8/18/2021

Displacement Measurement:
Transducers for displacement
measurement
Potentiometer, LVDT, Capacitance
Types, Digital Transducers (optical
encoder),

Potentiometer as a displacement transducer

• This is an active transducer

• A constant voltage vref is
applied across the coil (or film)
using an external dc (direct
current) voltage supply.
• The output signal vo of the
transducer is the DC voltage
between the movable contact
(wiper arm or slider) sliding on
the coil and the reference-
voltage terminal of the coil.

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• The slider
displacement x is
proportional to the
output voltage:
• Ideally Vo = kX Or
Vo = kѲ Assuming that
the output terminals
are in open circuit
(infinite impedance
load, so output current
is zero).

Loading Nonlinearity
The circuitry into which the pot
signal is fed e.g., conditioning, interfacing,
processing, or control circuitry) has a finite
impedance (RL)

(I)

The current balance at the sliding contact point

Multiplying by Rc throughout and substituting (I)

and simplifying

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Loading Nonlinearity
• Effect of RL/RC ratio on Linearity

• To reduce loading nonlinearity

either (a) Increase RL/RC (increase
load impedance, reduce coil
impedance) or (b)Use pots to
measure small values of θ/θmax
(or calibrate only a small
segment of the resistance
element, for linear reading)

• Loading Nonlinearity error

POT rating parameters

• Stroke (for linear • Resolution
movement),
• resistance,
• reference voltage,
where N = number of turns
and
• Sensitivity
• power (at full
resistance)

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Advantages POT as a displacement

sensor

Advantages
1. They are simple to design and robust.
2. Relatively inexpensive.
3. They provide high-voltage (low-impedance)
output signals, requiring no amplification in most
applications.
4. Transducer impedance can be varied simply by
changing the coil resistance and supply voltage.

Disadvantages of POT as a
displacement sensor
Disadvantages
1. The force needed to move the slider (against friction and arm inertia) is
provided by the displacement source. This mechanical loading distorts the
measured signal itself.
2. High-frequency (or highly transient) measurements are not feasible
because of such factors as slider bounce, friction, and inertia resistance,
and induced voltages in the wiper arm and primary coil.
3. Variations in the supply voltage cause error.
4. Electrical loading error can be significant when the load resistance is low.
5. Resolution is limited by the number of turns in the coil and by the coil
uniformity. This limits small-displacement measurements.
6. Wear out and heating up (with associated oxidation) in the coil or film, and
slider contact cause accelerated degradation.

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Variable Inductance Transducers

• Motion transducers that employ the principle
of electromagnetic induction are termed
variable-inductance transducers.
• When the flux linkage (defined as magnetic
flux density times the number of turns in the
conductor) through an electrical conductor
changes, a voltage in proportion to the rate
of change of flux is induced in the conductor.
This is the basis of electromagnetic induction.
• This voltage is called the electromotive force
(emf), which in turn generates a magnetic
field that opposes the original (primary) field.
Hence, a mechanical force is necessary to
sustain the change of flux linkage.

Variable Inductance Transducers

• The change in magnetic flux that induces the
voltage in the conductor can be caused in two
principal ways:
1. By changing the current that creates the magnetic
field
2. By physically moving
(a) the coil or the magnet that provides the magnetic
field;
(b) the medium (e.g., soft iron core) through which
the magnetic flux links with the conductor;
(c) the conductor in which the voltage is induced, at
some speed.

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LVDT Linear-Variable Differential

Transformer/Transducer
• the LVDT consists of an insulating,
nonmagnetic form (a cylindrical
structure on which a coil is wound
and is integral with the housing),
which has a primary coil in the
mid-segment and a secondary coil
symmetrically wound in the two
end segments,
• A core made of ferromagnetic
material is inserted coaxially
through the cylindrical form
without actually touching it

LVDT Linear-Variable Differential

Transformer/Transducer
• The primary coil is energized by an
ac supply of voltage vref. This
generates, by mutual induction, an
ac of the same frequency in the
secondary coil.
• As the core moves, the reluctance
of the flux path between the
primary and the secondary coils
changes.
• The degree of flux linkage depends
on the axial position of the core.

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LVDT : Linear-Variable Differential

Transformer/Transducer
• The two secondary coils are connected in
series opposition thus the potentials
induced in the two secondary coil
segments oppose each other(as shown).
Hence, the net induced voltage is zero
when the core is centered between the
two secondary winding segments. This is
known as the null position.
• When the core is displaced a non zero
induced voltage is generated. At steady
state, the amplitude vo of this induced
voltage is proportional to the core
displacement x in the linear (operating)
region Consequently, vo is a measure of
the displacement.

