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    Heat Class 8 Physics

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    bhupendra kumar
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    EBM Chopter5 INTRODUCTION Motion of particles and bodies is an important topic in physics. In the chapters ‘kinematics and ‘dynamics’, we studied in detail the translatory motion of bodies and the cause of such motion. However, the motion of a child on a swing, the vibrating string of a sitar, the oscillations of the atoms, etc., are not translatory in nature. In these cases the motion is Tepeated over and over at regular intervals. Such motion is repeated over and over at regular intervals. Such motion which is periodic in nature and repeats itself is called periodic motion, Thus, we may classify the revolution of the Earth around the sun and the motion of the minute hand of a clock also as periodic motion. However, there is a distinction between the ‘motion of the Earth and the motion of a pendulum bob or the motion of the minute hand of the clock and the motion of a vibrating string, though they are all periodic in nature. In the latter cases the motion is vibratory or oscillatory in nature, i.e., the motion is to-and-fo, unlike the periodic motion of the bodies in which the bodies never reverse the direction of motion. When the string of a guitar is plucked the string vibrates. Similarly a mass suspended from a spring oscillates when pulled and released. Here the bodies move to and fro and this motion is referred to as vibratory of oscillatory motion, ‘There are some physical quantities/terms which characterize the vibratory motion. For example, when the bob of a pendulum is pushed gently to one side it performs oscillations or vibrations, and when it completes one full to and fio motion it is said to have completed ‘one cycle. The rest position of the bob before it was made to oscillate is called mean position and the two positions where the bob changes its direction of motion are called extremes. The horizontal displacement from the mean position to either of the extremes is called amplitude of the vibration. The time taken for the bob to complete one cycle or oscillation is the period or the time period of oscillation, and the number of oscillations performed by the bob in one second is referred to as frequency. Example: if a bob takes one minute (ic., 60 s) to complete 20 oscillations, then the time , ap 805 20 oscillation 1 yeriod (T) and the frequency (n) are T= SS =3 5, and n = SMation Pt quency (n) 20 OG! Thus, we see that n and Tare related as n = : SIMPLE PENDULUM A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass ‘mt usually called bob, suspended from a rigid support with the help of an unstretchable, mass less string. A practical simple pendulum has a small metallic bob suspended from an unstretchable thread and its length ‘¢” is the distance between the point of suspension and the centre of gravity of the bob. When a simple pendulum is set to oscillate it moves to and fro about it's mean position between the two extremes ‘A and B with constant amplitude as shown in the figure. FIGURE 5.1 Simple pendulum Wave Motion and Sound EM A.B extrame positions, O maan position FIGURE 5.2 Figure showing the mean and extreme positions of a simple pendulum When we plot the horizontal displacement and the time on a graph paper the curve obtained would be in the form of a wave, Ee £ m i 2 wal ° FIGURE 5.3 Displacement Vs Time graph of a simple pendulum Each loop of the graph represents one complete oxcillation of the pendulum. When the bob is at its mean position the displacement is zero and at its extremes the displacement is either ‘+a’ or ‘=a’ corresponding to the amplitude of the oscillation, LAWS OF SIMPLE PENDULUM {A freely oscillating simple pendulum of given length always possesses a constant time period and thus it can be used as a time measuring devi pendulum, valileo discovered the laws of simple 1st Law of Simple Pendulum For small values of amplitude the time period of a simple pendulum of a given length is independent of the amplitude of oscillation. 