Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792
DOI 10.1007/s00170-015-6858-z
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Characteristics of machined and formed external threads
in titanium alloy
Diogo Tubertini Maciel & Sérgio Luiz Moni Ribeiro Filho &
Carlos Henrique Lauro & Lincoln Cardoso Brandão
Received: 2 September 2014 / Accepted: 27 January 2015 / Published online: 18 February 2015
# Springer-Verlag London 2015
Abstract Mechanical components with easy assembly,
especially those that use the threading process, are es-
sential for industrial products. Fixtures using threaded
components are employed from the aircraft to medical
industry. The mechanical fixings by tapping, for exam-
ple, in the biomedical field have the function of facili-
tating the initial insertion of orthopedic and dental com-
ponents and of ensuring excellent grip. The aim of this
work was to study the external thread by the forming
process in Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy using a forming
head with three rollers. Ti-6Al-4v titanium alloy was
used due to its excellent mechanical properties and wide
application as an aircraft and mechanical component
material. A statistical methodology (DoE) was per-
formed to identify and evaluate the effect of the factors
(initial diameter, forming speed, and measuring position)
on the responses; hardness, fill rate, and thread profile.
The results showed that the characteristics of the threads
depend on the factors of the threading processes. The
forming and machining speeds were the main parame-
ters affecting the process. The hardness in the thread’s
crest was lower than at the base and the middle regions.
Finally, the threads reached a desired profile with an
excellent fill rate not only for formed threads but also
for machined threads.
D. T. Maciel : S. L. M. R. Filho : L. C. Brandão (*)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of São
João del-Rei, 36.307-352Campus Santo Antônio, São João del
Rei, Brazil
e-mail: lincoln@ufsj.edu.br
C. H. Lauro
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro,
Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Keywords Titanium alloy . Form threading . External
Threads . Ti-6Al-4V
1 Introduction
The tapping of titanium and its alloys has attracted interest
from researchers and scientists in the academic and industrial
sectors, especially in the aerospace and biomechanical fields.
Titanium and its alloys are nonferrous materials that are fre-
quently applied in the production of aeronautic components
because of their light weight [5, 34], high mechanical resis-
tance [29, 10, 23], and excellent corrosion resistance [35].
Titanium alloys are also used with temperatures ranging from
0 to 600 °C [25].
However, machining is not only used to make parts and
machines. The process can also be employed to help in the
correct functioning of the human body. This occurs not only
with the production of prostheses and implants to replace
bones and cartilages but also by improving the quality of
devices used in complex heart surgeries. The interest and evo-
lution of manufactured implants to recover injured individuals
intensifies in times of war, improving the research on biocom-
patible materials. Titanium was introduced to medicine in the
1940s with the paper of Bothe et al. [6] about the reaction of
bone to multiple metallic implants. The authors implanted
several metals (titanium, stainless steel, and cobalt–chromium
alloy) in the femur of rats, with no significant adverse
reactions.
According to Zhang and Yang [37], titanium and its alloys
are widely applied nowadays, but their components are very
difficult to manufacture. This is due to their low elasticity
modulus, generating a friction torque that is seven times great-
er than in pure carbon steel. The solution to this problem can
780
be the use of assisted vibration. This process has been used
extensively, achieving good results, such as a decrease in
torque, an increase in tool life, and an improvement of thread
accuracy [26]. Kuo [24] investigated assisted vibration in the
internal tapping of pure titanium without coolant. The author
supports the use of a coolant, and smaller diameters for the
initial holes maintaining this can significantly decrease torque
in the process.
Dogra et al. [15] affirm that the machining of threads is a
widespread process that should be carefully prepared in its
setup, paying attention to the tool’s parameters. Failures like
tool breakage, premature wear, and damage to the workpieces
can generate losses not only due to the constant change of
tools but also due to the loss of production time. Such situa-
tions should always be avoided, or at least minimized.
According to Reis et al. [31], tool wear should be controlled
because it can influence the process parameters, such as tem-
perature, power, and cutting force. Cao and Sutherland [8]
affirm that the great problem in tapping is the breaking of
the tap in process due to the increase in torque generated by
the clamping of the tool.
Armarego and Chen [4] studied the torque, pressure, and
lateral force in tapping and concluded that new studies should
be carried out to improve understanding of the subject. Araujo
et al. [3] studied a specific force model in the milling of
threads to evaluate the tool’s effects on the geometry of the
threads in order to improve the development of the process.
The cutting models proposed were developed considering the
tool’s primary geometry in order to better understand the mill-
ing of threads. Dias et al. [12] studied and developed a special
forming process using a tool with radial and axial
displacement.
The use of coolants is necessary during tapping to decrease
the forces in the process. Browmick et al. [7] studied the
tapping of AM60 alloy with minimum quantity lubrica-
tion (MQL) and compared this with the dry process.
They observed that the use of coolant (MQL) can de-
crease the adhesion of magnesium on the tool’s surface
and the development of an edge. Thus, an increase in
tool life occurred, demonstrating that the use of a cool-
ant is paramount. In practice, form tapping is not fre-
quently applied in manufacturing industry because the
companies have a limited understanding of the parame-
ters involved in the process.
In some cases, an exchange of the traditional tapping pro-
cess by form tapping can be justified by its great advantage: no
chip generation. This means less time cleaning the threaded
region, because chips can generate interference during the
assembly of components [18]. Furthermore, not generating
chips in the form-tapping process gives it an edge over tradi-
tional tapping when environmental aspects are taken into ac-
count, given that there is less waste discarded in the environ-
ment in the form of chips.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792
Basically, all metallic materials can be threaded by the
form-tapping process. However, several gaps in the knowl-
edge associated with this process need to be filled [22].
Studies on the influence of parameters, such as forming speed,
initial diameter of the hole, fill rate of the thread profile, as
well as on the behavior of materials, are of great importance
for the command of this process [11, 26, 36, 2].
In addition, the forming process produces a significant in-
crease in torque, and hence machine power, when compared
with traditional thread machining [9, 1]. The study of alterna-
tive methods provides scope for a significant increase in the
flexibility of the form-tapping process taking into account the
tooling, making it more efficient, with less energy consump-
tion. According to Fromentin et al. [19], there is a growing
interest of industries in metal forming, particularly in the au-
tomotive industry, due to the inherent advantages of the sys-
tem when also using the MQL system. The main advantage is
that a great number of threaded holes can be formed with
greater reliability and increased cleanness.
External thread forming provides thread profiles with a
better surface and threads with more strength when compared
with traditional threading [21]. The increase of strain speed
improves the thread profile, generating a more significant im-
provement in the form-tapping process [1]. In addition, the
metallographic structure should be considered after the fin-
ished profile. Fromentin et al. [17] and Pereira et al. [30]
studied the plastic strain and the high strain stress generated
after form tapping. The authors concluded that form tapping is
a good option when compared with the traditional tapping
process. However, it is suggested that only materials with high
ductility have great potential for manufacturing by thread
forming. Generally, there are materials that continuously gen-
erate chips when the traditional process is applied, which
makes them more suitable for the forming process [13].
As such, and taking into account the peculiarities and dif-
ficulties encountered in the threading on titanium, both pro-
cess, traditional threading and forming, should be studied
more extensively. Because both processes result in additional
properties that could satisfy several requirements such as
strength at high temperatures, high stress, low wear rate of
the tooling, and low tendency to chemical reactions.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Experimental tests
Experimental tests were carried out using a CNC lathe with a
FANUC 0i numerical control model. Two different systems,
machining and forming, were applied to manufacture external
threads of M10 and pitch of 1.5 mm. The forming of the
threads used a head rolling model Fette with three rolls posi-
tioned at 120 degrees radially. On the other hand, the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792 781

