j )   n 90 
A Vs log  is a straight line with slope equal to -20ndB/decade.
4 G (s)  s
G ( j )  j
20 log G ( j )  A  20 log 
Phase angle,    G ( j )   90 
When  = 0.1, A = -20 dB
When  = 1, A = 0 dB
When  = 10, A = +20 dB
When  = 100, A = +40 dB
A Vs log  is a straight line with slope equal to +20dB/decade.
5 G (s)  s n
Page 117 of 187

G ( j )   j 
n
20 log G ( j )  A  20 log  n  20 n log 

Phase angle,    G ( j )  n 90 
A Vs log  is a straight line with slope equal to +20ndB/decade.
6 1
G (s) 
1  sT
1
G ( j ) 
1  j T
1
G ( j ) 
1   2T 2
 G ( j )   tan  1  T
1
A  20 log G ( j )  20 log   20 log 1   2 T 2
1  T 2 2
Case 1:  T  1 (for low frequency)

 2T 2 is neglected
A   20 log 1  0
Case 2:  T  1 (for high frequency)
A   20 log  T
(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = -20dB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line
with slope -20dB/decade)
Magnitude plot is a horizontal line of 0dB when  T  1 .
Magnitude plot is a straight line with slot -20dB/decade when  T   1 .
These two straight lines meet at a point   1 which is called corner frequency.
T
Note: Bode plots constructed using straight lines are called asymptotic (approximate) plots. These
plots are not correct at or near corner frequencies.
7 1
G (s) 
(1  sT ) m
1
G ( j ) 
1  j T 
m
 G ( j )   m tan  1  T
A  20 log G ( j )   20 m log 1   2T 2
Page 118 of 187

A   20 m log 1  0
A   20 m log  T
(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = -20mdB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line
with slope -20mdB/decade)
Magnitude plot is a straight line with slot -20mdB/decade when  T  1 .
8 G ( s )  1  sT
G ( j )  1  j T
G ( j )  1   2 T 2
 G ( j )  tan  1  T
A  20 log G ( j )  20 log 1   2T 2
A  20 log 1  0
A  20 log  T
(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = 20dB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line with
slope 20dB/decade)
Magnitude plot is a straight line with slot 20dB/decade when  T   1 .
Page 119 of 187

9 G ( s )  1  sT 
m
G ( j )  1  j T 
m
 G ( j )  m tan  1  T
A  20 log G ( j )  20 m log 1   2T 2
A  20 m log 1  0
A  20 m log  T
(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = 20mdB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line
with slope 20mdB/decade)
Magnitude plot is a straight line with slot 20mdB/decade when  T   1 .
10 1
G (s) 
s T  2 Ts  1
2 2
1
G ( j ) 
  T  j 2 T  1
2 2
1
G ( j ) 
1   
2
2
T 2
 4 2  2 T 2
2 T
 G ( j )   tan  1
1   2T 2
1
A  20 log G ( j )  20 log
1   T 2   4 2 2T 2
2 2

A   20 log 1  0
Case 2:  T   1 (for high frequency)
1   T 2    4T 4
2 2
Page 120 of 187

4 2 2T 2 is negligible compared to  4T 4
1
A   20 log   40 log  T
 T22
(When  T  1 , A = 0 dB and when  T  10 , A = -40dB. Hence, A Vs log T is a straight line

with slope -40dB/decade)
2000
Construct the Bode pot for a unity feedback control system having, G ( s )  .
s ( s  1)( s  100)
2000
G (s) 
s ( s  1)( s  100)
Converting to time-constant form,
20
G (s) 
s (1  s )(1  0.01s )
20
Sinusoidal transfer function, G ( j ) 
j (1  j )(1  j 0.01 )
Corner
Factor frequency slope Net slope Frequency Range
rad/s
K = 20 - 0 0 0
20 - -20 -20  = 0.5 rad/s to  = 1 rad/s
j A = 20log20 – 20log
A = 32dB to 26dB
1 1 -20 -40  = 1 rad/s to  = 100 rad/s
1  j
1 100 -20 -60  = 100 rad/s to  = ∞
1  j 0.01
Note: In second column, the corner frequency should be arranged in increasing order.
Recheck:-
 rad/s A in dB
 = 0.5 A = 20log20 – 20log = 32dB
 = c1 = 1 A = 20log20 – 20log = 26dB
 = c1 = 100 A = 20log20 – 20log - 20log = -54dB
Page 121 of 187

 = c1 = 200 A = 20log20 – 20log - 20log - 20log0.01 = -72dB

 = gc , A = 0 20log20 – 20log - 20log = 0; gc = 4.47 rad/s
   G ( j )   90  tan  1   tan  1 0.01

 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1 5 10 20 50 100 200 ∞
 -90 -96 -101 -112 -129 -136 -172 -180 -188 -205 -224 -243 -270
At  = pc ,  = -180; pc = 10rad/s
Note: Use CALC button of fx-991ES or EX Casio calculator to find  in one step.
At  = pc = 10 rad/s, A = 20log20 – 20log - 20log = -14dB

At  = gc = 4.47 rad/s,    90  tan  1   tan  1 0.01 = -170dB
Gain Margin GM = -A at pc = +14dB

Phase Margin PM = 180 + gc = 180 – 170 = 10˚
Both GM and PM are positive (or gc < pc). The system is absolutely stable.
10
Sketch the Bode pot of the open loop transfer function, G ( s )  .
s (1  0.5 s )(1  0.1s )
Page 122 of 187

10
G (s) 
s (1  0.5 s )(1  0.1s )
10
j (1  j 0.5 )(1  j 0.1 )
Corner
rad/s
K = 10 - 0 0 0
10 - -20 -20  = 1 rad/s to  = 2 rad/s
j A = 20log10 – 20log
A = 20dB to 14dB
1 2 -20 -40  = 2 rad/s to  = 10 rad/s
1  j 0.5
1 10 -20 -60  = 10 rad/s to  = ∞
1  j 0.1
Note: In second column, the corner frequency should be arranged in increasing order.
Recheck:-
 rad/s A in dB
=1 A = 20log10 – 20log = 20dB
 = c1 = 2 A = 20log10 – 20log = 14dB
 = c1 = 10 A = 20log10 – 20log - 20log0.5 = -14dB
 = c1 = 50 A = 20log10 – 20log - 20log0.5 - 20log0.1 = -56dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log10 – 20log - 20log0.5 = 0; gc = 4.47 rad/s
   G ( j )   90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.1

 1 5 10 20 50 100 200 ∞
 -122 -185 -214 -238 -257 -264 -267 -270
At  = pc ,  = -180;    G ( j )   90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.1   180  , pc = 4.47rad/s
Note: Use CALC button of fx-991ES or EX Casio calculator to find  in one step.
Here, gc = pc = 4.47rad/s, hence the system is marginally stable.
Page 123 of 187

36(1  0.2 s )
Draw the Bode pot of the open loop transfer function, G ( s )  .
s 2 (1  0.05 s )(1  0.01s )
36(1  0.2 s )
G (s) 
s (1  0.05 s )(1  0.01s )
2
36(1  j 0.2 )
( j ) (1  j 0.05 )(1  j 0.01 )
2
Corner
rad/s
K = 36 - 0 0 0
36 - -40 -40  = 2 rad/s to  = 5 rad/s
 j 
2
A = 20log36 – 40log
A = 19dB to 3dB
1  j 0.2 5 20 -20  = 5 rad/s to  = 20 rad/s
1 20 -20 -40  = 20 rad/s to  = 100

1  j 0.05
1 100 -20 -60  = 100 rad/s to  = ∞
1  j 0.01
Page 124 of 187

Recheck:-
 rad/s A in dB
=2 A = 20log36 – 40log = 19dB
 = c1 = 5 A = 20log36 – 40log = 3dB
 = c1 = 20 A = 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 = -8.9dB
 = c1 = 100 A = 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 - 20log0.05 = -36.8dB
 = c1 = 200 A = 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 - 20log0.05 - 20log0.01 = -54.9dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 = 0; gc = 7.2 rad/s
   G ( j )   180  tan  1 0.2  tan  1 0.05  tan  1 0.01

 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1 5 10 20 50 100 200 ∞
 -180 -179 -178 -177 -174 -172 -152 -149 -160 -190 -217 -239 -270
At  = pc ,  = -180;    180  tan  1 0.2   tan  1 0.05  tan  1 0.01   180 , pc = 37.4rad/s
At  = pc = 37.4 rad/s, A = 20log36 – 40log + 20log0.2 - 20log0.05 = -19.8dB

At  = gc = 7.2 rad/s,    180  tan  1 0.2  tan  1 0.05  tan  1 0.01 = -149dB
Gain Margin GM = -A at pc = +19.8dB

Page 125 of 187

10( s  3)
s ( s  2)( s 2  4 s  100)
10  3(1  0.33s ) 0.15(1  0.33s )

G (s)  
2  100  s (1  0.5 s )(1  0.04 s  0.01s ) s (1  0.5 s )(1  0.04 s  0.01s 2 )
2
0.15(1  j 0.33 )
Sinusoidal transfer function, G ( s ) 
j (1  j 0.5 )(1  j 0.04  0.01 2 )
Corner
rad/s
K = 0.15 - 0 0 0
0.15 - -20 -20  = 0.1 rad/s to  = 2 rad/s
j A = 20log0.15 – 20log
A = 3.5dB to -22dB
1 2 -20 -40  = 2 rad/s to  = 3
1  j 0.5
1  j 0.33 3 20 -20  = 3 rad/s to  = 10 rad/s
1 10 -40 -60  = 10 rad/s to  = ∞

1  j 0.04  0.01 2
T2 = 0.01; T = 0.1
Recheck:-
 rad/s A in dB
=1 A = 20log0.15 – 20log = 3.5dB
 = c1 = 2 A = 20log0.15 – 20log = -22dB
 = c1 = 3 A = 20log0.15 – 20log - 20log0.5 = -30dB
 = c1 = 10 A = 20log0.15 – 20log - 20log0.5 + 20log0.33 = -40dB
 = c1 = 20 A = 20log0.15 – 20log - 20log0.5 + 20log0.33 - 40log0.1 = -58dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log0.15 – 20log = 0; gc = 0.15 rad/s
0.04
   G ( j )   90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.33  tan 1
1  0.01 2
0.04
Note: For   10 , use equation    90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.33  tan  1
1  0.01 2
0.04
For   10 , use equation    90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.33  180  tan  1
1  0.01 2
Remember:
Quadrant 1 1 + j   tan  1 
Quadrant 2 -1 + j   180  tan  1 (   )
Quadrant 3 -1 - j   180  tan  1 ( )
Page 126 of 187

Quadrant 4 1 - j    tan  1 ( )
 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1 5 9 20 50 100 200 ∞

 -90 -91 -92 -95 -99 -101 -114 -158 -258 -266 -268 -269 -270
At  = pc ,  = -180;
0.04
   90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.33  tan  1   180 , pc = 9.8rad/s
1  0.01 2
At  = pc = 9.8 rad/s, A = 20log0.15 – 20log - 20log0.5 + 20log0.33 = -40dB