LVDT Linear-Variable Differential

Transformer/Transducer
• It is a non contact displacement
sensor.
• The LVDT is considered a passive
transducer because the
displacement, which is being
measured, itself provides energy
for changing the induced voltage
in the secondary coil.
• An LVDT may be calibrated in
millimeter per volt (mm/V), in its
linear range.

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LVDT
• Because of opposed secondary windings, the
LVDT provides the direction as well as the
magnitude of displacement. When the output
signal is demodulated, its sign gives the
direction. If the output signal is not
demodulated, the direction is determined by
the phase angle between the primary
(reference) voltage and the secondary
(output) voltage, which includes the carrier
signal.

LVDT
• For an LVDT to measure transient motions accurately, the frequency
of the reference voltage (the carrier frequency) has to be at least 10
times larger than the largest significant (useful) frequency
component in the measured motion, and typically can be as high as
20 kHz.
• A wide variety of measurement ranges are available in different
LVDTs, typically from ±100 μm to ±25 cm. Typical excitation voltages
range from 1 V to 24 V rms, with frequencies from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.
• The performance (particularly sensitivity and accuracy) is known to
improve with the excitation frequency,
• Since the amplitude of the output signal is proportional to the
amplitude of the primary signal, the reference voltage should be
regulated to get accurate results. In particular, the powersource
should have a low output impedance.

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LVDT Signal Conditioning

• Includes filtering and amplification.
• Filtering is needed to improve the SNR of the output signal.
Amplification is necessary to increase the signal strength for
data acquisition, transmission, and processing.
• Since the reference frequency (carrier frequency) is induced
into (and embedded in) the output signal, it is also necessary
to interpret the output signal properly, particularly for
transient motions.
• The secondary (output) signal of an LVDT is an amplitude-
modulated signal, where the signal component at the carrier
frequency is modulated by the lower frequency transient
signal produced as a result of the core motion (x).

LVDT Signal Conditioning

• Two methods are commonly used
to interpret the crude output
signal from a differential
transformer: rectification and
demodulation.
• In the first method (rectification)
the ac output from the differential
transformer is rectified to obtain a
dc signal. This signal is amplified
and then low-pass filtered to
eliminate any high-frequency
noise components. The amplitude
of the resulting signal provides the
transducer reading.

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LVDT Signal Conditioning

• In the second method (demodulation), the carrier frequency
component is rejected from the output signal by comparing it
with a phase-shifted and amplitude-adjusted version of the
primary (reference) signal. Phase shifting is necessary
because, as discussed earlier, the output signal is not in phase
with the reference signal. The result is the modulating signal
(proportional to x), which is subsequently amplified and
filtered

LVDT Demodulation

• The amplifier is a noninverting type. It amplifies the output of the

LVDT, which is an ac (carrier) signal of frequency ωc, that is
modulated by the core displacement x(t).
• The multiplier circuit generates the product of the primary (carrier)
signal and the secondary (LVDT output) signal. This is an important
step in demodulating the LVDT output.
•

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LVDT Demodulation
• The product signal from the multiplier has a high-frequency
(2ωc) carrier component, added to the modulating component
(x(t)).
• The low-pass filter removes this unnecessary high-frequency
component, to obtain the demodulated signal, which is
proportional to the core displacement x(t).

Applications of LVDT
• LVDTs find uses in modern machine-tool,
robotics, avionics, and computerized
manufacturing.
• By the end of World War II, the LVDT had gained
acceptance as a sensor element in the process
control industry largely as a result of its use in
aircraft, torpedo, and weapons systems.
• The publication of The Linear Variable Differential
Transformer by Herman Schaevitz in 1946

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Advantages of LVDT
• It is essentially a non-contacting device with no frictional resistance.
Near-ideal electromechanical energy conversion and lightweight
core will result in very small resistive forces. Hysteresis (both
magnetic hysteresis and mechanical backlash) is negligible.
• It has low output impedance, typically in the order of 100 Ω. (Signal
amplification is usually not needed beyond what is provided by the
conditioning circuit.)
• It provides directional measurements (positive/negative).
• It is available in miniature sizes as well (e.g., length of 1 or 2 mm,
displacement measurements of a fraction of a millimeter, and
maximum travel or stroke of 1 mm)
• It has a simple and robust construction (inexpensive and durable)
• It has fine resolutions (theoretically, infinitesimal resolution;
practically, much better than a coil potentiometer).