machining process used Iscar code 16 ERM AG60 inter-

changeable inserts and a R166 25 × 25 tool holder
manufactured by ISCAR. Workpieces of Ti-6Al-4V titanium
alloy with 12 mm of diameter were used to manufacture the
threads. The fixture of the workpieces had an overhang of
15 mm for both processes. To facilitate the machining of
threads, the tools were fixed in the inverted position on the
tool holder, because with the cutting edge pointing down, the
chips will fall by gravity. The standardization of the initial
diameter for both processes was based on the ISO standard
DIN 13-1 [14], as can be seen in Table 1.
The height of threads was verified using a camera assem-
bled on a profile projector. Three measures were taken at the
crest (A), middle (B), and end (C) of the threads, according to
Fig. 1. The use of the camera also enabled a visual inspection
of the thread quality.
The microhardness was measured according to the
ASTM E384-07 (2007) standard. Based on the ASTM
standard, the indentations were produced according to
the Vickers test. The measurements were carried out
using a WPM model HP 250 microhardness tester with
a square-based pyramidal indenter by applying a load of
50 grf (0.49 N) for 10 s. Figure 2 shows a schematic of
the three positions: crest, base, and center-line, where
the microhardness tests were carried out.

Fig. 1 Detail of the thread’s light

2.2 Ti-6Al-4V alloy

Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy contains additives of α and β stabi-

phases present in the alloy and the existence of grains was
lizers and a microstructure that consists of a mixture of α and
observed with well-defined boundaries with the presence of
β phases. Cylindrical workpieces of length of 15 mm and a
α phase (lighter) and β phase (darker) without hardening.
hardness of 325±11 HV were used in the experimental tests.
Figure 3 shows the scanning electron microscopy images of
Table 2 shows the chemical composition according to ASTM
the Ti-6Al-4V alloy after etching. As stated before, the α and
F136. The chemical analysis reveals that the microstructure
β phases in the titanium alloy are well defined without hard-
was in line with the ASTM standard.
ening. Thus, the SEM analysis confirms that the titanium alloy
The titanium alloy was characterized using optical and
used in the experiments had a very homogeneous
scanning electron microscopy to verify the microstructural
microstructure.
homogeneity, grain size, and intermetallic phases. The micro-
structural analysis of the alloy and the threads was carried out
using a model TM 3000 SEM manufactured by Hitachi and a
model BX51 optical microscope manufactured by Olympus.
The Ti-6Al4V alloy was etched with 2 % of hydrofluoric acid
(HF) and 10 % nitrite acid (HNO3) during 5 s to show the

Table 1 Standardization for M12 threads

Thread Pitch Primitive diameter External diameter

[mm]
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]

M12 1.5 10.854 10.994 11.732 11.968

Fig. 2 Positions of the microhardness tests
782 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792

Table 2 Ti-6Al-4V chemical composition and standardization by ASTM F136 (% mass)

Element % Mass

Al [%] V [%] Fe [%] O [%] C [%] H [%] N [%] Y [%] Ti [%]

Ti-6Al-4V 5.5 3.5 0.25 0.14 0.08 0.01 0.03 50 ppm Balance
ASTM F136 5.5–6.5 3.5–4.5 0.25 Max 0.23 Max 0.08 Max 0.012 Max 0.05 Max – –