0.04
At  = gc = 0.15 rad/s,    90  tan  1 0.5  tan  1 0.33  tan  1 = -92dB
1  0.01 2
Gain Margin GM = -A at pc = +40dB

25( s  1)
s ( s  2)( s 2  2 s  16)
Page 127 of 187

Ke 0.1s
For the system whose open loop transfer function is given as, G ( s )  . Find the
s (1  s )(1  0.1s )
value of K in order to get a phase margin of 40˚.
K
For the system whose open loop transfer function is given as, G ( s )  . Find the value
s ( s  1)( s  5)
of K in order to get a phase margin of 40˚.
10 K
For the system whose open loop transfer function is given as, G ( s )  . Find the
s (1  0.1s )(1  0.5 s )
value of K in order to get a gain margin of 10dB.
POLAR PLOT
A sinusoidal transfer function G(j) having magnitude |G(j)| and phase angle  G(j) can be plotted
on polar co-ordinates varying  from 0 to ∞.
Polar plot is the locus of phasor G ( j )  G ( j ) as  is varied from zero to infinity.
The polar plot is very useful in determining the stability of a closed loop system from its open-loop
frequency response.
Note: For closed-loop system stability, the open-loop transfer function is G(s)H(s) instead of G(s).
PROCEDURE TO SKETCH THE POLAR PLOT

1 Determine the transfer function G(s) of the system
2 Put s = j in the transfer function to obtain G(j)
3 Calculate the magnitudes of G(j) at limiting frequencies of →0 and →∞.
4 Calculate the phase angles of G(j) at limiting frequencies of →0 and →∞.
5 Calculate the value of  at which the polar plot crosses the real axis and hence the magnitude
of G(j) at the point.
6 Calculate the value of  at which the polar plot crosses the imaginary axis and hence the
magnitude of G(j) at the point.
7 Sketch the polar plot
1 Polar plot of G ( s )  1
s
1
G ( j ) 
j
1
G ( j ) 

 G ( j )  90
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -90˚
∞ 0 -90˚
2 Polar plot of G ( s )  s
Page 128 of 187

G ( j )  j
G ( j )  
 G ( j )  90 
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 0 90˚
∞ ∞ 90˚
s
1
G ( j ) 
 
2
j
1
G ( j ) 
2
 G ( j )   180
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -180˚
∞ 0 -180˚
1  sT
1
G ( j ) 
1  j T
1
G ( j ) 
1   2T 2
G ( j )   tan 1 T
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 1 0˚
1/T 0.707 -45˚
∞ 0 -90˚
5 Polar plot of G ( s )  1  sT
G ( j )  1  j T (Real part is always 1)
G ( j )  1   2T 2
G ( j )  tan 1 T
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 1 0˚
∞ ∞ 90˚
s (1  sT )
1
G ( j ) 
j (1  jT )
Page 129 of 187

1
G ( j ) 
 1   2T 2
G ( j )  90  tan 1 T
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -90˚
1/T 0.707T -135˚
∞ 0 -180˚
Note: G ( j )  1  j (1  jT )  j   2T
  2
j (1  jT ) j (1  jT )   j (1  jT )  (1   2T 2 )
 2T j T 
   j 2
 (1   2T 2 )  2 (1   2T 2 ) 1   2T 2
2
 (1   2T 2 )
When  = 0, real part is -T and imaginary part is ∞.
(1  sT1 )(1  sT2 )
1
G ( j ) 
(1  jT1 )(1  jT2 )
1
G ( j ) 
1   T1  1   2T2 2
2 2
 G ( j )   tan  1  T1  tan 1  T2
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 1 0˚
∞ 0 -180˚
50
Sketch the polar plot for the open loop transfer function G ( s )  .
( s  1)( s  2)
25
G (s) 
(1  s )(1  0.5s )
25
G ( j ) 
(1  j )(1  j 0.5 )
25
G ( j ) 
1   2  1  (0.5 ) 2
 G ( j ))   tan 1   tan 1 0.5
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 25 0
∞ 0 -180
Page 130 of 187

Meeting point on imaginary axis, G ( j )   tan 1   tan 1 0.5  90 ;  2;

25 25
G ( j )    11.785
1    1  (0.5 )
2 2
1  2  1  0.52  2
(1  sT1 )(1  sT2 )(1  sT3 )
1
G ( j ) 
(1  jT1 )(1  jT2 )(1  jT3 )
1
G ( j ) 
1   T1  1   2T2 2  1   2T3 2
2 2
 G ( j )   tan 1  T1  tan 1 T2  tan 1  T3

 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 1 0˚
∞ 0 -270˚
40
(1  2 s )(1  3s )(1  4 s )
40
G ( s) 
(1  2 s )(1  3s )(1  4 s )
40
G ( j ) 
(1  j 2 )(1  j 3 )(1  j 4 )
40
G ( j ) 
1  4 2  1  9 2  1  16 2
 G ( j ))   tan 1 2  tan 1 3  tan 1 4
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 40 0
∞ 0 -270
Meeting point on imaginary axis, G ( j ))   tan 1 2  tan 1 3  tan 1 4  90 ;
  0.1961 rad/sec;
40 40
G ( j )  
1  4  1  9  1  16
2 2 2
1  4  0.1961  1  9  0.19612  1  16  0.19612
2
=25.254
Page 131 of 187

Meeting point on negative real axis, G ( j ))   tan 1 2  tan 1 3  tan 1 4  180 ;

  0.6124 rad/sec;
40 40
G ( j )  
1  4  1  9  1  16
2 2 2
1  4  0.6124  1  9  0.6124 2  1  16  0.6124 2
2
=4.571
s (1  sT )
2
1
G ( j ) 
( j ) 2 (1  jT )
1
G ( j ) 
 1   2T 2
2
G ( j )  180  tan 1 T
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -180˚
∞ 0 -270˚
Note: G ( j )  1  (1  jT )  1  j T
 2  2
 (1  jT )  (1  jT )  (1  jT )  (1   2T 2 )
2
1 T
 2  j
 (1   T )
2 2
 (1   2T 2 )
When  = 0, both real part and imaginary part are ∞.
s (1  sT1 )(1  sT2 )
1
G ( j ) 
( j )(1  jT1 )(1  jT2 )
1
G ( j ) 
 1   T1  1   2T2 2
2 2
 G ( j )   90  tan  1  T1  tan 1 T2

 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -90˚
∞ 0 -270˚
s 2 (1  sT1 )(1  sT2 )
1
G ( j ) 
( j ) (1  jT1 )(1  jT2 )
2
Page 132 of 187

1
G ( j ) 
 2
1   T1  1   2T2 2
2 2
 G ( j )   180  tan 1  T1  tan 1  T2

 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -180˚
∞ 0 -360˚
10
s ( s  1)( s  2)
5
G ( s) 
s (1  s )(1  0.5s )
10
G ( j ) 
j (1  j )(1  j 0.5 )
10
G ( j ) 
 1   2  1  (0.5 ) 2
G ( j ))  90  tan 1   tan 1 0.5
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -90
∞ 0 -270
Meeting point on negative real axis,  G ( j )  90  tan 1   tan 1 0.5  180 ;
 2;
5 5
G ( j )    1.667
 1    1  (0.5 )
2 2
2  1  2  1  0.5 2  2
MINIMUM PHASE TRANSFER FUNCTION

A transfer function G(s) is minimum phase if both G(s) and 1/G(s) are causal and stable. A minimum
phase transfer function has all its poles and zeros in the left-half of the s-plane. (It means that the
system does not have zeros or poles on the right-half s-plane or on the j axis, excluding the origin.)
Moreover, it does not have delay.
Page 133 of 187

NON-MINIMUM PHASE TRANSFER FUNCTION

Non-minimum Phase systems are causal and stable systems whose inverses are causal but unstable.
When a transfer function has a zero in the right-half of the s-plane, it is called non-minimum phase
transfer function.
Non-minimum phase systems are much more difficult to control than minimum phase system.
ALL-PASS FUNCTION
If all the zeros of a transfer function lie on the right half of the s-plane, all poles lie on the left half of
the s-plane and the location of every pole zero pair is symmetric about the j axis, the transfer
function is termed as all-pass function.
An all-pass system is a system that has a magnitude response of unity, but which provides a phase
shift.
( s  a ) ( s  b)
Example is G ( s )  
( s  a) ( s  b)
( j  a ) ( j  b )
G ( j )   1
( j  a ) ( j  b )
 
 G ( j )  2 tan 1  2 tan 1
a b
TRANSPORTATION LAG
The transportation lag is the delay between the time an input signal is applied to a system and the time
the system reacts to that input signal. Transportation lags are common in industrial applications. They
are often called “dead time”.
Time delay systems are of non-minimum phase behaviour.
 sT
The transfer function of the transportation lag is given by G ( s )  e , where T is the delay.
 j T
G ( j )  e
G ( j )  e  jT  1
Introduction of transportation lag has no effect on magnitude plot.
G ( j )  T radians =  57.3T 
Page 134 of 187

RELATIVE STABILITY USING POLAR PLOT (FOR MINIMUM-PHASE SYSTEMS)
GAIN CROSS-OVER FREQUENCY AND PHASE CROSS-OVER FREQUENCY
The frequency at which the magnitude of the open-loop transfer function is 1 is called the gain cross-
over frequency gc.
The frequency at which the phase angle of the open-loop transfer function is -180˚ is called the phase
cross-over frequency pc.
A circle with unit radius is drawn having centre at origin in G(j)-plane (ReG(j)Vs ImG(j)). The
point of intersection of the circle with polar plot gives the point at which |G(j)| = 1 and the
corresponding frequency is gc.
At the point of intersection of polar plot with negative real axis gives the point at which G(j) = -
180˚ and the corresponding frequency is pc.
The point -1+j0 on the negative real axis is called critical point.
GAIN MARGIN & PHASE MARGIN

As the polar plot gets closer to -1+j0 point, the relative stability reduces and the system tends towards
instability. In frequency domain, relative stability is characterised by gain margin and phase margin.
Page 135 of 187

Gain margin (GM) is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of the open-loop transfer function
evaluated at the phase cross-over frequency pc.
It is nothing but the margin in gain which can be introduced in the system till the system reaches on
the verge of instability.
1 1
GM   where  G ( j pc ) H ( j pc )  180 
G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) a
1 1
Gain Margin in dB is GM  20 log10  20 log10  20 log10 a
G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) a
If a  1 , GM is negative, the system is unstable.
If a  1 , GM is positive, the system is stable.
Phase margin (PM) is the amount of phase lag that can be introduced into the system at the gain
cross-over frequency gc to drive the system to the verge of instability.
The value of phase margin can be obtained from the following relation,
PM  180    G ( j gc ) H ( j gc )  180    gc
For a stable system, the phase margin is positive.
The critical point -1+j0 is outside the polar plot for stable system whereas it is inside the plot for unstable
system. If the critical point is enclosed by the polar plot, the system is unstable. If it is not enclosed by
the polar plot, the system is stable. (Note: A point will be enclosed by the polar plot when it lies to the
right-hand side during travelling along the polar plot from the point corresponding to  = 0 to point
corresponding to  = ∞)
If  gc   pc , system is stable.
If  gc   pc , system is marginally stable.
If  gc   pc , system is unstable.
Note: For non-minimum phase systems, a system may be stable even when the phase-crossover point
is to the left of -1+j0 point and thus a negative gain margin may still correspond to a stable system.
75
Sketch the polar plot for the open loop transfer function G ( s )  . Determine the gain
( s  3) 3 ( s  1)
margin and phase margin.
75 75 2.778
G ( s)   
( s  3) ( s  1) 27(1  0.333s ) (1  s ) (1  0.333s )3 (1  s )
3 3
2.778
G ( j ) 
(1  j 0.333 )3 (1  j )
2.778
G ( j ) 
1  (0.333 )2   1   2
3/ 2
G ( j ))  3  tan 1 0.333  tan 1 
Page 136 of 187