Variable-Capacitance Transducers
• A capacitor is formed by two plates, which can store an electric charge. The stored
charge generates a potential difference between the plates and may be maintained
using an external voltage. The capacitance C of a two-plate capacitor is given by

• where
– A is the common (overlapping) area of the two plates
– x is the gap width between the two plates
– k is the dielectric constant (or permittivity, k = ε = εr εo; εr is the relative permittivity, εo is the
permittivity of a vacuum), which depends on dielectric properties of the medium between the two
plates
• A change in any one of the three parameters in above Equation may be used in the
sensing process.
• Above equation can be written as ln C = −ln x + ln A + ln k. By taking the
differentials of the terms in this equation, we have

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Variable-Capacitance Transducers

• nonlinear
in x, while
linear in A
and k.

Capacitive Displacement Sensor

• One of the capacitor plates is attached to the
moving object (or, the moving object itself can
form the moving capacitor plate) and the other
plate is kept stationary.

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Capacitive Rotation and Angular

Velocity Sensors
• In the arrangement shown one plate of the
capacitor is (or, attached to) the sensed object
(shaft), which rotates. The other plate is kept
stationary. Since the common area A is
proportional to the angle of rotation θ, the
sensor equation may be written as

• Thus Ѳ can be found by measuring capacitance

• Current in the circuit is given as

• Substituting above equation

• Thus there is a linear relationship between

angular velocity and current.

Liquid level sensor

The arrangement can be used as well for displacement sensing. In this case,
a solid dielectric element, which is free to move in the longitudinal
direction of the capacitor plates, is attached to the moving object whose
displacement is to be measured.

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Digital Sensors
• Any measuring device that presents information as discrete samples
and does not introduce a quantization error when the reading is
represented in the digital form may be classified as a digital
transducer.
• According to this definition, for example, an analog sensor such as a
thermocouple that is integrated with an analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) is not a digital transducer. This is so because a quantization
error is introduced by the ADC process. In particular, a measuring
device that falls into one of the following types may be classified as
a digital transducer:
1. A measuring device that produces a discrete or digital output
without using an ADC
2. A transducer whose output is a pulse signal or a count
3. A transducer whose output is a frequency (which can be precisely
converted into a count or a rate)

Advantages of Digital Sensors

• They do not introduce quantization error.
• Digital signals are less susceptible to noise, disturbances, or parameter
variation in instruments
• Because data can be generated, represented, transmitted, and processed
as binary words consisting of bits, which possess two identifiable states
(the noise threshold is half a bit).
• Complex signal processing with very high accuracy and speed is possible
through digital means (hardware implementation is faster than software
implementation).
• High reliability in a system can be achieved by minimizing analog hardware
components.

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Advantages of Digital Sensors

• Large amounts of data can be stored using compact, high-density data
storage methods.
• Data can be stored or maintained for very long periods of time without
any drift or disruption by adverse environmental conditions.
• Fast data transmission is possible through existing communication means
over long distances with no attenuation and with less dynamic delays,
compared to analog signals.
• Digital signals use low voltages (e.g., 0–12 V dc) and low power.
• Digital devices typically have low overall cost.

Optical Encoder
• The optical encoder uses an
opaque disk (code disk) that
has one or more circular tracks,
with some arrangement of
identical transparent windows
(slits) in each track.
• A parallel beam of light (e.g.,
from a set of light-emitting
diodes or LEDs) is projected to
all tracks from one side of the
disk.

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Photo Diode
Light Emitting Diode
It is formed by a reverse biased PN junction.
It is formed by a forward biased PN junction.
When the PN junction surface is placed in the
When electrons in N-type semiconductor
light source, the charge carriers in the
combine with holes in the P-type
photodiode get energy, and they start
semiconductor, they release energy in the form
moving. The movement of charge carriers in
of light or heat.
the diode results in the generation of electric
The electrons in conduction band possess
current in the photodiode.
higher energy than holes in the valence band.
This process is termed as photoconduction
Thus, recombination is possible only when
as the process of conduction is possible only
electron gives some part of the energy. This
using Photons.
concept is called electro-luminance and LEDs
Materials: Silicon (190-1100 nm),
are based on this.
Germanium (400-1700 nm), Indium Gallium
Materials : Indium gallium nitride
Arsenide (800-2600 nm), Lead Sulphide
(InGaN),Aluminum gallium indium phosphide
(1000-3500 nm) etc are the semiconductors
(AlGaInP), Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs),
used for making different types of
Gallium phosphide (GaP)
photodiodes.