2.3 Design of experiments
Design of experiments (DoE) consists of a set of statistical
techniques that provides a method to structure, plan, execute,
and analyze experiments. The DoE is used to determine the
best condition of input parameters to obtain an optimal re-
sponse [28]. The DoE approach has become essential to de-
termine and examine the behavior of threading processes and
to identify which factors are most significant. Table 3 shows
the parameters and experimental levels investigated in exter-
nal thread forming. The experimental levels complied with the
supplier’s catalogue for nonferrous materials [16]. In addition,
the study carried out by Carvalho et al. [9] about form tapping
on magnesium alloy AM60 was also used as a reference to
define the experimental levels. A complete design of experi-
ments (3k), for forming and cutting tapping, was applied to
identify the main effects and the interaction of the input factors
on the responses.
The linear statistical model for the thread-forming process
can be defined as:
Y ijkl ¼ μ þ τ i þ β j þ γ k þ ðτβÞi j þ ðτγ Þik
þ ðβγ Þ jk þ ðτβγ Þi jk þ εijkl ð1Þ
where i=1, 2, 3 (values for forming speed), j=1, 2, 3 (values
of measurement position), k=1, 2, 3 (values of diameter), and
l=1, 2, 3 (number of replicates). Yijkl is the response (out), μ is
the global mean of the responses for all statistical treatments,
and τi represents the effect of the input parameter forming
speed. βj represents the effect of the measurement position,
γk represents the effect of diameter, and (τβ)ij represents the
effect of the interaction between τi and βj. Furthermore, (τγ)ik
is the effect of the interaction between τi and γk, (βγ)jk is the
effect of the interaction between βj and γk. Finally, (τβγ)ijk is
the effect of the interaction between τi, βj and γk, and εijkl is the
mathematical model of the randomized error.
Table 4 shows that the cutting speed of 38.83 m/min was
the limit for the machining of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy while still
ensuring an acceptable finishing of the threads. Preliminary
tests were carried out to define the upper speed limit for the
external threading of the titanium alloy. When forming speeds
were higher than 38.83 m/min, an imperfect titanium alloy
deformation was generated and the thread profiles showed a
format that did not comply with the ISO DIN 13 standard. The
diameter was measured in both the entry and exit of the work-
piece using a three-point digital micrometer with 10 μm of
accuracy.
The linear statistic model for the cutting threading process
is given by Eq. (2)

Y i jl ¼ μ þ τ i þ β j þ ðτβÞi j þ εi jl ð2Þ

where i=1, 2, 3 are the cutting speed values, j=1, 2, 3 are the
measurement positions, and l=1, 2, 3 are the number of rep-
licates. Υijkl is the response (out), μ is the global mean of the
responses for all statistics treatments, τi represents the effect of
the cutting speed factor, βj represents the effect of measure-
ment position, (τβ)ij represents the effect of the interaction

Table 3 Factors and levels of the form-threading process

Symbols Input parameters Levels

−1 0 +1

Fspeed Forming speed [m/min] 4.60 9.15 18.30

Mposition Measuring position Start Middle End
θi Initial diameter [mm] 10.85 11 11.15
Fig. 3 Scanning electron microscopy of Ti-6Al-4V
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792 783

Table 4 Factors and levels of the threading process by machining Table 6 Analysis of variance for formed thread

Symbols Input parameters Levels ANOVA Df Sum of Mean F values P values

square square
−1 0 +1
Thread profile
Mspeed Machining speed [m/min] 19.43 29.13 38.83 Fspeed 2 0.0351 0.01755 3.41 0.040
Mposition Measuring position Start Middle End Mposition 2 0.02162 0.01081 2.10 0.132
θi 2 3.62758 1.81379 352.24 0.000
Fspeed × Mposition 4 0.00031 0.00008 0.01 1.000
between τi and βj, and εijkl is the statistical model for random-
Fspeed × θi 4 0.07399 0.0185 3.59 0.011
ized error.
Mposition × θi 4 0.00343 0.00086 0.17 0.954
Table 5 shows the factors evaluated for the microhardness
Fspeed × Mposition 8 0.00804 0.00101 0.20 0.990
response, where only the values of the measurement position × θi
were varied. This variation generated an experimental array 33 Residual error 54 0.27806 0.00515
and 32 with three replicates and a result of 81 and 27 measure- R2 93.13 %
ments for the thread forming and cutting processes, Height of thread
respectively. Fspeed 2 0.011302 0.005651 4.39 0.017
Mposition 2 0.033584 0.016792 13.04 0.000
θi 2 0.614608 0.307304 238.65 0.000
3 Results and discussions Fspeed × Mposition 4 0.007493 0.001873 1.45 0.229
Fspeed × θi 4 0.006597 0.001649 1.28 0.289
The statistical software was used to perform the design of Mposition × θi 4 0.008784 0.002196 1.71 0.162
experiment (DoE) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) tech- Fspeed × Mposition 8 0.001793 0.000224 0.17 0.994
niques. The analysis of variance was used to verify the signif- × θi
Residual error 54 0.069535 0.001288
icance of each experimental factor on the responses based on a
R2 90.77 %
confidence interval of 95 %. Tables 6 and 7 show the results
Microhardness
for the analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the formed and
Fspeed 2 5,842.7 2,921.3 24.5 0.000
machined threads, respectively. The second column indicates
Mposition 2 213.1 106.5 0.89 0.415
the degrees of freedom (df), the third column represents the
θi 2 5,746.4 2,873.2 24.09 0.000
sequential square sum (Seq SS), and the fourth column shows
the adjusted square sum (Adj SS). Furthermore, the fifth col- Fspeed × Mposition 4 2,447.5 611.9 5.13 0.001
umn exhibits the adjusted mean square (Adj MS) that is cal- Fspeed × θi 4 2,036.9 509.2 4.27 0.004
culated by dividing the sum of adjusted squares by the number Mposition × θi 4 609.4 152.3 1.28 0.290
of degrees of freedom (Adj SS/DF). Fspeed × Mposition 8 565.8 70.7 0.59 0.779
× θi
The F parameter represents the F ratio, which is calculated Residual error 54 6,440 119.3
by dividing the adjusted mean square of each factor by the R2 83.06 %
mean square error. Finally, the last column shows the P values,
which indicate the probability of the Adj MS factor and Adj
MS error having the same value, that is, the probability of each 0.05, the effects are considered significant. When the value of
factor having no influence on the diameter of the formed α is less than or equal to 0.05, there is a 95 % probability of the
thread profile. In other words, the P values indicate whether effect being significant. The R2 (Adj) value exhibited in the
the results are statistically significant. If the P value is less than ANOVA shows the proportion of the variability present in the
observations of the response variable y, which is explained by
Table 5 Factors and levels of the microhardness
the predictor variables in the regression equation. The closer
Symbols Parameters Levels the coefficient is to 1 (or of 100 %) for R2, the better the quality
of the fitted data to the equation; it is generally accepted that a
−1 0 +1 value above 70 % is acceptable [28].
Fspeed Forming speed [m/min] 4.60 9.15 18.30 The main effect is present when different values of the
Mposition Measuring position Middle Base Crest factor affect the response differently, and the interaction oc-
θi Initial diameter [mm] 10.85 11.00 11.15
curs when the variation of the average response depends on
Mspeed Machining speed [m/min] 19.43 29.13 38.83
the value of a second factor. The main effect of a factor should
Mposition Measuring position Middle Base Crest
be interpreted individually only if there is no evidence that the
factor does not interact with other factors. It should be
784 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792