2nd Law of Simple Pendulum For small values ofamplitude the period ofa simple pendulum ofa given length is independent of its mass, size, density and shape of the bob. EER. Chopter 5 3rd Law of Simple Pendulum For small values of amplitude the time period of a pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of its length Ta Je p constant or “ = constant Tr Verification of Laws of Simple Pendulum Verification of 1st Law FIGURE 5.4 Experimental arrangement to show that time period of simple pendulum is independent of its amplitude Suspend a simple pendulum of length 100 cm from the cork fixed to a retort stand as shown in the figure. Set the simple pendulum to oscillate uniformly about its mean position with a small amplitude, say, 8 cm. Tabulate the time taken by the bob for 20 oscillations in two trials by using a stop watch. Repeat the same procedure by changing the amplitude in two steps say 6 cm and 4 cm. Determine the time period in each case. Determine the average time period of pendulum in each case. From the observations tabulated we find that che time period of oscillation remains the same, establishing the first la Barr Eee eed Lith Memes) oar an) Wo) T= (fi+t)/ 40 errs 1 8cm 2 6cm 3 4m Wave Motion and Sound EE Verification of 2nd Law Take three simple pendulums whose bobs ate made up of different material or of different radii. Suspend each pendulum from a different retort stand with equal length (say 100 em) and set them to oscillate freely with a small amplitude, Note the time taken by each pendulum for 20 oscillations in two trials with the help of a stop watch and determine their time periods, POR PLL ee ee iad SACRA KC MAC) PPL 1 Ast 2nd 3rd From the observations recorded we find that the time period of the pendula irrespective of the size, shape, mass or density of the bob. This establishes the second I law. Verification of 3rd Law Suspend a simple pendulum of length 50 cm from a retort stand using a co fively with a small amplitude, Note the time taken to complete 20 oscillations, and determine the time period by taking the mean of the values obtained in two trials. Increase the length of the pendulum to 100 cm in steps of 10 cm and determine the time period of the pendulum in each case with the help of a stop watch. rk, Oscillate it eee) Pert ce) Length of the rey mers ve S.No,’ pendulum (7) ————csetions__T= hari ey trial 1 (f) (s) trial 2 (ta) (s) Ce 50 60 70 80 90 100 1 Z 3 4 aw Calculate the value of 2 or 2 in each case and tabulate the results. From the results veo & . T obtained it can be observed that according the third law, the value of <7 remains constant though Tis not constant when the length of the pendulum is changed. WAVE MOTION Consider the surface of still water in a pond. Ifa pebble is thrown into the water, a disturbance is created in water which travels outward in all directions ftom the point of disturbance in Ps a the Rent of ripples on the suttice, The ripples created on the surface of water are ci Ww shape When observed closely we tind that as a ripple is moving away from the poing o¢ steturbuanes, the water particles do not exhibit tanslatory motion but vibrate up and Lies the water particles do not travel along with the ripples. This can be understood by observing 4 leat that touts on the water surface, The floating leaf has up and down motion vw the vertical diteetion, but it does not have lateral translatory motion along the surface of water ‘THe energy given to the surfice of water by the pebble is transmitted to other pars of water surtce through ripp SRG sca ry on of te water particles. Thy ws the principle of wave motiad Thus a wave is detined as a medium which propagates in all Sirextions, thom the point of generation, without actual translatory motion of particles of the maton TEN the Propagation of the wave is called ‘wave motion’, Transverse Waves ‘The citcular ripples produced on the surface of water expand and propagate through water. As the ripples move horizontally across the surface of water, the water particles vibrate up seal down, Thus, as the water waves (ripples) propagate horizontally, the particles of the medium (here water) vibrate in a transverse (perpendicular) direction to the direction of wave Propagation, Such waves are known as “transverse waves’, Thus, transverse waves are defined 8 “the waves in which the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation’. Ripples are the waves formed on surface of water and so these are alo called surfice waves. Direction of wave mation Direction of particle vibration FIGURE 5.5. Transverse wave in string Consider a string of a certain length, with one end attached to a fixed support. Hold the other free end of the string in hand, stretch and vibrate it in a perpendicular direction to the length of the string. A wave pattern is observed in the string as shown in the Fig. 5.5 The rest position or mean position of the string is shown by a dotted line in the figure. [As the wave propagates ffom left to right, the particles of the string vibrate up and down, thus forming a transverse wave in the string. At a given moment there are some positions in the wave where the vibrating particles have maximum displacement in the upward direction from the mean position. a —— These positions are known as e57nd are shown by ‘C’ in the Fig. 5.5. At the same moment, there