 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 2.778 0
∞ 0 -360
Meeting point on negative real axis, G ( j ))  3  tan 1 0.333  tan 1   180 ;
 pc  2.326 rad/sec;
Magnitude at  pc  2.326 rad/sec;
2.778
G ( j pc )   0.542
1  (0.333  2.326) 
2 3/2
 1  2.326 2
Gain Margin, GM  20 log10 G ( j pc )  5.32 dB

Meeting point on negative imaginary axis,  G ( j ))  3  tan 1 0.333  tan 1   90 ;
  0.876 rad/sec;
Magnitude at   0.876 rad/sec;
2.778
G ( j )   1.85
 
3/ 2
1  (0.333  0.876) 2  1  0.876 2
Meeting point on positive imaginary axis, G ( j ))  3  tan 1 0.333  tan 1   270 ;
  5.941 rad/sec;
Magnitude at   5.941 rad/sec;
2.778
G ( j )   0.06
1  (0.333  5.941) 2   1  5.9412
3/ 2
Meeting point of polar plot on unit circle,

2.778
G ( j )  1
 
3/ 2
1  (0.333 ) 2  1 2
 gc  1.614 rad/sec;
 G ( j gc ))  3  tan 1 0.333 gc  tan 1  gc  3  tan 1 0.333  1.614  tan 1 1.614  143
Phase Margin, PM = 180 +(-143) = 37˚
Both GM and PM are positive. Hence, the system is stable.
Page 137 of 187

1
Sketch the polar plot for the open loop transfer function G ( s )  . Determine the gain
s (1  s )(1  2 s )
margin and phase margin.
1
G (s) 
s (1  s )(1  2 s )
1
G ( j ) 
j (1  j )(1  j 2 )
1
G ( j ) 
 1   2  1  4 2
G ( j ))  90  tan 1   tan 1 2
 G ( j )  G ( j )
0 ∞ -90
∞ 0 -270
Meeting point on negative real axis,  G ( j )  90  tan 1   tan 1 2  180 ;
 pc  0.707 rad/sec;
1 1
G ( j pc )    0.667
 pc 1   pc  1  4 pc
2 2
0.707  1  0.707 2  1  4  0.707 2
Gain Margin, GM   20 log10 G ( j pc )  3.517 dB

Meeting point of polar plot on unit circle,
1
G ( j )  1
  1    1  4 2
2
 gc  0.5716 rad/sec;
G ( j gc )  90  tan 1  gc  tan 1 2 gc  169
Phase Margin, PM = 180 +(-169) = 11˚
Both GM and PM are positive. Hence, the system is stable.
Page 138 of 187

NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION

The Nyquist criterion is a semi-graphical method that determines the stability of a closed loop system
by investigating the properties of the frequency-domain plot of the loop transfer function G(s)H(s).
Using Routh stability criterion, only the absolute stability of a system can be found out. But Nyquist
stability criterion provides, in addition to the absolute stability, the information about the relative
stability of a system. (Absolute stability means whether the system is stable or unstable. Relative
stability gives the degree of stability or how close it is to instability.)
RELATION BETWEEN POLES AND ZEROS OF OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS
Consider the open loop transfer function,
N (s) ( s  a )( s  b )
G (s)H (s)   where a1 & b1 are open loop poles
D ( s ) ( s  a1 )( s  b1 )
Closed loop transfer function is given by
C (s) G (s)

R (s) 1  G (s) H (s)
Closed loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation, 1  G ( s ) H ( s )  0
N1(s)
F (s)  1  G (s)H (s) 
D1 ( s )
Poles of closed loop transfer function are given by F ( s )  0 or N 1 ( s )  0 .
Hence, poles of the closed-loop transfer function are the zeros of q(s).
1 Poles of F ( s )  1  G ( s ) H ( s ) are the open loop poles
2 Zeros of F ( s )  1  G ( s ) H ( s ) are the closed loop poles
3 For a stable system, the zeros of F(s) should not lie in the RHP.
2( s  1)
Given G ( s )  . Is the open loop system stable? Is the closed loop system stable?
( s  1)
2( s  1)
G (s) 
( s  1)
Open loop system has pole in the right-hand side of s-plane. Hence it is not stable.
2
( s  1)
C (s) 2( s  1)
  3
R ( s ) s  1  2( s  1) 1
s
3
Closed system is stable because only pole is at s = -1/3.
2( s  1)
Given G ( s )  . Is the open loop system stable? Is the closed loop system stable?
( s  1)
2( s  1)
G (s) 
( s  1)
Open loop system has pole in the right-hand side of s-plane. Hence it is not stable.
2
( s  1)
C (s) 2( s  1)
  3
R ( s ) s  1  2( s  1) 1
s
3
Page 139 of 187

Closed system is unstable because there is a pole in the right-hand side of s-plane.
BASIC DEFINITIONS:
Contour map: - Contour map is a contour or trajectory in one plane mapped or translated into another
plane by a relation F(s). This process is called mapping.
For example, let us take a pole in the s-plane s o  1  j 2 and let the function be F ( s )  s 2  5 .
Substituting s o  1  j 2 in the function F ( s )  s 2  5 gives
F ( s o )  s 2  5  (1  2 j ) 2  5  2  4 j
Closed contour: - A closed contour in a complex plane is a continuous curve beginning and ending at
the same point.
Enclosed: - A point or region is said to be enclosed by a closed path if the point or region lies to the
right of the path when the path is traversed in the prescribed direction.
In figure (1), point B is enclosed; but A is not enclosed. In figure (2), point A is enclosed but B is not
enclosed.
Encircled: - A point is said to be encircled by a closed path if it lies inside that closed path. Point B in
figure (1) and (2) are encircled.
No. of encirclements N: -
Page 140 of 187

The number of clockwise encirclements of origin in figure (1) is 3 and in figure (2) is 0.
Principle of argument or mapping theorem

Let F(s) be a single-valued function that has a finite number of poles in the s-plane. Suppose that an
arbitrary closed path C is chosen in the s-plane so that the path does not go through any of the poles
or zeros of F(s), the corresponding Cs locus mapped in the F(s) plane will encircle the origin as many
times as the difference between the number of zeros and poles of F(s) that are encircled by the s-
plane locus C.
In equation form, the principle of argument is stated as

N=Z–P
where
N = number of encirclements of the origin made by the F(s) plane locus Cs
Z = number of zeros of F(s) encircled by the s-plane locus C in the s plane
P = number of poles of F(s) encircled by the s plane locus C in the s plane
For Z = 4, P = 2, N = 2 → 2 clockwise encirclements

Z = 2, P = 2, N = 0 → No encirclements
Z = 2, P = 4, N = -2 → 2 counter-clockwise encirclements
Page 141 of 187

Page 142 of 187

For stability of a closed-loop system, the zeros of the characteristic equation

F ( s )  1  G ( s ) H ( s )  0 must lie in the left half of the imaginary axis in s – plane.
If any one zero of 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) is in the right half of the s-plane then the system is unstable.
Note: Zeros of 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) are the poles of the closed-loop transfer function.
Nyquist suggested that rather than analyzing whether all the zeros are located in the left half of the s
plane, it is better to examine the presence of any one zero of 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) in the right half of the s
plane making the system unstable.
Since G ( s ) H ( s )   1 , it is convenient to choose the

G ( s ) H ( s ) plane instead of F(s) plane for investigating
the stability. Hence, the relation N = Z – P can still be
used for finding the unstable zeros of F(s) where N is the
encirclement of the point (-1 + j0) in the GH plane by the
Nyquist path CGH.
SELECTION OF NYQUIST CONTOUR

The Nyquist contour is selected such that it encloses the entire right-half side of the imaginary axis in
the s-plane. It should enclose all the poles and zeroes present on the right-half of the s-plane except the
singular points. The singular points are considered as the points lying on the imaginary axis. Hence,
these points are avoided.
If the transfer function has a pole at origin, the contour encloses all the poles and zeroes except the
origin.
If there are no poles on the imaginary axis, the contour will appear as:
Page 143 of 187

If there are poles on the imaginary axis and origin, the avoided points (origin and imaginary) in the
contour are shown below:
MAPPING A CONTOUR
A singular point (point on the imaginary axis) is not
analytical. Hence, it is generally avoided. The
Nyquist contour is mapped to determine the
encirclement of the point -1 + j0. The contour is
drawn based on the transfer function G(s)H(s).
Generally, there are four sections C1, C2, C3, and C4.
The Nyquist criterion plot is divided into four
sections so that the mapping can be easily carried out
section wise. At last, all the sections are combined to
produce the desired Nyquist plot. Let the four
sections be:
Mapping of section C1
The value of ω in section C1 ranges from 0 to +∞. The contour will be drawn in G(s)H(s) plane with
respect to the above range, and it will be the locus plot of G(jω)H(jω). For mapping section C1, calculate
the values of G(jω)H(jω) for various values of  and sketch the actual locus of G(jω)H(jω).
Page 144 of 187

The section C2 is a semi-circle of infinite radius. Therefore every point on section C2 has infinite
magnitude but the angle varies from +90˚ through 0˚ to -90˚. The mapping of section C 2 from s-plane
to G(s)H(s) plane can be obtained by taking s  Lt R e j and varying  from +90˚ through 0˚ to -90˚.
R
In the third section C3, the value of ω ranges from -∞ to zero. The locus of the third section is just the
inverse of the polar plot of G(jω)H(jω). It is the inverse of the section C1. It is given by the mirror image
of the polar plot with respect to the real axis.
The section C4 of the Nyquist contour has a semicircle of zero radius. Every point on semicircle has
zero magnitude but the argument varied from -90˚ to +90˚. Hence the mapping of section C4 from s-
plane to G(s)H(s) plane can be obtained by s  Lt  e j substituting in G(s)H(s) and varying  from
 0
-90˚ to +90˚.
NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION
If the contour CGH of the open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s) in the G(s)H(s) plane corresponding
to the Nyquist contour in the s-plane encircles the point -1+j0 in the counter clockwise direction as
many as time as the right-half s-plane poles of G(s)H(s), then the closed-loop system is stable.
If P = number of poles of G(s)H(s) or F(s) in the right-half of the s-plane

N = number of clockwise encirclements of (-1+j0) point in the GH plane
Z = Number of zeros of F(s) = 1 + G(s)H(s) in the right half of the s-plane
To make a closed-loop system stable, there must not be any zero in the right-half of s-plane. Therefore,
Z = 0.
Z=P+N=0
If Z = P + N  0, closed loop system is unstable.
Note: Positive sign for clockwise encirclement and negative sign for anticlockwise encirclement.
50
Sketch the Nyquist plot for the open loop transfer function G ( s ) H ( s )  and hence
( s  1)( s  2)
determine the stability of the closed loop system by Nyquist criterion.
25
G ( s) H (s) 
(1  s )(1  0.5 s )
Open loop poles in right side of s–plane = P = 0
25
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
(1  j )(1  j 0.5 )
25
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
1   2  1  (0.5 ) 2
Page 145 of 187

G ( j ) H ( j )   tan 1   tan 1 0.5

Nyquist contour is
MAPPING OF C1 & C3
 G ( j ) H ( j )  G ( j ) H ( j )
0 25 0
∞ 0 -180
MAPPING OF C2
 
s  Lt Re j ;    to  clockwise
R  2 2
50 50 50
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  Re j   
(Re j  1)(Re j  2) Re j  Re j R 2 e j 2
Lt GH (Re j )  Lt  e  j 2
R   0
 Lt GH (Re j )
R 
 Lt  e  j
  0
2
 Lt  e  j
  0
2
C2 in s-plane is mapped into a circular arc of radius 0 at origin in the GH-plane.
Page 146 of 187

Meeting point on positive real axis,   0 ; G ( j ) H ( j )  25

Meeting point on imaginary axis,  G ( j ) H ( j )   tan 1   tan 1 0.5  90 ;   2 ;
25 25
G ( j ) H ( j )    11.785
1    1  (0.5 )
2 2
1  2  1  (0.5  2) 2
Point -1+j0 is not encircled by Nyquist plot. Hence, N = 0.