Table 7 Analysis of variance for machined thread 11.9

0.802%

Mean Crest Thread diameter [mm]

ANOVA Df Sum of Mean F values P values 11.8
square square
11.7
Thread profile
5.174%
11.6
Mspeed 2 0.098935 0.049467 107.79 0.000
Mposition 2 0.027743 0.013871 30.23 0.000 11.5 0.695%
Mspeed × 4 0.003316 0.000829 1.81 0.172 Forming Speed [m/min]
Mposition 11.4 4.60
Residual error 18 0.008261 0.000459 9.15
0.638
R2 94.03 % 11.3 18.30

Height of thread profile 10.85 11.00 11.15

Mspeed 2 0.009231 0.004616 5.92 0.011 Initial diameter [mm]
Mposition 2 0.001235 0.000617 0.79 0.468 Fig. 4 Relationship between forming speed, initial diameter, and mean
Mspeed × 4 0.001164 0.000291 0.37 0.824 crest thread diameter
Mposition
Residual error 18 0.014026 0.000779 proportional behavior for each initial diameter of the work-
R2 85.39 % pieces. It can be seen that for the diameter of 10.85 mm the
Microhardness material has little bulk to be deformed and the use of a high
Mspeed 2 126 63 0.64 0.540 forming speed provides the smallest diameters of threads. On
Mposition 2 3,174.89 1,587.44 16.05 0.000 the other hand, when the bulk of material is high, for a diam-
Mspeed × 4 1,079.11 269.78 2.73 0.062 eter of 11.15 mm, for example, low forming speeds are need-
Mposition
Residual error 18 1,780 98.89
ed, such as a forming speed of 4.6 m/min. The Ti-6Al-4V
R2 91.10 %
titanium alloy has a medium ductility value because of the
aluminum in its chemical composition (about 5 %). Thus,
the perfect forming of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy needs to be
considered that, when one or more interaction effects are sig- carried out slowly to generate threads without the influence of
nificant, the factors that have interaction must be considered elastic recovery. According to Mosecker et al. [27], who stud-
and evaluated together. The results are presented using “main ied the sheet metal forming of Ti-6Al-4V, the elastic recovery
effect” and “interaction” plots. Interaction graphs are used to controls not only the local hardening but also the thickness
visualize the interaction effect of two or more experimental reduction of the material. As such, the use of low forming
factors on the response [28]. speeds and high diameter values provided a thread with a high
height due to the low local hardening. In addition, it can be
affirmed that the percentage of reduction in diameter of
3.1 Thread profile
0.802 % between the low and high forming (at 11.15 mm of
initial diameter) speeds was not relevant.
3.1.1 Formed thread

The diameter measurements for the thread forming ranged
from 11.28 to 11.91 mm. As previously mentioned, the pa-
rameters with a P value less than or equal to 0.05 are consid-
ered significant. The bold P values 0.040, 0.000, and 0.011 in
Table 6 show that the main factors forming speed, diameter,
and the interaction forming speed vs. diameter were of signif-
icant influence on the diameter of the thread forming profile.
In this way, only the interaction forming speed vs. diameter
was exhibited, as can be seen in Fig. 4. The value of 93 % for
the adjusted parameter R2 shows that the adjusted model was
satisfactory.
The reduction of forming speed was observed to provide a
variation of 5.174 % in the forming profile diameter consid-
ering the initial diameters 10.85, 11.00, and 11.15 mm, at a
forming speed of 4.60 m/min (continuous dark line). In addi-
tion, the variation of the forming speed values showed a
3.1.2 Machined thread
The measurement of the diameters for machining threads
ranged from 11.88 to 12.14 mm. The bold P values 0.000
and 0.000 for machining speed and diameter, respectively, in
Table 7 show that these input parameters affected the measure-
ment of machining thread profile diameters. The value of
94.03 % for adjusted parameter R2 shows that the adjusted
model was satisfactory.
Figure 5 shows the main effect plot for machining speed on
the external diameter of the machined thread profile. High
cutting speed values are seen to provide high diameters for
the machined thread profile. The increase in cutting speed
generated a gradual increase of 1.22 % in the diameter of the
machined profile. This is, therefore, the opposite of what hap-
pened with thread forming: the use of high speed machining
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792 785