Optical Encoder
• The transmitted light is picked off using a bank of
photosensors on the other side of the disk, which
typically has one sensor for each track.
• The light sensor could be a silicon photodiode or a
phototransistor.
• Since the light from the source is interrupted by the
opaque regions of the track, the output signal from the
photosensor is a series of voltage pulses.
• This signal can be interpreted (e.g., through edge
detection or level detection) to obtain the increments
in the angular position and also the angular velocity of
the disk.

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Encoder Types
• Incremental Encoder
– The output of an incremental encoder is a pulse signal, which is
generated when the transducer disk rotates as a result of the motion
that is measured.
– By counting the pulses or by timing the pulse width using a clock
signal, both angular displacement and angular velocity can be
determined.
– With an incremental encoder, displacement is obtained with respect
to some reference point.

Encoder Types
• Absolute (Whole Word) Encoder
– It has many pulse tracks on its transducer disk. When the disk of an
absolute encoder rotates, several pulse trains—equal in number to the
tracks on the disk—are generated simultaneously.
– The set of pulse trains gives an encoded binary number at any instant
corresponding to the specific angular position of the encoder disk at
that time.
– This expedites digital data acquisition and processing, and also
eliminating error retention if, for example, a pulse is missed (unlike an
incremental encoder).
– Absolute encoders are commonly used to measure fractions of a
revolution.
• Complete revolutions can be measured using an additional track, which
generates an index pulse, in both incremental encoder and absolute
encoder.

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Actual Encoder Assembly and Pinout

• Pins

Displacement measurement using

encoders
• Max count = M pulses , angular position corresponding to n pulses

• Where range =

• Resolution =

• Digital resolution

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Incremental Quadrature Encoder :

for Sensing the Direction

Methods of detecting direction

• By phase angle between the two signals
• By clock counts to two adjacent rising edges of the two
signals
• By checking for rising or falling edge of one signal when
the other is at high
• For a high-to-low transition of one signal check the next
transition of the other signal

Methods for detecting direction of motion in

Incremental Quadrature Encoder

• Method 1: the direction of

rotation may be obtained
by determining the phase
difference of the two
output signals, using
phase detecting circuitry.

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Methods for detecting direction of motion in

Incremental Quadrature Encoder
• Method 2: By clock counts to two adjacent n2
rising edges of the two signals
• A rising edge of a pulse can be determined by
comparing successive signal levels at fixed time
periods (can be done in both hardware and n1
software).
– Rising-edge time can be measured using
pulse counts of a high-frequency clock. n2
– Suppose that the counting (timing) begins
when the v1 signal begins to fall (i.e., when
a falling edge is detected). Let n1 = number
of clock cycles (time) up to the time when n1
v2 begins to rise; and n2 = number of clock
cycles up to the time when v1 begins to rise
again.
– following logic applies: if n1>n2 => cw
rotation if n2>n1=> ccw rotation

Methods for detecting direction of motion in

Incremental Quadrature Encoder
• Method 3: By checking for rising or
falling edge of one signal when the
other is at high
• In this case, we first detect a high level
(logic high or binary 1) in signal v2
and then check whether the edge in
signal v1 rises or falls during this high
period of v2.
– the following logic applies:
– If edge is rising in v1 when v2 is at
logic high cw rotation
– If edge is falling in v1 when v2 is at
logic high ccw rotation Þ

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Methods for detecting direction of motion in

Incremental Quadrature Encoder
• Method 4: For a high-to-low
transition of one signal check
the next transition of the other
signal
• Detect a high to low transition
in signal v1.
– If the next transition in
signal v2 is Low to High →
cw rotation
– If the next transition in
signal v2 is High to Low →
ccw rotation

Hardware of Commercial Optical Encoder

• Fluctuation in the supply voltage to the encoder light source directly influences the
light level received by the photosensor. If the sensitivity of the photosensor is not
high enough, a low light level might be interpreted as no light, which would result
in measurement error. Such errors due to instabilities and changes in the supply
voltage can be eliminated by using two photosensors, one placed half a pitch away
from the other along the window track

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Rectilinear Optical Encoder

• The code plate is attached to the moving object whose rectilinear motion is to be
measured.
• An LED light source and a phototransistor light sensor are used to detect the
motion pulses, which can be interpreted just like the way it is done for a rotatory
encoder.
• The phase plate is used, as with a shaft encoder, to enhance the intensity and the
discrimination of the detected signal. Two tracks of windows in quadrature (i.e.,
quarter-pitch offset) would be needed todetermine the direction of motion,

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