N = 0; P = 0
Z = P + N = 0; system is stable.
s2
Sketch the Nyquist plot for the open-loop transfer function G ( s) H ( s )  and hence
( s  1)( s  1)
s2 2(1  0.5 s )

G ( s) H (s)  
( s  1)( s  1) (1  s )( 1  s )
2(1  j 0.5 )
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
(1  j )( 1  j )
2 1  (0.5 ) 2 2 1  (0.5 ) 2
G ( j ) H ( j )  
1 2  1 2 1 2
 G ( j ) H ( j )  tan 1 0.5  tan 1   tan 1   180  tan 1 0.5  180
MAPPING OF C1 & C3
 G ( j ) H ( j )  G ( j ) H ( j )
0 2 -180˚
∞ 0 -90
MAPPING OF C2
 
R  2 2
Re j  2 Re j 1
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  Re j   
(Re  1)(Re  1) Re  Re j Re j
j j j
Lt GH (Re j )  Lt  e  j
R   0
R 
 Lt  e
 j
  0
2
2
 Lt  e
 j
  0
2
Page 147 of 187

Number of encirclements of point -1+j0, N = -1 (counter-clockwise)

P=1
50
Sketch the Nyquist plot for the open-loop transfer function G ( s) H ( s )  and hence
s ( s  5)
50 10
G ( s) H (s)  
s ( s  5) s (1  0.2 s )
10
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
j (1  j 0.2 )
10
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
  1  (0.2 ) 2
G ( j ) H ( j )  90  tan 1 0.2
MAPPING OF C1 & C3
 G ( j ) H ( j )  G ( j ) H ( j )
0 ∞ -90˚
∞ 0 -180
MAPPING OF C2
 
R  2 2
50 50 1
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  Re j   
Re j (Re j  5) Re j  Re j R 2 e j 2
Lt GH (Re j )  Lt  e  j 2
R   0
Page 148 of 187

R 
 Lt  e  j
  0
2
 Lt  e  j
  0
2
MAPPING OF C4
 
s  Lt  e j ;    to  clockwise
  2 2
50 50 10
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  e j     e  j
 e ( e  5)  e  5  e j
j j j
Lt GH ( e j )  e  j
 0
 Lt GH ( e j )
 0
 e
j
 2
2
 e
 j
 2
C4 in s-plane is mapped into a semicircle of infinite radius with angle varying from +/2 to -/2.
Number of encirclements of point -1+j0, N = 0.
Page 149 of 187

P=0
50
Sketch the Nyquist plot for the open-loop transfer function G ( s ) H ( s )  and hence
s ( s  4)( s  1)
50 12.5
G (s) H ( s)  
s ( s  4)( s  1) s (1  0.25 s )( 1  s )
12.5
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
j (1  j 0.25 )( 1  j )
12.5
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
  1  (0.25 ) 2  1   2
G ( j ) H ( j )  90  tan 1 0.25  tan 1   180  270  tan 1 0.25  tan 1 
MAPPING OF C1 & C3
 G ( j ) H ( j )  G ( j ) H ( j )
0 ∞ -270˚
∞ 0 -270
MAPPING OF C2
 
R  2 2
50 50 1
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  Re j  j j
j
 j j j
 3 j 3
Re (Re  4)(Re  1) Re  Re  Re R e
Lt GH (Re j )  Lt  e  j 3
R   0
R 
 Lt  e  j 3 / 2  Lt  e  j / 2
  0  0
2
 Lt  e  j 3 / 2  Lt  e  j / 2
  0  0
2
MAPPING OF C3
 
  2 2
50 50 12.5
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  e j     e  j (180  )
 e j ( e j  4)( e j  1)  e j  4  e j
Page 150 of 187

Lt GH ( e j )  e  j (180  )
 0
 Lt GH ( e j )
 0
 e
 j
 2
2
 e
 j
 2
C3 in s-plane is mapped into a semicircle of infinite radius with angle varying from -/2 to +/2.
Number of encirclements of point -1+j0, N = 1 (clockwise)

P=1
Z = P + N = 1 +1 = 2; system is unstable.
5( s  3)
s ( s  1)( s  1)
5( s  3) 5 / 3(1  0.333s )
G ( s) H ( s )  
s ( s  1)( s  1) s (1  s )( 1  s )
5 / 3( 1  j 0.333 )
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
j (1  j )( 1  j )
5 / 3 1  (0.333 ) 2
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
  1 2  1  2
G ( j ) H ( j )  180  tan 1 0.333  90  tan 1   (180  tan 1  )  90  tan 1 0.333
MAPPING OF C1 & C3
Page 151 of 187

 G ( j ) H ( j )  G ( j ) H ( j )
0 ∞ -90˚
∞ 0 -180
MAPPING OF C2
 
R  2 2
5(Re j  3) 5  Re j 1
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  Re j  jj j
 j j j
 2 j 2
Re (Re  4)(Re  1) Re  Re  Re R e
Lt GH (Re j )  Lt  e  j 2
R   0
R 
 Lt  e  j
  0
2
 Lt  e  j
  0
2
MAPPING OF C4
 
  2 2
5( e j  3) 5/3
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  e j    e  j
 e ( e  1)( e  1)  e j
j j j
Lt GH ( e j )  e  j
 0
 Lt GH ( e j )
 0
 e
 j
 2
2
 e
 j
 2
Page 152 of 187


P=1
Z = P + N = 1; system is unstable.
K (1  s )
Sketch the Nyquist plot for the open-loop transfer function G ( s) H ( s )  for K = 2
( s  2)( s  3)
and check whether the system is stable for this gain. Find the range of K for the system to be stable.
K (1  s )
G (s)H (s) 
( s  2)( s  3)
2(1  j )
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
(2  j )(3  j )
2 1 2
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
4  2  9  2
G ( j ) H ( j )   tan 1   tan 1 0.5  tan 1 0.33
MAPPING OF C1 & C3
 G ( j ) H ( j )  G ( j ) H ( j )
0 1/3 0˚
∞ 0 -270˚
MAPPING OF C2
 
R  2 2
2(1  Re j )  Re j 1
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  Re j   
(Re  2)(Re  3) Re j  Re j Re j
j j
Lt GH (Re j )  Lt  e  j (180  )
R   0
Page 153 of 187

R 
 Lt  e
 j
  0
2
2
 Lt  e
 j
  0
2

To find value of  and G ( j ) H ( j ) at the meeting point on real axis: -
G ( j ) H ( j )   tan 1   tan 1 0.5  tan 1 0.33  180
Hence,  = 3.318 rad/sec
2 1 2 2 1  3.318 2
G ( j ) H ( j )    0.4
4  2  9 2 4  3.3182  9  3.318 2

P=0
To find the value of K when  = 3.318 rad/s,
K 1 2 K 1  3.318 2
G ( j ) H ( j )   3.318    0.2 K
4 2  9  2 4  3.318 2  9  3.3182
N = 0 if 0.2K < 1
K<5
Hence, the system is stable for 0 < K < 5.
5
s ( s  1)( s  2)
5 2.5
G ( s) H ( s )  
s ( s  1)( s  2) s (1  s )(1  0.5 s )
Page 154 of 187


2.5
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
j (1  j )(1  j 0.5 )
2.5
G ( j ) H ( j ) 
  1    1  (0.5 ) 2
2
 G ( j ) H ( j )  90  tan 1   tan 1 0.5

MAPPING OF C1 & C3
 G ( j ) H ( j )  G ( j ) H ( j )
0 ∞ -90˚
∞ 0 -270
To find value of  and G ( j ) H ( j ) at the meeting point on real axis: -

G ( j ) H ( j )  90  tan 1   tan 1 0.5  180
Hence,   2  1.414 rad/sec
5 5
G ( j ) H ( j )    0.833
 1   4  2
2
2  1 2  4  2
MAPPING OF C2
 
R  2 2
5 5 1
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  Re j   
Re j (Re j  1)(Re j  2) Re j  Re j  Re j R 3e j 3
Lt GH (Re j )  Lt  e  j 3
R   0
R 
 Lt  e  j 3 / 2  Lt  e  j / 2
  0  0
2
 Lt  e  j 3 / 2  Lt  e  j / 2
  0  0
2
MAPPING OF C3
 
  2 2
5 5 2.5
G ( s ) H ( s ) s  e j     e  j
 e ( e  1)( e  2)  e  2  e j
j j j j
Lt GH ( e j )  e  j (180  )
 0
 Lt GH ( e j )
 0
Page 155 of 187

 e
 j
 2
2
 e
 j
 2
Number of encirclements of point -1+j0, N = 0

P=0
Z = P + N = 0 ; system is stable.
60
Sketch the Nyquist plot for the open-loop transfer function G (s) H (s)  and
( s  1)( s  2)( s  5)
hence determine the stability of the closed loop system by Nyquist criterion.
RELATIVE STABILITY USING NYQUIST CRITERION

As the Nyquist plot gets closer to -1+j0 point, the relative stability reduces and the system tends towards
instability. In frequency domain, relative stability is characterised by gain margin and phase margin.
Gain margin (GM) is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of the open-loop transfer function
evaluated at the phase cross-over frequency pc.
1 1
GM   where  G ( j pc ) H ( j pc )  180 
G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) a
The frequency at which the phase angle of the open-loop transfer function is -180˚ is called the phase
cross-over frequency pc.
Page 156 of 187

1 1
Gain Margin in dB is GM  20 log10  20 log10  20 log10 a
G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) a
If a  1 , GM is negative, the polar plot encircles the critical point (-1+j0) and the system is unstable.
If a  1 , GM is positive, the polar plot does not encircle the critical point (-1+j0) and the system is
stable.
Phase margin (PM) is the amount of phase lag that can be introduced into the system at the gain
cross-over frequency gc to drive the system to the verge of instability.
The frequency at which the magnitude of the open-loop transfer function is 1 is called the gain cross-
over frequency gc.
The value of phase margin can be obtained from the following relation,
PM  180    G ( j gc ) H ( j gc )  180    gc
For a stable system, the phase margin is positive.
If  gc   pc , system is stable.
If  gc   pc , system is marginally stable.
If  gc   pc , system is unstable.
ADVANTAGES OF NYQUIST PLOT

1 The Nyquist plot can be used for the study of stability of system with non-minimum transfer
functions.
2 The stability analysis of a closed loop system can be easily investigated by examining the
Nyquist plot of the loop transfer function with reference to the -1+j0 point once the plot is
made.
DISDVANTAGES OF NYQUIST PLOT

1 It is not so easy to carry out the design of the controller by referring to the Nyquist plot.
Page 157 of 187

DESIGN OF COMPENSATORS USING BODE PLOT
Gc ( s ) G (s)
LEAD COMPENSATOR
Lead compensator is used to improve the transient response by pole and zero placement. Here,
compensator pole is located to the left of the compensating zero.
Zero is introduced to improve the transient response but high frequency noise is amplified. Hence a
compensative pole is also placed to reduce the noise.
The pole is located at a distance 3 to 10 times the value of the zero location.
Transfer function of lead compensator is
s  zc s 1/ T
Gc ( s )   ;  1
s  pc s  1 /  T
z
  c 1
pc
1 1
Angle contribution is always positive; hence the  
T T
name lead.
s 1
Eg:- Gc ( s )  ;
s5
Gc ( j )  tan 1   tan 1 0.2
if ω=1, Gc ( j )  33.7 ; here the angle is positive; hence LEAD.
Positive angle contributed by the lead compensator shifts the root locus towards the left in the s-plane;
this results in improvement in the transient response.
A given system is stable but its transient response is unsatisfactory. Then, the root locus must be
reshaped so that it is moved farther to the left, away from the imaginary axis. This can be achieved by
a lead compensator.
Vo ( s ) R2 R2 R1 R2Cs  R2
   