12.08
Although the ratio of length to diameter is small, the duc-
Mean Crest Thread diameter [mm]

12.06
12.04
12.02
12.00
11.98
11.96
11.94
11.92
1.22%
11.90
19.40 29.13
Machining Speed [m/min]
Fig. 5 Relationship between machining speed and mean crest thread
diameter
provided the highest thread profiles. Considering that in ma-
chining a shearing of material occurs related to the time of the
process, the use of high speed machining avoids the influence
of the elastic recovery on the material during the cutting mech-
anism. Although the increase was only 1.22 % in diameter, it
should be noted that this variation is of great influence on the
accuracy of threads during assembly, because it corresponds
to the tolerance range in the thread of 0.146 mm.
The increase of the diameter proportional to the increase of
machining speeds reinforces that the material has high elastic
recovery because of the rapid tool movements. Considering
that in machined thread, the major effect is a cutting mecha-
nism rather than deformation of the material, the displacement
of the tool in the axial direction during the machined thread of
Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy can be affected by a small deflection
of the material. The measured values in the start position were
higher than the values at the middle and end position. The
percentage of the difference between the diameters at the start
and end position is approximately 0.64 %, as can be seen in
Fig. 6. Thread forming has, therefore, a great advantage over
machining threading when the external diameter is
considered.
12.04
Mean Crest Thread diameter [mm]
tility of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy was influenced by the alu-
minum in its chemical composition and a bending of the
workpiece can be generated during the process. In machining
processes such as rough turning, finishing turning, and
threading, there is a resultant force formed by three forces.
The variation in diameter is related to radial force (passive
force), and it is strongly influenced by the overhang of work-
pieces when a tailstock is not used. Furthermore, depending
on the overhang used in machining threading, errors on the
diameter can increase significantly, impairing the assembly of
38.83
threads. On the other hand, as seen previously, the overhang
has no influence on the diameter in the thread-forming pro-
cess, keeping the diameter constant without variation. This
could be a great advantage of thread forming when compared
with machining threading.
3.2 Height of thread profile
3.2.1 Formed thread
The values for height H ranged between 0.462 and 0.858 mm
for a perfect profile height HP of 0.92 mm (HP =0.61343×P),
as can be seen in Fig. 7. P values in Table 6 show that the
forming speed, measuring position, and initial diameter affect-
ed significantly the height of thread forming. The value of
90.77 % for adjusted parameter R2 shows that the adjusted
model was satisfactory for the height of thread H results.
Figure 8 shows a plot for the main effect of the forming
speed on the height of thread profile H. The main effects
charts show a better view of the effects of each factor involved
in the analysis of variance (see Table 6). It is, therefore, pos-
sible to evaluate the controllable variables, which have signif-
icant effect on the responses. Because the interactions were
not significant, only the main effects of the experimental fac-
tors are displayed. The increase of forming speed from 4.60 to
9.15 m/min provided a reduction of 3.91 % in the height of
thread profile H, and from 9.15 to 18.30 m/min, it resulted in
an increase of 3.64 %, as can be seen in Fig. 8. It is observed