are some positions the wave, where the vibrating particles have maximum Direation of particle vibration DNOOME Oc c RB € B c FIGURE 5.7 Formation of longitudinal waves ina spring AAs the rings of the spring vibrate to and fro, we find that at any given moment, in some regions in the spring the distance bet Sjacent rings is les than the distance between ~ them before the disturbance was started. Such regions are known as ‘compressions’ and are denoted by ‘C’ in Fig. 5.7. Similarly, at the same moment there are some regions in the spring, where the distance between two adjacent rings is larger than the distance between them when they were at the mean position. Such regions in the spring are known as ‘rarefactions’ and are denoted by “RU in Fig. 5.7. As the spring vibrates, a series of compreMSfons and fatefactions propagate from one end to the other end of the spring; and so energy is propagated from one end to another without translatory motion of the particles. Thus, a wave is formed. In this wave, the MEER Chopter5 rection parallel the direction of the particles of the medium (here the rings) vibrate in a di "Thus, a longitudinal wae ‘wave propagation. Such a wave is known as a “longitudinal wave”. is defined as ‘a wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate in 2 eae tothe direction of wave propagation’. So, longitudinal waves propagate in ame’ Mom of compressions and rarefictions. Compressions are aso known as “eqndensati00° Mod travelling in air or in any gas is an example of longitudinal wave propagatio! compress In the case of longitudinal waves, the distance between two successive FOMPreAONs or the distance between two successive rarefacions is known as ‘wavelength’ and the time interval between two successive compressions or the time interval between YO successive rarefictions at a given point is known as ‘time period’ of the wave propagation. The number of compressions or rarefactions produced in unit time is known as ‘frequency. Relation between Fi ime Period (7) and waren ae ‘requency (n), Time Period ( Time period (7) of a wave is defined as the time taken to produce one complete wave; and frequency (n) of a wave is defined as the number of complete waves produced in unit time, Thus, they are related as 1 or T=— n : In one time period (1), a wave advances by a distance equal to one wavelength. Thus, if Vis the velocity of the given wave, it is given by, x) a Ver Asn = Vp we may write V= nh Thus, velocity of wave propagation = frequency * wavelength. Frequency of a sound wave produced by a vibrating body is 50 Hz. Find the wavelength of the sound wave produced. (Vie = 330 ms") SOLUTION Venh>r SOUND Sound is a form of energy which causes sensation of hearing, Sound is produced by vibrating bodies, When a bell is struck with a metallic rod, it produces sound. We can sense the vibrations of the bell while it is producing sound by touching it. We can even observe that the sound ceases when the bell stops vibrating. Experiment to Verify that Vibrating Bodies Produce Sound FIGURE 5.8 Experimental arrangement to show that vibrating bodies produce sound Consider a tuning fork fixed to a rigid support as shown in Fig. 5.8. A pithball suspended fiom a support is held close to one of the prongs ofthe tuning fork. When the fork is excited with a rubber hammer and if the pithball isin contact with the fork, we observe that the ball is flicked away by the fork, indicating that the tuning fork which is producing sound is vibrating and the pithball is flicked away by the vibrations of the fork. From this we may conclude that sound is produced by vibrating bodies. When we speak, the vocal chords present in a cavity of our throat, called larynx, vibrate and produce sound. The vibrating strings of a guitar, veena, etc., cause the production of sound in the ‘sounding boxes’ of these instruments TRANSMISSION OF SOUND Sound propagates in the form of mechanical waves. So, it requites a material medium to propagate from one place to another. Sound can propagate through solids, liquids and also through gases. When an earthquake occurs, the shock waves produced at the point where the earthquake occurred travel in all possible directions. They travel through layers of the Earth which consist of solid rock materials as well as liquid water bodies. On reaching the surface of the Earth, these sound waves travel through air and reach our ears and produce the sensation of hearing, Thus, sound waves travel through solids, liquids and gases too. Ifa person scratches one end ofa longrail, the sound produced would almost instantaneously be heard by another person holding his ear to the rail at the other end. The same sound traveling through air would take longer (nearly 14 times