Vi ( s) R2  Z1 R  R1 R1 R2Cs  R1  R2
2
R1Cs  1
1 1 1
R1 R2C ( s  ) s s
CR1 CR1 T
  
R  R2 R  R2 1 1
R1 R2C ( s  1 ) s 1  s
R1 R2C R2 CR1 T
where T  CR1 &   R2
R1  R2
The performance of a closed-loop system can be described in terms of the following frequency domain
specifications;
1) Phase Margin PM – indicative of relative stability
2) Gain cross over frequency ωgc – indicative of speed of response (ωgc is increased, ts is decreased)
Page 158 of 187

3) Error constants Kp, Kv, Ka – indicative of steady state error

If the desired specifications are not met by gain adjustment, use compensator.
RESHAPING OF BODE PLOT BY SIMPLE GAIN ADJUSTMENT

K
Consider a system G ( s )  .
s ( s  2)
Requirements are Kv  10 and PM  60
K
K v  Lt sG ( s)  10 Hence K  20
s 0 2
With K=20, G ( s)  20 . Plot Bode plot.
s ( s  2)
PM = 24°, ωgc = 4.4rad/s
If K is reduced to 2.5 to increase PM,
PM = 59°, ωgc = 1.2rad/s, Kv = 1.25
Since gc decreases, speed of response
decreases and since Kv decreases, steady
state error increases- both transient & steady
state requirements are not met.
Here, the desired specifications are not met
by simple gain adjustment.
BODE PLOT OF LEAD COMPENSATOR

1
s
T 1  sT
Gc ( s )  
s
1 1  s T
T
Since α<1, lead compensator provides an attenuation of α; hence use suitable amplifier.
1  sT
Gc ( s ) 
1  s T
1  jT
Gc ( j ) 
1  j T
1
Corner frequencies are c1  and c 2  1
T T
 rad/s A in dB
1 A=0
  c1 
T
1 1 1
c 2  A  20 log T  20 log  T  20 log
T T 
10 A  20 log T  20 log T  20 log
1

T 
  tan 1 T  tan 1 T
Page 159 of 187

1
1 20 log
10 log 

1 1
c1  c 2 
T T
1
m 
T
Φ is maximum at  m  c1c1  1 1 1
 
T T T
At m, A  20 log T  20 log 1 1 1
 T  20 log  10 log
T   
1 1 1
m  tan 1 T  tan 1 T  tan 1  T  tan 1    T  tan 1  tan 1 
T  T  
1 1  sin m
sin m  or  
1  1  sin m
DESIGN OF LEAD COMPENSATOR - STEPS
1 The open loop gain K of the given system is determined to satisfy the requirement of steady
state error.
2 After determining the value of K, draw Bode plot of uncompensated system.
3 Measure the gain cross-over frequency ωgc, and phase margin PM of the uncompensated
system.
4 Determine the amount of phase angle to be contributed by the lead network by using the
formula given below:
m   d    
where
Φm = Maximum phase lead angle of lead compensator
 d = desired phase margin
 = phase margin of uncompensated system
 = additional phase lead (margin of safety) to compensate for shift in gain cross over
frequency due to compensation
Choose an initial choice of  as 5˚.
Note: If Φm is more than 60˚, then realize the compensator as cascade of two lead compensator
with each compensator contributing half of the required angle.
5 1  sin m
Determine the parameter α of the compensator using the following equation  
1  sin m
6 1
Locate the frequency at which the uncompensated system has a gain of 10 log dB. Select

this frequency as the new gain cross-over frequency ωgc’. Measure the PM of the
uncompensated system at ωgc’. If the difference in PMs of G(jω) at ωgc & ωgc’ is less than ε,
go to next step. Otherwise choose a larger ε.
7 1
Set m   gc ' and compute parameter T of the compensator using the equation T 
m 
Page 160 of 187

8 1  sT
Transfer function of lead compensator is Gc ( s ) 
1  s T
9 1  sT
Sketch the Bode plot of the compensated system Go ( s )   G ( s)
1  s T
Design a lead compensator for the unity feedback system whose open loop transfer function is
K . The following specifications are to be satisfied. i) PM  45 , ii) K v  15 and iii)
G ( s) 
s ( s  1)
 gc  7.5rad / sec .
K
K v  Lt sG ( s )   15
s 0 1
With K=15, G ( s )  15 . Plot Bode plot.
s( s  1)
15
G ( j ) 
j (1  j )
 rad/s A in dB
 = 0.5 A = 20log15 – 20log = 29.5dB
 = c1 = 1 A = 20log15 – 20log = 23.5dB
 = 10 A = 20log15 – 20log - 20log = -16.5dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log15 – 40log = 0; gc = 3.9 rad/s
  90  tan 1 
ω 1 2 5 10
Φ -135 -153 -169 -174
gc  90  tan 1 gc  90  tan 1 3.9  166 PM = 180  166  14 
m   d      45  14  5  36
1  sin m 1  sin 36
   0.26
1  sin m 1  sin 36
1 1
A  10 log  10 log
 5.85
 0.26
A  20 log15  40 log m  5.85dB
m   gc '  5.4rad / s
1 1
T   0.36
m  5.4 0.26
1  sT 1  0.36s
Gc ( s )  
1  s T 1  0.094 s
1  sT 1  0.36 s 15
Go ( s )   G (s)  
1  s T 1  0.094 s s (1  s )
15(1  0.36 s)
Go ( s ) 
s (1  0.094 s )(1  s)
Page 161 of 187

BODE PLOT OF COMPENSATED SYSTEM

15(1  j 0.36 )
Go ( j )  c1  1; c 2  2.78; c3  10.64;
j (1  j )(1  j 0.094 )
 rad/s A in dB
  0.5 A  20log15  20log   20log15  20 log 0.5  29.5dB
 1 A  20log15  20log   20 log15  20 log1  23.5dB
  2.78 A  20log15  20 log   20log   20log15  40 log 2.78  5.76dB
  10.64 A  20 log15  20 log   20 log   20 log 0.36
 20 log15  40 log10.64  20 log 0.36  10.64  5.9dB
At    gc ' , A  20 log15  40 log  gc ' 20 log 0.36 gc '  0  gc '  5.4rad / s
gc  90  tan gc  tan 0.36gc  tan 0.094gc
1 1 1
 90  tan 1 5.4  tan 1 0.36  5.4  tan 1 0.094  5.4  133.6
ω 1 2 5 10
Φ -121 -128 -133 -143
PM = 180  133.6  46.4
All the requirements are satisfied.
Page 162 of 187

K . The following specifications are to be satisfied. i) PM  20 and ii) K v  50 .
G(s) 
s (s  1)( s  5)
K
K v  Lt sG ( s )   50
s0 5
K  250
250 50
G ( s)  
s ( s  1)( s  5) s (1  s )(1  0.2 s )
50
Sinusoidal transfer function, G ( s ) 
j (1  j )(1  j 0.2 )
 rad/s A in dB
 = 0.5 A = 20log50 – 20log = 40dB
 = c1 = 1 A = 20log50 – 20log = 33.98dB
 = c1 = 5 A = 20log50 – 20log - 20log = 6dB
 = c1 = 20 A = 20log50 – 20log - 20log - 20log0.2 = -30.1dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log50 – 40log - 20log0.2 = 0; gc = 6.3 rad/s
   G ( j )   90  tan  1   tan  1 0.2

 0.5 1 2 3 5 10 20 ∞
 -122 -146 -175 -193 -214 -238 -253 -270
At  = pc ,  = -180;    G ( j )   90  tan  1   tan  1 0.2   180  , pc = 2.24rad/s
At  = pc = 2.24 rad/s, A = 20log50 – 40log - 20log0.2 = 26.94dB
At  = gc = 6.3 rad/s,  gc   G ( j )   90  tan  1   tan  1 0.2   223 
Phase Margin  = 180 + gc = 180 – 223 = -43˚
Since the phase margin is negative, system is unstable. A lead compensator is used to make the system
stable and to have a phase margin of 20˚.
m   d      20  43  5  68
Since the lead angle required is greater than 60˚, we have to realize the lead compensator as a cascade
of two lead compensators with each compensator providing half of the required phase lead angle.
68
m   34
2
1  sin m 1  sin 34
   0.283
1  sin m 1  sin 34
1 1
A  10 log  10 log  5.482
 0.283
A  20 log 50  40 log m  20 log 0.2m  5.483dB
m   gc '  7.8rad / s
1 1
T   0.24
m  7.8 0.283
1  sT 1  0.24 s
Gc ( s )  
1  s T 1  0.068s
Page 163 of 187

(1  sT ) 2 (1  0.24s ) 2 50
Go ( s)   G (s )  
(1  s T ) 2
(1  0.068s ) 2 s (1  s )(1  0.2 s )
50(1  0.24s ) 2
Go ( s) 
s (1  0.068s )2 (1  s )(1  0.2 s )
K . The following specifications are to be satisfied. i) PM  50 and ii) K v  20 .
G(s) 
s ( s  2) 2
Page 164 of 187

LAG COMPENSATOR
Lag compensator is used when transient response is satisfactory, steady-state error is large and relative
stability is poor.
By use of lag compensator, phase margin increases, gain-cross over frequency and band-width
decreases, steady-state error decreases.
The pole is located nearer to origin.

Transfer function of lag compensator is
s  zc s 1/ T
Gc ( s )   ;  1
s  pc s  1 /  T
z
  c 1
pc 1
1
Angle contribution is always negative; hence the  
T T
name lag.
1  1 
R2  R2 C  s  
V (s) Z 2 (s) Cs  R2 C 
Gc ( s)  o   
Vi ( s ) Z 1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R  R  1  1 
1 2 ( R1  R 2 ) C  s  
Cs  ( R1  R 2 ) C 
 1   1
s  s 
 R2 C 
 
T 

   1 
 s
R  R2  1 
  T 
( 1 ) s  
R2  R  R2
 ( 1 ) R 2 C 
 R2 
R  R2
T  R2 C and   1
R2
 1
s 
Gc ( s )  
T 
 1 
 s  T 
 
Note: To nullify the attenuation 1/, it is amplified with gain .
Page 165 of 187

BODE PLOT OF LAG COMPENSATOR

1
s
T 1  sT
Gc ( s )  
s
1 1  s T
T
The lag compensator provides a dc gain of . If the dc gain is not desirable, it can be eliminated by
suitable attenuation. Let us assume that the gain  is eliminated by suitable attenuation network.
1  jT
Gc ( j ) 
1  j T
1
Corner frequencies are c1  and c 2  1
T T
 rad/s A in dB
1 A=0
  c1 
T
1 A = -20logT= -20log
c 2 
T
10 A = – 20logT + 20logT = – 20log10 + 20log10 = -20log

T
  tan 1 T  tan 1 T

10 log 
1 1
c1  c 2 
T T
1
20 log

1
m 
T 
Φ is maximum at  m  c1c1  1 1 1
 
T T T 
At m, A  20 log  T  20 log 1   T  20 log   10 log 
T 
1 1 1
m  tan 1 T  tan 1 T  tan 1  T  tan 1    T  tan 1  tan 1 
T  T  
1  1  sin m
sin m  or  
1  1  sin m
DESIGN OF LAG COMPENSATOR - STEPS
state error.
Page 166 of 187