12.03
12.02
12.01
12.00
11.99

11.98
11.97 0.64%
11.96
11.95

End Middle Start

Measuring Position
Fig. 6 Relationship between measuring position and mean crest thread
diameter Fig. 7 Perfect profile height Hp and height H
786
0.67
Mean Height of Thread - H [mm]
0.665
0.66
0.655
0.65
3.91%
0.645
0.64
4.60 9.15
Forming Speed [m/min]
Fig. 8 Relationship between forming speed and mean height of thread H
that lower forming speeds showed linearity with the mean
values for height of thread profile H, and they were roughly
similar.
To achieve a good profile produced by deformation of the
material, forming speeds must be in the range of 4.6 to 18.3 m/
min. This statement correlates with ISO DIN 13-1 [14] for the
forming of standard M12 metric thread with pitch of 1.5 mm.
The height of the M12 thread should have a standardized
height of thread profile of 0.8819 mm. Based on this, the
minimum error of the profile’s height was 3 %, considering
the profile height of 0.858 mm (forming speed of 4.60 mm/
min, initial diameter of 11.15 mm, and first point measuring).
Stéphan et al. [33] also achieved good internal M8 thread
profiles when using large volumes of material. An initial di-
ameter lower than the one recommended by the tool’s supplier
provided a perfect thread profile.
In addition, the correct height of the thread profile based on
the DIN 13 standard was obtained with low forming speeds,
which provide the necessary time to deform the material with
low influence of the elastic recovery and high initial diameter
due to the great bulk of material that generated the most com-
plete thread profile. Fromentin et al. [18] studied the forming
tapping of C70 carbon steel, and the forming speed used was
14 m/min at a nominal diameter (recommended by the tool’s
supplier). According to the authors, the rise in temperature
leads to the thermal softening of the work material, which is
beneficial in form-tapping operations. It can, therefore, be
concluded that the increase in diameter was proportional to
the height of the thread profile. The use of a high initial diam-
eter in the external thread can be a good solution to generate
better filling of the thread profile.
The use of high forming speeds are recommended for fer-
rous materials because the heat generated during the process is
associated with a temperature rise and this is responsible for
the deformation of the material and generation of excellent
thread profiles [18]. On the other hand, low forming speeds
in nonferrous material avoid not only a significant increase of
thermally induced stresses and shape distortions but also the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792
influence of elastic recovery. According to the results obtained
in this work, this assertion can be applied equally to the
forming of external threads in the Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy.
The measuring position directly affects the height of the
thread H. When the measuring point is changed from crest
to base, the height of the thread is reduced from 0.687 to
0.638 mm, representing a gradual decrease of 7.66 %. This
3.64% behavior confirms the influence of the measuring position on
the response of H, as can be seen in Fig. 9. The difference
occurred due to the time of contact between the roller and the
workpiece, which is of influence on the deformation and the
18.30
flow of the material during the generation of the thread.
Usually, the rolling system should deform the entire length
of the thread in order to reduce the effect at the end of the
thread, where the deformation is higher, providing lower di-
ameters. However, it should be taken into account that the
length of the thread is greater than the length of the roll.
Thus, a specific strategy in thread forming should be
employed to provide a complete deformation of the thread
profile throughout its length to ensure the accuracy of
assembly.
The increase of initial diameter provides a significant in-
crease of 35.96 % in the height of thread profile H, as can be
seen in Fig. 10. The elastic recovery of the material was high,
represented by two straight lines with different gradients, the
greater being between 11.00 and 11.15 mm. The type of thread
in triangle format provides less material for the formation of
large diameters.
However, the use of large diameters to provide compacting
of the material can be compromised by elastic recovery.
Unlike what was expected, the more the volume of material
used to fill the thread profile was, the higher was the elastic
recovery of the Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy. Considering the
results, therefore, using a high initial diameter (11.15 mm)
was a good strategy to generate perfect thread profiles provid-
ing the best filling of the thread, in addition to using a forming
speed of 4.60 m/min to avoid elastic recovery.
0.69
Mean Height of Thread - H [mm]
0.68
0.67
0.66
0.65
7.66%
0.64
End Middle Start
Measuring position
Fig. 9 Relationship between measuring position and mean height of
thread H
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792 787

0.8
3.3 Analysis of microhardness
Mean Height of Thread - H [mm]

0.75
3.3.1 Formed thread

0.7
0.65
0.6
35.96%
10.85 11.00
Initial diameter [mm]
Fig. 10 Relationship between initial diameter and mean height of
thread H
3.2.2 Machined thread
The values for height ranged between 0.913 and 1.055 mm.
Figure 11 shows the effect of machining speed on the thread’s
height compared with the HP value, which affected the height
of thread (see Table 7). The intermediate machining speed
value of 29.13 m/min showed the greatest thread profile
heights. The percentage difference between the heights of
the threads in the range of 19.40 to 29.13 m/min and 29.13
to 38.83 m/min were 4.25 % and 3.50 %, respectively. For the
machining of thread profiles, the ideal cutting speed was ob-
served to be close to 29.13 m/min. This is the opposite to what
happened to the thread diameter variation: the height of the
thread H was higher when the medium cutting speed was
applied (29.13 m/min).
Thus, the use of cutting speeds between 29.13 and 38.83 m/
min provides not only higher external diameters but also
higher thread height H. Considering the variation of these
parameters, it can be affirmed that higher diameters are re-
sponsible for assemblies with better accuracy and higher
thread heights considering the H value. This can provide more
resistance in the thread when the screw is subjected to tensile
stresses.
1.04
Mean Height of Thread - H [mm]
The hardness tests were carried out to support the evidence of
hardening due to the strain of the material. The microhardness
in thread forming ranged from 303 to 385. The main factors
forming speed, initial diameter, and the interactions between
the forming speed vs. diameter and forming speed vs. measur-
ing position affected the microhardness (see Table 6).
Figure 12 shows the interaction of the values forming
11.15
speed vs. diameter considering the diameter of the forming
thread. The variation of the forming speed values showed a
separate behavior for each initial diameter on the workpieces.
A peak for diameter of 11.00 mm can be observed in Fig. 12
when the forming speed of 9.15 mm/min was applied. The
increase in forming speed generated a variation of 4.60 %,
5.86 %, and 3.46 % in the hardness HV for the forming speeds
of 4.60, 9.15, and 18.30 m/min, respectively. The highest mi-
crohardness obtained was 355 HV, but with the initial diame-
ter of 11.00 mm.
Considering the height of thread H and the diameter of the
thread, the best group of parameters were, therefore, the
forming speed 4.6 m/min and diameter of 11.15 mm, accord-
ing to the previous results. However, according to Fig. 12, the
maximum microhardness was 340 HV when these parameters
are taken into account. Although the microhardness of the
thread is directly related to the strength of screw, it should
be kept in mind that the physical dimensions of the thread
should be considered according to the DIN ISO 13 standard.
In addition, the use of high forming speeds initially provides a
hardening of the material, but then a softening of the material
occurs because of the heat generated, decreasing the hardness.
Although the forming speed of 9.6 m/min had generated
the highest value for microhardness, as can be seen in Fig. 12,
the variation of microhardness based on the initial diameter
was only 5.86 %. As such, the low forming speed (4.6 m/min)
355
Initial diameter [mm]
350 10.85
Mean for Microhardness [Hv]