more time!) to be heard over the same distance. Furthermore, its intensity would also be much lower. Thus, we find that sound travels faster in solids than in gases or air. Consider two divers under water, separated by a considerable distance. If one of them produces a sound, the other can hear it ater a certain time. Separated by the same distance, if these two persons are above water, and if one produces a sound, the other would take a little more time to hear it than the time taken under water. This indicates that sound travels faster an liquids than in gases or air EEE : ie tal r If the two divers under water are stationed at two ends of a ee ieee eee es cone of them taps the rod at his end, the other diver would fin Rae = sound earlier if he holds his ear to the rod. This shows that soun in liquids. the least in gases Thus, velocity of sound is the highest in solids, less in liquids and the aK: air. Longitudinal Nature of Sound Waves in Air Consider sound emitted by a loudspeaker with high intensity. When a Piece Bhs chee in front of the speaker, we observe that the paper is set into vibration by the ae by the speaker, Thus, the sound produced by a vibrating body sets the Ra of ar Gust asthe piece of paper considered above) to vibrate. These lyers of sr vibrate ina direction parallel to the direction of wave motion; thus forming longitudinal waves. Thus, sound travels in air in the form of longitudinal waves. Sound Requires a Medium for Propagation As discussed earlier, sound requires a material medium for its propagation and does not travel through vacuum. Consider a glass jar with an outlet at the bottom and an eeans bell suspended from its lid, made of cork, by means of strings as shown in the Fig. 5.9. The clectrical connections (not shown in the figure) are made to the bell and it is switched on (switch not shown in figure). Lid made of cork Supporting stings Electric bell, }— Glass jar To vacuum pump FIGURE 5.9 Experimental arrangement of a bell jar experiment As the bell rings we can hear the sound produced by the bell. Now the outlet of the jar is connected to a vacuum pump, and the air in the jar is gradually removed. As the air in the jar is gradually removed, we observe a gradual decrease in the loudness of sound and finally we cannot hear the sound. As the air is removed, vacuum is created in the jar, because of which wwe are unable to hear the sound. This shows that sound cannot travel through vacuum and requires a material medium for its propagation. Wave Motion and Sound (KM muSsIC AND NOISE rhe sound that produces a pleasing ee sound that produces an unpleasant or irritating eff ‘ct On our ears is called music, whe! ‘ct on Our ears is called noise. FIGURE 5.10 Note of a music and a noise A sound that produces a ple: h asant person may have an unpleasant effect on another person. So, it is difficult to classify a given sound as music or noise. Musical Instruments Instruments that produce musical notes ate called musical instruments. Depending on the mode of production of music, these instruments ate classified into three kinds. They are (2) Instruments that produce music by vibrating strings, (b) Instruments that produce music by vibrating membranes and (c) Instruments that produce music by vibrating air columns. Stringed Instruments These instruments have stretched strings and vibration of these stretched strings produce musical notes, Increasing or decreasing the thickness and tension of the strings and also their length, can produce musical notes of different pitch. Veena, sitar, guitar, violin, etc., fall under this category of musical instruments. These instruments have a sounding box, which vibrates at the same frequency as the stretched string and increases the intensity of the sound produced. Percussion Instruments (Drum Instruments) ‘These instruments have stretched membranes that are usually made of leather, and vibration of these membranes produce musical notes. Exciting these membranes at different locations produce musical notes with different pitches. Drums, mridangam, tabla, etc., fall under this category of musical instruments Wind Instruments (Blow Type Instruments) These are generally made of long and hollow pipes with a certain number of holes on the lateral side. Musical notes are produced by blowing through a nozzle at one end and changing the length of the air column by selectively closing or opening some of the holes, Wind instruments are of three types: Flute type organ-pipes, reed type organ pipes and brass instruments. In flute type instruments the compressed air entering the instrument is forced through a slit and strikes a lip. Different notes can be produced by opening/

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