3 Determine the phase margin PM of the uncompensated system. If the phase margin does not
satisfy the requirement, then lag compensation is required.
4 Phase margin of compensated system,  n   d  
where
 = additional phase lag (margin of safety) to compensate for shift in gain cross over frequency
due to compensation
5  gcn   n  180
Determine the new gain cross-over frequency ωgcn corresponding to  gcn from Bode plot of
uncompensated system.
6 Determine the parameter  of the compensator.
dB magnitude at ωgcn = Agcn
Agcn
  10 20
7 Determine the transfer function of lag compensator.
 gcn 1
Zero of the lag compensator, zc   . (Place the zero of the compensator arbitrarily at
10 T
1/10th of the new gain crossover frequency ωgcn)
1
Pole of the lag compensator, pc 
T
Transfer function of lag compensator, Gc ( s )  1  sT
1  s T
8 1  sT
Determine the open-loop transfer function of the compensated system Go ( s )   G( s)
1  s T
1  (1  sT )
G (s)
 (1  s T )
Gc ( s)
9 Sketch the Bode plot of the compensated system and determine the actual phase margin. If the
actual phase margin satisfies the given specification, then the design is accepted. Otherwise,
repeat the procedure by taking  as 10˚.
A unity feedback system has an open loop transfer function G ( s )  K . Design a suitable lag
s (1  2 s)
compensator so that phase margin is 40˚ and the steady state error for ramp input is less than or equal
to 0.2.
1
ess   0.2
Kv
Kv  5
K
K v  Lt sG ( s )  5
s0 1
With K=5, G ( s )  5 . Plot Bode plot.
s(1  2 s )
Page 167 of 187

5
G ( j ) 
j (1  j 2 )
 rad/s A in dB
 = 0.1 A = 20log5 – 20log = 34dB
 = c1 = ½ =0.5 A = 20log5 – 20log = 20dB
=5 A = 20log5 – 20log - 20log2 = -20dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log5 – 20log - 20log2 = 0; gc = 1.6 rad/s
  90  tan 1 2
ω 0.1 0.5 1 5 10
Φ -101 -135 -153 -174 -177
gc  90  tan 2gc  90  tan 1 2 1.6  162
1
PM = 180  162  18 
System requires a phase margin of 40˚, but the available phase margin is 18˚; hence lag compensation
should be employed to improve the phase margin.
 n   d    40  5  45
 gcn   n  180  45  180  135
gcm  90  tan 1 2 gcn  135
Hence, new gain crossover frequency,  gcn  0.5 rad/sec
 gcn
Zero of the compensator, zc   0.05
10
1
zc   0.05
T
dB magnitude at  gcn  0.5 , Agcn = 20log5 – 20log0.5 = 20dB
Agcn
  10 20  10
1
Pole of the lag compensator, pc   0.005
T
1
s
Transfer function of lag compensator, G ( s )  T   1  sT  10  1  20s
1  s T
c
1 1  200 s
s
T
1 10(1  20 s ) 5
10 (1  200 s) s(1  2s )
1/  Gc ( s) G (s)
Overall transfer function, Go ( s )  5(1  20 s )

s (1  200 s )(1  2 s )
Corner frequencies, c1 = 0.005 rad/s; c2 = 0.05 rad/s; c3 = 0.5 rad/s;
 rad/s A in dB
 = 0.001 A = 20log5 – 20log = 74dB
 = c1 = 0.005 A = 20log5 – 20log = 60dB
Page 168 of 187

 = c2 = 0.05 A = 20log5 – 20log – 20log200 = 20dB

 = c3 = 0.5 A = 20log5 – 20log - 20log200 + 20log20 = 0 dB
=1 A = 20log5 – 20log - 20log200 + 20log20 - 20log2 = -12dB
 = gc , A = 0 gc = 0.5 rad/sec
  90  tan 1 20  tan 1 200  tan 1 2

gc  90  tan 1 20 gc  tan 1 200gc  tan 1 2gc  140
Actual phase margin of compensated system, 180  gc  180  140  40
Actual phase margin of the compensated system satisfies the requirement. Hence the design is
acceptable.
A unity feedback system has an open loop transfer function G ( s )  K . Design a suitable
s( s  4)( s  80)
lag compensator so that phase margin is 33˚ and Kv = 30 sec-1.
K
K v  Lt sG ( s )   30
s0 4  80
With K=9600, G ( s )  9600 30 . Plot Bode plot.

s ( s  4)( s  80) s(1  0.25s)(1  0.0125s)
Page 169 of 187

30
G ( j ) 
j (1  j 0.25 )(1  j 0.0125 )
Corner frequencies, c1 = 4 rad/s; c2 = 80 rad/s
 rad/s A in dB
=1 A = 20log30 – 20log = 29.5dB
 = c1 = 4 A = 20log30 – 20log = 17.5dB
 = c2 = 80 A = 20log30 – 20log – 20log0.25 = -34.5dB
 = 100 A = 20log30 – 20log – 20log0.25 – 20log0.0125= -40.3dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log30 – 20log - 20log0.25 = 0;
gc = 10.95 rad/s
  90  tan 1 0.25  tan 1 0.0125

ω 1 3 10 30 100 300
Φ -105 -129 -165 -193 -229 -254
gc  90  tan 0.25 gc   tan 1 0.0125gc  168
1
PM = 180  168  12 
System requires a phase margin of 30˚, but the available phase margin is 12˚; hence lag compensation
should be employed to improve the phase margin.
 n   d    33  5  38
 gcn   n  180  38  180  142
gcn  90  tan 1 0.25gcn  tan 1 0.0125gcn  142
 gcn
10
1
zc   0.46
T
dB magnitude at  gcn  4.6 , A = 20log30 – 20log – 20log0.25 = 15dB
Agcn
  10 20  5.6
1
Pole of the lag compensator, pc   0.08
T
1
s
Transfer function of lag compensator, G ( s )  T   1  sT  5.6  1  2.2 s
1  s T
c
1 1  12.5s
s
T
1 5.6(1  2.2s ) 30
5.6 (1  12.5s ) s(1  0.25s)(1  0.0125s )
1/  Gc ( s) G (s)
Overall transfer function, Go ( s )  30(1  2.2 s)

s (1  12.5s )(1  0.25s )(1  0.0125s)
Corner frequencies, c1 = 0.08 rad/s; c2 = 0.46 rad/s; c3 = 4 rad/s; c2 = 80 rad/s
Page 170 of 187

 rad/s A in dB
 = 0.05 A = 20log30 – 20log = 55dB
 = c1 = 0.08 A = 20log30 – 20log = 51dB
 = c2 = 0.46 A = 20log30 – 20log – 20log12.5 = 21dB
 = c2 = 4 A = 20log30 – 20log – 20log12.5 +20log2.2 = 2.4dB
 = 80 A = 20log30 – 20log – 20log12.5 +20log2.2 – 20log0.25 = -49dB
 = 100 A = 20log30 – 20log – 20log12.5 +20log2.2 – 20log0.25 –
20log0.0125 = -55dB
 = gc , A = 0 A = 20log30 – 20log – 20log12.5 +20log2.2 – 20log0.25 = 0;
gc = 4.6 rad/s
gc  90  tan 1 2.2 gc  tan 1 12.5 gc  tan 1 0.25 gc  tan 1 0.0125 gc  147
Actual phase margin of compensated system, 180  gc  180  147  33
Actual phase margin of the compensated system satisfies the requirement. Hence the design is
acceptable.
A unity feedback system has an open loop transfer function G ( s )  K . Design a suitable lag
s ( s  5) 2
compensator so that phase margin ≥ 70˚ and Kv = 10 sec-1.
Page 171 of 187

LAG – LEAD COMPENSATOR

When a lag-lead network is used, phase lag occurs in the low frequency region and phase lead occurs
in the high frequency region.
1
R1 
1 sC1 R1
Z1 ( s )  R1 / /  
sC1 R  1 sR1C1  1
1
sC1
1 sR C  1
Z 2 ( s )  R2   2 2
sC 2 sC 2
sR2 C2  1
V (s) Z 2 (s) sC 2 ( sR2 C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)
G (s)  o   
Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) R sR C  1 sR1C 2  ( sR2 C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)
1
 2 2
sR1C1  1 sC2
( sR2 C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)


s R1 R2 C1C 2  s ( R1C1  R2 C 2  R1C 2 )  1
2
 1  1 
s  s  
 R1C1   R2 C 2 
G (s) 
 1 1 1  1
s2  s    
 R1C1 R2 C 2 R2 C1  R1 R2 C1C 2
The transfer function of lag-lead compensator is given by
 1  1  1  1
 s   s    s   s  
T T T T
Gc ( s )   1  2 
  1  2 
 1  1   1 1  1
s s   s  s  
2
  T1   T2  
 1 T  T2   T1T2
Comparing,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
T1  R1C1 T2  R2 C 2     
 T1  T2 R1C1 R2 C 2 R2 C1  T1T2 R1 R2 C1C 2
Hence,
  1
Page 172 of 187

0  1  1
Pole-zero plot of lag-lead compensator is given by
1 1 1 1
   
 T2 T2 T1  T1
DESIGN OF LAG-LEAD COMPENSATOR - STEPS

state error.
3 Determine the phase margin PM of the uncompensated system. If the phase margin is not
satisfactory, then compensation is required.
4 Phase margin of compensated system,  n   d  
where
 = additional phase lag (margin of safety) to compensate for shift in gain cross over frequency
due to compensation
5  gcn   n  180
Determine the new gain cross-over frequency ωgcn corresponding to  gcn from Bode plot of
uncompensated system.
6 Choose the gain cross over frequency of lag compensator ωgcl > ωgcn.
7 Determine the parameter  of the compensator.
dB magnitude at ωgcl = Agcl
Agcl
  10 20
8 Determine the transfer function of lag compensator.
 gcl 1
Zero of the lag compensator, zc   . (Place the zero of the compensator arbitrarily at
10 T1
th
1/10 of the new gain crossover frequency ωgcl)
1
Pole of the lag compensator, pc 
 T1
1
s
Transfer function of lag compensator, G ( s )  T 1  sT1
1

1  s  T1
c1
1
s
 T1
9 Determine the transfer function of lead compensator.
1
Take  

1
Locate the frequency ωm at which the uncompensated system has a gain of 10 log dB.

Page 173 of 187

1
T2 
m 
1
s
Transfer function of lead compensator is G ( s )  T 1  sT2
2

1  s T2
c2
1
s
 T2
10 Determine the open-loop transfer function of the compensated system
1  sT1 1  sT2
Go ( s )   G ( s ) since   1
1  s T1 1  sT2
(1  sT1 )(1  sT2 )
G (s)
(1  s  T1 )(1  s T2 )
11 Sketch the Bode plot of the compensated system and determine the actual phase margin. If the
actual phase margin satisfies the given specification, then the design is accepted. Otherwise,
repeat the procedure by taking  as 10˚.
A unity feedback system has an open loop transfer function G ( s )  K . Design a suitable
s( s  3)(s  6)
lag-lead compensator so that phase margin is 35˚ and Kv = 80 sec-1.
K
K v  Lt sG ( s )   80
s0 3 6
K = 1440
With K=1440, G ( s )  1440 80 . Plot Bode plot.