11.00
1.03 345 11.15
4.60%
340 5.86%
1.02 3.50%

4.25% 335

1.01
330

1.00 325
3.46%
320
0.99
4.60 9.15 18.30
19.40 29.13 38.83 Forming Speed [m/min]
Machining Speed [m/min]
Fig. 12 Relationship between forming speed, initial diameter and mean
Fig. 11 Relationship between cutting speed and mean height of thread H for microhardness
788
and high initial diameter (11.15 mm) should also be consid-
ered for microhardness. Therefore, it is possible to ensure a
hardening of the material that may generate an increased re-
sistance, while maintaining the formed threads within the stan-
dard patterns.
Figure 13 shows the interaction effect for forming speed vs.
measuring position of the mean values of microindentation
HV. The increase in forming speed generated a decrease of
5.33 % and 4.15 % in the hardness HV in the crest and base of
the thread, respectively. The percentage difference of the mi-
crohardness between the highest and lowest forming speed in
the middle region was approximately 10.59 %. The mi-
crohardness values were greater in the thread’s central
region. For the lowest forming speed (4.60 m/min), the
middle of the thread was the region with the highest
microhardness. On the other hand, the forming speeds
of 9.15 and 18.30 m/min showed a trend in which high
forming speeds generated lower microhardness in all
regions of the thread.
However, high forming speeds were not ideal for the hard-
ening of the material and did not reduce the microhardness in
the middle and crest of the workpiece. The highest microhard-
ness values in the middle of the thread profile occurred due to
the displacement of the material from the base to the crest in
both sides of the thread profile. This phenomenon occurs due
to the incompressibility of the material that is forced between
the two wedges with shaped threads of the screw during the
generation of the thread profile [33].
The base of the thread profile was the second region with
high hardness due to the hardening of grains. The crest in the
external threading did not show a hardening as good as the one
demonstrated by Carvalho et al. [9]. Despite being similar to
the internal threads, the thread-forming mechanism for exter-
nal threads presented in this work is of great influence on the
elastic recovery, avoiding a complete fill of the thread, mainly
in the crest. Stéphan et al. [33] support that the reduction of
initial diameter of 0.1 mm generates complete thread profiles
360
2.66%
Mean for Microhardness [Hv]
350
1.82%
4.15%
340
330 2.14%
320
4.60 9.15
Forming Speed [m/min]
Fig. 13 Relationship between forming speed, measuring position and
mean for microhardness
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792
for M8 threads. Similar results were found by Carvalho et al.
[9] in the form tapping of magnesium alloy AM60.
3.3.2 Machined thread
The microhardness in the machining threading ranged from
304 to 370 HV. The main factor measuring position was sig-
nificant, exhibiting a P value of 0.000 (Table 7). The value of
81.10 % for adjusted parameter R2 shows that the adjusted
model was satisfactory for the results obtained.
Figure 14 shows the main effect of the measuring position
on the microhardness for the threading process by machining.
The microhardness in the thread’s crest was lower than in the
middle and base. The microhardness values in the middle and
base were roughly similar. The percentage difference between
the microhardness of the crest region and the middle region
was 16.7 % due to the structural rearrangement of the material
generated by the cutting tool. In machining threading, material
removal occurs in a triangular shape and the crest is not influ-
enced by the process because no material is removed in this
region. The cutting tool tends to influence and increase the
hardening of material at the lateral and base of the thread
profile due to the cutting mechanism.
3.4 Microstructural analysis of the thread
The deformation of the material during the thread-forming
process can be analyzed according to the metallographic char-
acteristics of the material. The objective is to evaluate the
metallurgical aspects and failures that could arise from the
heating of the workpieces or from the hardening of the mate-
rial. Fromentin et al. [19] and Henderer and von Turkovich
[20] analyzed these variables and concluded that the harden-
ing caused by the forming during the threading process is
beneficial, increasing the hardness of the thread profile region.
However, in these studies, the authors did not analyze the
tensile strength and deformation of the threaded profile in the
350
Measuring position
Mean for Microhardness [Hv]
Base 345
Crest
Middle 340
335
10.59%
330
7.16% 7.02%
5.33%
325
18.30 Middle Base Crest
Measuring Position
Fig. 14 Relationship between measuring position and mean for
microhardness
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792
axial direction, to which threaded parts are subjected more
frequently in the assembly of industrial components.
Figure 15a shows the optical microscopy of the forming
threads for the initial diameter of 11.00 mm and 9.15 m/min,
which showed higher packing according to the results for
hardness.
A hardening of grains in the microstructure can be consid-
ered, which is a characteristic of forming threads. According
to Emuge-Franken [16], a visible strain of the material struc-
ture can occur in forming threads, as can be observed in
Fig. 15. This is due to the deformation in the base of the thread
as well as near the crest of the thread and is a result of the
hardening of the material. Thus, this phenomenon causes a
reduction of the so-called notching effect of the material, in-
creasing its resistance when subjected to dynamic loads.
Figure 15b shows the microscopy of the forming thread for
the diameter of 11.15 mm and forming speed of 9.15 m/min.
Figure 16a shows the microscopy of the forming thread
diameter of 10.85 mm and forming speed of 9.15 m/min.
Figures 16 and 17 show that less packing of threads occurred
for the diameter of 10.85 mm and the forming speed of
9.15 m/min because of the low bulk of material deformed
for the lowest initial diameters. In addition, the highest value
for H was obtained using the initial diameter of 11.15 and
forming speed of 9.15 m/min.
However, the thread crest geometry did not provide a stan-
dardized profile according to the ISO standard DIN 13-1 [14]
because the dimension of the crest became wider than recom-
mended by the standard. Nevertheless, despite the height of
the thread being lower than recommended, the thread profile
showed the same conditions for mechanical strength as the
standardized and machined profile based on the microhard-
ness information. The range of microhardness for machining
and forming threads was the same, and this condition shows
that both thread profiles have similar mechanical resistance.
Figure 16b shows a typical surface finishing of the thread
profiles by forming. The feed rate marks were generated dur-