s( s  3)( s  6) s(1  0.33s)(1  0.167 s )
80
G ( j ) 
j (1  j 0.33 )(1  j 0.167 )
Corner frequencies, c1 = 3 rad/s; c2 = 6 rad/s
 rad/s A in dB
=1 A = 20log80 – 20log = 38dB
 = c1 = 3 A = 20log80 – 20log = 28.5dB
 = c2 = 6 A = 20log80 – 20log – 20log0.33 = 16.6dB
 = 20 A = 20log80 – 20log – 20log0.33 – 20log0.167= -14.8dB
 = gc , A = 0 20log80 – 20log – 20log0.33 – 20log0.167 = 0;
gc = 11.3 rad/s
  90  tan 1 0.33  tan 1 0.167

ω 1 3 10 30 100 300
Φ -117 -161 -222 -253 -264 -268
gc  90  tan 1 0.33 gc   tan 1 0.167 gc  227
PM = 180  227   46 
To determine the transfer function of lag section:-
New phase margin,  n   d    35  5  40
Page 174 of 187

 gcn   n  180  40  180  140

gcn  90  tan 1 0.33 gcn  tan 1 0.167gcn  140
Let gcl = gain cross over frequency of lag compensator
Choose such that gcl > gcn .
Let gcl = 4 rad/sec
 gcl
10
1
zc   0.4 ; T = 2.5 sec
T
dB magnitude at  gcl  4 rad/s, Agcl = 20log80 – 20log – 20log0.33 = 23.6dB
Agcl
  10 20  15
1 0.4
Pole of the lag compensator, pc    0.027 ; T = 37
 T 15
1
s
Transfer function of lag compensator, G ( s)  T   1  sT  15  1  2.5s
1  s T
1
1 1  37 s
s
T
To determine the transfer function of lead section:-
1 1
    0.067
 15
1 1
A  10 log  10 log 11.7
 0.067
A  20 log 80  20 log m  20 log 0.33m  20 log 0.167m  11.7 dB
m   gc '  17.7 rad / s
1 1
T2    0.22
m  17.7 0.067
 T2  0.067  0.22  0.015
1  sT2 1  0.22 s
G2 ( s )  
1  s T2 1  0.015s
Transfer function of the lag lead compensator is
(1  2.5s )(1  0.22 s)
Gc ( s ) 
(1  37 s )(1  0.015s )
Transfer function of compensated system is
(1  2.5s )(1  0.22 s ) 80
Go ( s )  
(1  37 s )(1  0.015s ) s (1  0.33s)(1  0.167 s)
A unity feedback system has an open loop transfer function G ( s)  K . Design a

s (1  2 s )(1  0.5s )
suitable lag-lead compensator so that phase margin ≥ 55˚ and Kv = 30 sec-1.
Page 175 of 187

M CIRCLES (CONSTANT MAGNITUDE LOCI)

C ( s) G ( s)
M ( s)  
R( s ) 1  G ( s)
Let G ( j )  X  jY . Hence,
G ( j ) X  jY
M ( j )  
1  G ( j ) 1  X  jY
Let M be the magnitude.
X  jY
M 
1  X  jY
X 2 Y2
M2 
(1  X )2  Y 2
Rearranging,
2 2
 M2   M 
 X  1  M 2   Y  1  M 2 
2
   
This represents the equation of a circle with the centre at  M 2 , 0  and having radius M 2 .
2
1  M  1 M
For a particular value of M, a circle is obtained. For various values of M, we get a family of circles.
These circles are known as constant magnitude loci or M circles.
N CIRCLES (CONSTANT PHASE LOCI)

G ( j ) X  jY
M ( j )   
1  G ( j ) 1  X  jY
Y Y
  tan 1  tan 1
X 1 X
 Y Y 
tan   N  tan  tan 1  tan 1
 X 1  X 
Rearranging,
Page 176 of 187

2 2
 1  1  1 1
 X  2   Y  2 N   4  (2 N ) 2
This represents the equation of a circle with the centre at  1 , 1 2  and having radius 1  1 2
 2 (2 N )  4 (2 N )
. For a particular value of N, a circle is obtained. For various values of N, we get a family of circles.
These circles are known as constant phase loci or N circles.
NICHOLS CHART
When we transform M and N circles to log magnitude and phase angle coordinates, the resultant plot is
known as Nichols Chart. The critical point (-1, j0) point is mapped to the Nichols chart as the point
(0dB, -180˚). The Nichols chart contains curves of constant closed-loop magnitude and phase angle.
The Nichols chart is symmetrical about the -180˚ axis. The M and N loci repeat for every 360˚ and there
is symmetry at every 180˚ interval. The M loci are centered about the critical point (0dB, -180˚).
If we superimpose the gain-phase plot of an open-loop transfer function on Nichols chart, we get very
easily the closed-loop frequency response. Nichols chart gives the points of intersection of the gain-
phase plot of an open loop transfer function.
Nichols chart is used for the determination of the following: -
i) The complete closed-loop frequency response.
ii) Resonant peak of the closed loop system
iii) Resonant frequency of the closed loop system
iv) Bandwidth of the closed loop system
v) Phase margin
Page 177 of 187

vi) Gain margin
Page 178 of 187

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:
1 For the system C ( s )  9 , the nature of the time response will be

R ( s) s  6s  9
2
A Overdamped B Critically damped

C Under damped D None of these
2 For the system C ( s )  9 , the natural frequency of oscillation will be
R ( s) s 2  6s  9
A 2 rad/sec B 3 rad/sec
C 1 rad/sec D 1.5 rad/sec
3 For the system C ( s )  16 , the damping factor will be
R ( s) s  4 s  16
2
A 0.6 B 0.5
C 0.2 D 0.3
4 For the system C ( s )  16 , the damped frequency of oscillation will be
R ( s) s 2  4 s  16
A 3.46 B 3.85
C 4.2 D 1.3
5 The type of the system having G ( s )  K (1 2 2 s ) and H ( s )  K2 (1  3s ) is
s s  2s  1
A Type 1 B Type 2
C Type 0 D Type 3
6 The steady-state error of a unity feedback control system having open loop transfer function
K due to step input is
G ( s) 
s ( s  2)
A Zero B K
C 1/K D ∞
7 The transfer function of a plant is G ( s )  1 . The plant settling time for a step input
s  0.2 s  1
2
when it settles to within 2% of its final value is

A 20 sec B 40 sec
C 35 sec D 45 sec
8 If s 2  4 s  16  0 be the characteristic equation of a closed loop control system, the resultant
frequency in radians per second of the system is
A 2 B 2 3
C 4 D 2 2
9 A system has forward path transfer function and feedback path transfer function 202 and
s
( s  5) respectively. The steady state error of the system for a unit step input is
A 0 B 0.5
C 0.2 D 0.8
10 The impulse response of an RL series circuit is a
A Rising exponential function B Decaying exponential function
C Step function D Parabolic function
11 A synchro-transmitter receiver unit is a
Page 179 of 187

A 2-phase AC device B 3-phase AC device

C DC device D 1-phase AC device
12 For a feedback control system of Type-2, the steady-state error for a ramp input is
A infinite B constant
C zero D None of these
13 The overshoot of the system 16 K for a step input will be
s ( s 2  2 s  16)
A 60% B 40%
C 20% D 10%
14 If the unit step response of a system is unit impulse function, the transfer function of such as
system will be
A 1 B 1/s
C s D 1/s2
15 The step error coefficient of a system G ( s )  1 with unity feedback is
( s  1)( s  6)
A 1/6 B ∞
C 0 D 1
16 The transfer function of a system is s6 . The value of K for which its damping ratio
Ks  s  6
2
will be 0.5 is
A 1/3 B 3
C 1/6 D 6
17 A closed loop system having characteristic equation s 2  2 s  2  0
A overdamped B Critically damped
C Under damped D undamped
18 The transfer function of a phase lead compensator is 1  3Ts . The maximum value of phase
1  Ts
provided by this compensator is
A 90˚ B 60˚
C 45˚ D 30˚
19 The Nyquist plot of an open loop transfer function G ( j ) H ( j ) of a system encloses the
(-1, j0) point. The gain margin of the system is
A Less than zero B zero
C Greater than zero D infinity
20 The open loop transfer functions with unity feedback are shown below for different systems:
(a) G ( s )  2 (b) G ( s )  2 (c) G ( s )  2 2 (d) G ( s )  2( s  1)
( s  2) s ( s  2) s ( s  2) ss  2)
A 1 B 2
C 3 D 4
21 For the transfer function G ( s ) H ( s )  1 , the phase cross over frequency is
s ( s  1)( s  0.5)
A 0.5 rad/sec B 0.707 rad/sec
C 1.732 rad/sec D 2 rad/sec
Page 180 of 187

22 The transfer function of a compensating network is of the form 1   Ts . If this is a phase-lag

1  Ts
network, the value of  should be
A 0 B Between 0 and 1
C 1 D Greater than 1
23 A phase lag compensation will
A Improve relative stability B Increase the speed of response
C Increase bandwidth D Increase overshoot
24 The effect of transportation lag is
A To increase the phase margin B To reduce the phase margin
C To improve the transient response D All of these
25 If the gain of the open-loop system is doubled, the gain margin
A Is not affected B Gets doubled
C Becomes half D Becomes one-fourth
26 The transfer function of a simple RC network functioning as a controller is Gc ( s )  s  z .
s p
The condition for the RC network to act as a phase lead controller is
A p<z B p>0
C p=z D p>z
27 The transfer function of a tachometer is of the form
A Ks B K
s
C K D K
1 s s (1  s )
28 The AC motor used in servo application is a
A 1-phase induction motor B 2-phase induction motor
C 3-phase induction motor D Synchronous motor
29 A unity feedback system has the open loop transfer function G ( s )  1 . The
( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)
Nyquist plot of G(s) encircles the origin
A Never B Once
C Twice D Thrice
30 A system is highly oscillatory if
A Gain margin is high B Gain margin is close to 1
C Gain margin is 1 or phase margin is zero D Gain margin is high and PM is 180˚
31 A system has high gain margin and phase margins. The system is
A Very stable B Sluggish
C Very stable and sluggish D Oscillatory
32 In a minimum phase system,
A All poles lie in the left half of s-plane B All zeros lie in the left half of s-plane
C All poles & zeros lie in the left half of s- D All except one pole or zero lie in the left
plane half of s-plane
33 The addition of a pole to the open loop transfer function pulls the root locus
A To the right B To the left and making the system more
stable
Page 181 of 187

C Towards the right or left depending on D None of these

the position of new pole
34 The addition of a zero to the open loop transfer function pulls the root locus
A Pulls the root locus to the left and makes B Pulls the root locus to the right and
the system more stable makes the system more stable
C Either A or B D Neither A nor B
35 The distance of poles from the origin depends on
A Undamped natural frequency B Damping ratio
C Both A and B D Neither A nor B
36 If the poles lie in first quadrant, the damping ratio is
A 1 B More than 1
C Less than 1 D zero
37 The transfer function Gc ( s )  5( s  2.9) can be for
s  5.4
A Lead compensator B Lag compensator
38 The transfer function Gc ( s )  3( s  0.05) can be for
s  0.005
A Lead compensator B Lag compensator
39 In Bode plot, an octave is a frequency band from
A 1 to 101 B 1 to 81
C 1 to 41 D 1 to 21
40 For the transport lag G ( j )  e  jT , the magnitude is always equal to
A 0 B 1
C 2 D 3
41 For the transport lag G ( j )  e  jT , the polar plot is a
A Semi circle B Circle
C Unit circle D None of these
42 A lead compensator is basically a
A High pass filter B Low pass filter
C Band stop filter D None of these
43 The primary function of a lag compensator is to provide sufficient
A Gain margin B Phase margin
C Both A and B D Either A or B
44 A lag compensator is basically a
A High pass filter B Low pass filter
C Band stop filter D None of these
45 In second order system with a unit step input, the speed of response is high if system is
A Overdamped B Undamped
C Critically damped D Under damped
46 In a second order system, the time constant of exponential envelopes depends
A Only on damping factor B Only on natural frequency
C Both on damping factor & natural D Neither on damping factor nor on natural
frequency frequency
Page 182 of 187

47 The system steady state error can be minimized by

A Decreasing damped frequency B Decreasing natural frequency
C Increasing damped frequency D Increasing system gain constant
48 The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by G ( s )  K
s ( s  1)
. If the gain K is increased to infinity, the damping ratio will lead to become
A 1 B 1
2
C 0 D ∞
49 The characteristic equation of a closed loop control system is given as s 2  4 s  16  0 . The
resonant frequency in radians/sec of the system is
A 2 B 2 3
C 4 D
2 2
50 The system described by the equation s  2 s  3s 2  6s  K  0 according to Routh-Hurwitz
4 3
criteria, is
A Unstable for all values of K B Stable if K ≥ 0
C Stable if K < 0 D Stable for all values of K
51 The root locus of a system has 4 separate loci. The system can have
A 4 poles & 4 zeros B 4 poles OR 4 zeros
C 6 poles & 2 zeros D 2 poles & 2 zeros
52 The gain cross over frequency and bandwidth of a control system are cu and bu
respectively. A phase lag network is employed for compensating the system. If the gain cross
over frequency and bandwidth of the compensated system are cc and bc respectively, then
A cc  cu & bc  bu B cc  cu & bc  bu
C cc  cu & bc  bu D cc  cu & bc  bu
53 Laplace transform of the output response of a linear system is the system transfer function
when the input is
A A step signal B A ramp signal
C An impulse signal D A sinusoidal signal
54 A system has the following transfer function G ( s )  100( s  5)( s  50) . The type and
s 4 ( s  10)( s 2  3s  10)
order of the system are respectively
A 4 and 9 B 4 and 7
C 5 and 7 D 7 and 5
55 The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is G ( s )  10 . The gain
( s  5)3
margin of the system will be
A 20dB B 40dB
C 60dB D 80dB
56 A system has single pole at origin. Its impulse response will be
A constant B ramp
C Decaying exponential D oscillatory
57 Consider the following techniques:
1. Bode plot
Page 183 of 187

2. Nyquist plot
3. Nichol’s chart
4. Routh-Hurwitz criterion
Which of these techniques are used to determine relative stability of a closed loop linear
system?
A 1&2 B 1&4
C 1,2 & 3 D 2,3 & 4
58 What is the effect of phase-lag compensation on the performance of a servo system?
A For a given stability, the velocity error B For a given stability, the velocity error
constant is increased constant is decreased
C The bandwidth of the system is increased D The time response is made faster
59 For a stable closed loop system, the gain at phase cross-over frequency should always be
A < 20 dB B > 6 dB
C < 6 dB D < 0 dB
60 Which one of the following statements is correct?
Nichols chart is useful for detailed study and analysis of
A Closed loop frequency response B Open loop frequency response
C Closed loop and open loop frequency D None of the above
response
Answers:
1 B 21 B 41 C
2 B 22 B 42 A
3 B 23 D 43 B
4 A 24 B 44 B
5 B 25 C 45 D
6 A 26 D 46 C
7 B 27 A 47 D
8 C 28 B 48 C
9 C 29 B 49 C
10 B 30 C 50 A
11 D 31 C 51 A
12 C 32 C 52 A
13 B 33 A 53 C
14 C 34 A 54 B
15 A 35 A 55 B
16 C 36 C 56 A
17 C 37 A 57 C
18 D 38 B 58 A
19 A 39 D 59 D
20 C 40 B 60 A
Page 184 of 187

Model Question Paper PAGES: 2

QPCODE:
Reg. No:
Name:
APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SIXTH SEMESTER B.TECH DEGREE EXAMINATION
MONTH & YEAR
Course Code: EET302
Course Name: LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS
Max. Marks: 100 Duration: 3 Hours
PART A
Answer all Questions. Each question carries 3 Marks
1 Give a comparison between open loop and closed loop control systems with suitable
examples.
2 Derive the dependence of φm and α of a lead compensator and hence explain the
restrictions on the selection of α?
3 For a closed loop system with G ( s )  1 and H(s) = 0.05, calculate the steady state
;
s (s + 5 )
error constants.
4 Check the stability of the system
given by the characteristic equation,
G ( s )  s + 2 s + 4 s + 8 s + 1 6 s + 3 2 ; using Routh criterion.
5 4 3 2
5 With suitable sketches explain how the addition of poles to the open-loop transfer
function affect the root locus plots.
6 Explain Ziegler – Nichol’s PID tuning rules.
7 Explain the features of non-minimum phase systems with a suitable example.
8 How do you determine the gain margin of a system, with the help of Bode plot?
9 State and explain Nyquist stability criterion.
10 Discuss the procedure for Lag compensator design using Root locus technique.
PART B
Answer any one full question from each module. Each question carries 14 Marks
Module 1
11 a) Derive the transfer function of an Armature controlled dc servo motor. Assess the effect
of time constants on the system performance. (9)
b) Compare the effect of H(s) on the pole-zero plot of the closed loop system with
G (s) 
s + 3 with: i) derivative feed back H(s)= s; ii) integral feedback
2
(s + 3 s + 2)
H(s)=1/s. (5)
12 a) Why compensation is necessary in feedback control system? What are the factors to
be considered for choosing the feedback compensation? (6)
b) With relevant characteristics explain the operation of the following control devices.
i) Synchro error detector, ii) Tachogenerator. (8)
Page 185 of 187

Module 2
13 a) Derive an expression for the step response of a critically damped second order
system? Explain the dependency of Mp on damping factor. (9)
b) Determine the value of K and the natural frequency of oscillation 𝜔 for the unity
feedback system with forward transfer function G ( s )  K , which results
s(s + 1 0 )
in a critically damped response when subjected to a unit step input.
Also determine the steady state error for unit velocity input. (5)
14 a) A unity feedback system is characterized by an open loop transfer function
20 . Determine the transient response when subjected to a unit
G (s)  2
(s + 5 s + 5)
step input and sketch the response. Evaluate the maximum overshoot and the
corresponding peak time of the system. . (9)
b) Using Routh criterion determine the value of K for which the unity feedback closed
loop system with G ( s )  K is stable. . (5)
2
s (s + 20 s + 8)
Module 3
15 a)
Design a lag lead compensator with open loop transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) =
( . )
to satisfy the following specifications (i) damping ratio of the dominant closed loop
poles is 0.5 (ii) Undamped natural frequency of the dominant closed loop poles ωn =
5 rad/sec iii) Velocity error constant Kv = 80. (10)
b) Compare between PI and PD controllers. (4)
16 a) Sketch root locus for a system with G ( s ) H ( s )  K ( s + 1 ) . Hence determine the
s(s+ 4 )
range of K for the system stability. . (9)
b) With help of suitable sketches, explain how does Angle and Magnitude criteria of
Root locus method help in control system design. (5)
Module 4
17 a) The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is
G(s)= .Use asymptotic approach to plot the Bode diagram and
( . )( . )
determine the value of K for a gain margin of 10 dB. (8)
b) Compare between the polar plots for G ( s ) H ( s )  K
and G (s)H (s) 
K ( s - 4 ) . (6)
(s+ 4 ) (s + 4 )
18 a)
Draw the polar plot of an open loop transfer function G(s)= and comment
( )( )
on the phase margin and gain margin. (8)
b) Explain the detrimental effects of transportation lag, using Bode plot. (6)
Module 5
19 a) Draw Nyquist plot for the system whose open loop transfer function is 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
. Determine the range of K for which the closed loop system is stable.
( )( )
(9)
b) Write a short note on Nichols chart. (5)
Page 186 of 187

20 a) Design a phase lead compensator for a unity feedback system given by the open
loop transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) = to meet the following specifications (i) phase
( )
margin of the system > 45 deg (ii) ess for unit ramp <1/15 (iii) gain crossover
frequency must be 7.5 rad/sec. . (11)
b) Explain the design constrains on the selection of corner frequencies of lag
compensator. (3)
Page 187 of 187

EET302 LCS Lecture Notes Full

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EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G.

Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

EET302 – LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS (L-T-P 2-2-0)

2.3 Stability Analysis: Concept of stability-BIBO stability and asymptotic 2

MODULE 1 – FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS (NON-FEEDBACK SYSTEMS)

The block diagram of an open-loop system is shown below.

Simple in construction and design. No sensors are needed to measure the

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS (FEEDBACK SYSTEMS)

Closed-loop systems are complicated in design

COMPARISON OF OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

CLOSED LOOP SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

Transfer function G(s) can be written mathematically as,

Determine the transfer function of the electrical network shown in figure.

( sR2 C 2  1)( sR1C1  1)

Dividing both numerator and denominator by R1R2C1C2,

Here, G(s) = open-loop gain

The overall transfer function of the closed-loop system is derived as follows: -

R (s)  C (s)H (s)  E (s)

But, C ( s )  E ( s ) G ( s ) ----- (1)

R ( s )  E ( s )(1  G ( s ) H ( s )) ----- (2)

From (1) and (2);

TYPE AND ORDER OF A SYSTEM

The transfer function can be written in any of the following forms:

The numerator is a polynomial of degree m and

p1, p2 ,.... pn = Roots of denominator

Consider the closed loop system shown in figure below.

K (1  sTz1 )(1  sTz 2 )........(1  sTzm )

Note: For a unity feedback system, H(s) = 1 and

CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

CONSTRUCTION OF AC SERVOMOTOR: Similar to a normal induction motor, this motor

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION: One phase, designated as reference phase, is excited by a constant

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF AC SERVOMOTOR:

TORQUE–SPEED CHARACTERISTICS: The general shape of the torque-seed characteristics of a

1. These are low weight devices.

APPLICATIONS: Because of this ruggedness, light-in-weight construction, high torque-to-weight

ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC SERVOMOTOR

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

Representation of an armature-controlled DC motor is shown in figure. An external DC source supplies

 = angular velocity in rad/sec

This is of the form,  ( s )  G

Hence, block diagram of armature-controlled DC motor is given by,

APPLICATIONS: The inertia of DC servomotors tends to be larger than that of squirrel-cage AC

FIELD CONTROLLED DC SERVOMOTOR

COMPARISON OF DC & AC SERVOMOTORS

(Refer for animation: https://www.smlease.com/entries/mechanical-design-basics/what-is-gyroscope-

Then transfer function of the DC tachogenerator is given by

If the reference winding is excited by the voltage er (t )  E r sin  c t , an emf of em ( t )  e ( t ) sin  c t is

d  ( t ) where K is the sensitivity of the tachogenerator.

The transfer function of an AC tachogenerator is

e S 2 n ( t )  K E sin  t where K is a proportionality constant.

When the rotor is in the position corresponding to  = 90˚, the voltage e S 2 n ( t )  0 .

In general, for any position  of the rotor.

If S2 winding is taken as reference,

Then, the terminal voltage between S1 and S2 is

eS1S2  eS1 n  eS2 n  3KE sin(  240) sin t

eS2 S3  eS2 n  eS3 n  3KE sin(  120)sin t

eS3S1  eS3 n  eS1 n  3KE sin  sin t

SYNCHRO CONTROL TRANSFORMER: The constructional features of synchro control transformer

SYNCHRO AS ERROR DETECTOR

Let  = rotor position for synchro transmitter

 = rotor position for control transformer