ing the preparation to define the exact diameter of the work-
piece. The forming process provides a good finishing without
burrs or marks of the tool. The crest of the thread was not
Fig. 15 Microstructure of forming thread for diameter of 11.00 mm and cutting speed of 9.15 m/min (a) and diameter of 11.15 mm and cutting speed of
9.15 m/min (b) (zoom of 50×)
789
affected by the forming tool because of the low bulk of mate-
rial. A visual analysis reveals that there is no tearing of the
material generating a surface with higher roughness values.
The forming process generated a better surface roughness than
the machining process.
Figure 17a shows the microstructure of a machined thread
for the cutting speed of 29.13 m/min. The speed was not a
significant parameter for the microhardness of the machining
thread process, and no variation of the initial diameter oc-
curred. The uniformity of the microstructure of the material
can be observed, without the presence of hardening of the
grains. The machined threads showed a more complete
and perfect profile than the formed threads. This situa-
tion is confirmed because the profile of the machined
threads was more similar to the standard profile than the
formed thread profile.
However, the machined profile showed burr formation on-
ly on one side of the thread profile: the region of contact
between the tool’s flank and the workpiece. In addition, the
chip formation generates Poisson-type burrs because of the
ductility of aluminum in the Ti-6Al-4V alloy. In addition, the
radii at the base of the thread profile in formed threads were
0.36 mm, and in machined threads, they were of 0.2 mm.
Generally, greater radii provide more resistance against crack
formation and these kinds of geometries are easier to
manufacture.
According to Shigley et al. [32], if the radius of curvature in
the notch tip is very small, or if there is no radius, the stress
level is very high. Sharp corners are especially critical for
components submitted to axial efforts such as internal threads.
In addition, external threads are also submitted to axial and
torsion forces simultaneously. Thus, machined threads
showed a more complete profile, closer to the standardized
thread profile. In all machined threads, however, burrs were
formed and they require a deburring process after the
threading process. On the other hand, forming threads do not
reach a high value for H as specified in the standard profile
according to DIN 13 (1999), but they have a profile with no
burrs and rounder corners that can avoid injury to operators
and a final deburring process.
790
Fig. 16 Forming thread for diameter of 10.85 mm and cutting speed of 9.15 m/min (zoom of 50×) a microstructure, b surface finishing of the thread
Figure 17b shows the typical surface finishing of the thread
profiles by the machining process. Contrary to the thread pro-
file in the forming process, the machining threading generated
a worst finish. A visual analysis reveals that the surface rough-
ness was much higher than in the thread-forming process.
Machining processes cause a tearing on the surface of the
materials, which sometimes require a posterior machining
process, such as grinding or polishing, depending on the qual-
ity specifications of the product. According to Figs. 16b and
17b, thread forming provides a high-quality finishing of the
surface when compared with machining threading.
Furthermore, the burr generated in machining threading was
formed along the entire thread profile, requiring that a
deburring process be performed as mentioned previously.
4 Conclusions
The present study investigated the variations of forming
speed, machining speed, initial diameter, and measuring posi-
tion in the forming and machining processes of external
threads. Based on the experimental results and subsequent
analysis, the following conclusions can be drawn.
& When considering the diameter and height H in the exter-
nal thread-forming process, the forming speed and the
Fig. 17 Machining thread for cutting speed of 29.13 m/min (zoom of 50×) (a) microstructure, (b) surface finishing of the thread
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792
initial diameter of the workpieces were the most signifi-
cant factors.
& Considering the forming speed, there is an ideal midpoint
where the inertia of deformation causes the best hardening
of the grains and provides a better filling of the thread
profiles. The variation of forming speed produced a dif-
ferent characteristic of the thread profile for each initial
diameter of the workpieces.
& The increase of the diameters of the forming thread profile
occurred as a result of a reduction of the forming speed
and increase of the initial diameter.
& The percentage difference of the deformed diameter be-
tween the high and low forming speeds was not signifi-
cant. The smaller diameters of workpieces showed the
best thread profiles with an increase of the fill rate due to
the high forming speed.
& The initial diameter is the most relevant factor for the fill
of the thread profile. The high elastic recovery of the ma-
terial can be confirmed in large diameters where no reduc-
tion of the diameter of the thread can be observed.
& It can also be noted that the thread-forming process should
be optimized considering the difference generated in the
value H for the height of the thread profile at the start,
middle, and end measuring positions. On the other hand,
the hardening of the grains can improve the quality of the
thread profile, which results in stronger threads. The
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:779–792
forming speed and initial diameter were the most signifi-
cant factors for the microhardness response.
& When machining threading is considered, the highest
speed values resulted in larger diameters of the thread’s
profile. The increase in machining speed generated a grad-
ual increase in the diameter of the thread’s profile. The
initial position showed higher values for outer diameters
at the middle and end positions than at the start position.
& The machining speed was the most influential factor for
the height H of the thread profile. The intermediate ma-
chining speed value of 29.13 m/min showed higher values
for thread height.
& Evidence shows that due to the small overhang of the
workpiece in the fixing during the threading process the
influence of the measures at the start, middle, and end of
the workpieces was not significant. Therefore, considering
the difference generated by the cutting speed, the interme-
diate values should be used for the best quality in machin-
ing the profile.
& The results of the microindentation for the machining
threading showed that the region of the thread’s crest
has lower microhardness than the base and the middle
regions. The average hardness was 324.333 HV for the
crest, 347.111 HV for the base, and 347.56 HV to the
middle.
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