THE SHAILENDRA DYNASTY

Dr Uday Dokras
Srishti Dokras

The remarkable creators of the Borobudur Temple and Prambanan Temple and

How the Buddhist and Hindu were built

The bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depict a King sitting in Maharajalilasana (king's posture or royal
ease) pose, with his Queen and their subjects, the scene is based on Shailendran royal court.

The expansion of Indian civilization "to those countries and islands of the Orient where Chinese
civilization, with strikingly similar aspirations, seemed to arrive ahead of it," is one of the outstanding
events in the history of the world, one which has determined the destiny of a good portion of mankind.

"Mother of wisdom gave her mythology to her neighbors who went to teach it to the whole world.
Mother of law and philosophy, she gave to three-quarters of Asia a god, a religion, a doctrine, an art.
She carried her sacred language, her literature, her institutions into Indonesia, to the limits of the
known world, and from there they spread back to Madagascar and perhaps to the coast of Africa,
where the present flow of Indian immigrants seems to follow the faint traces of the past."

Sylvain Levi, L'lnde civilisatrice: Apergu historique (Paris, 1938), p. 136.

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Introduction: The two most remarkable sites to visit around Yogyakarta would be Borobudur
Temple the remarkable creation of the Shailendra dynasty and Prambanan Temple. Besides Bali,
Borobudur Temple is the most visited tourist destination in Indonesia.

The Builders: Shailendra dynasty :

The Shailendra (meaning "Lord of the Mountain" in Sanskrit) dynasty was the name of a
notable Indonesian dynasty that emerged in 8th century Java whose reign marked a cultural
renaissance in the region. The Shailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism and
covered the Kedu Plain of Central Java with Buddhist monuments, one of which is the colossal
stupa of Borobudur, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The name may have been associated
with the volcanic mountains of Central Java. The name of the dynasty (Sailendra-vamsa) is first
attested in the Candi Kalasan Inscription dated 778. The Sailendra practiced intensive rice
cultivation and had an administrative hierarchy which controlled the allocation of water for
irrigation. The Sailendra dynasty held the concept of the "Dewa-Raja" (God-King), the belief
that the King had divine power as a living god among his subjects. Though their economy was
based on rice cultivation, they had access to ports on the northern coast of Java and maintained
commercial and marital ties with the Srivijaya kingdom in southern Sumatra. The Sailendra
participated in the Spice Route trade between China and India, but their level of participation
never rivaled that of Srivijaya.

The Shailendras are considered to be a thalassocracy and ruled maritime Southeast Asia,
however they also relied on agriculture pursuits through intensive rice cultivation on the Kedu
Plain of Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the ruling family of both the Medang
Kingdom of Central Java for some period and Srivijaya in Sumatra.

The inscriptions created by Shailendras uses three languages; Old Malay, Old
Javanese and Sanskrit, written either in the Kawi alphabet or pre-Nāgarī script. The use of Old
Malay has sparked the speculation of a Sumatran origin or Srivijayan connection of this family;
on the other hand, the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political establishment on Java.
The use of Sanskrit usually signifies the official nature and religious significance of the event
written on the inscription.

Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred in Kedu Plain in the Javanese heartland, their
origin has been the subject of discussion. Apart from Java itself; an earlier homeland in Sumatra,
India or Cambodia has been suggested. The latest studies apparently favor a native origin of the
dynasty. Despite their connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and Thai-Malay Peninsula, the
Shailendras were more likely of Javanese origin.

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Except for its legacy of monuments, little is known of the dynasty. It apparently emanated from
the agricultural lowlands of interior Java but extended its real power to the north-western coasts
of the island, from which its emissaries traded with and raided the Malay peninsula and
Indochina.

According to the traditional account, the Sailendra kingdom came to an abrupt end when a prince
from the rival Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty, named Rakai Pikatan, displaced them in 832. Rakai
Pikatan, who was the crown prince of the Sanjaya Dynasty, married Pramodhawardhani, a
daughter of Samaratunga, king of Sailendra.

Hindu and Buddhist Kingdoms of Java: In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Java observed
rivalries between two dynasties- one Buddhist and the other Hindu.

1.The Sailendra or Shailendra dynesty who were Hindus who had risen in Southern Java since
779, and
2. The first four Sanjaya Dynasty lines after King Sanjaya (Panangkaran, Panunggalan, Warak
and Garung), which was known as the Amrati Kings-were Buddhists-competed over their power
and religious influences with the Sailendras princes.
3. Only an isolated kingship in the east of Java, Gajayana, appeared to have control over the
Mount Kawi region in 760 .

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Although relationship between the Amrati Kings with Sailendra was important at that time, the
rivalries between the two is still unclear. From the Kalasan and Ratu Boko inscriptions, there
were stated that Panangkaran granted permission requested by the collective guru of the
Sailendra king to build Buddhist sculptures, shrines and monasteries in honor to the goddess
Tara. The construction was built under Panangkaran's supervision, but was supported by
Sailendra's expenses. In order to show his respect to the guru, Panangkaran consented the
building of the shrine by giving the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community. So
apparently there was friendly give and take between the two

Shailendra dynasty produced a ruler of Mataram Kingdom between AD 760—775, King

Panangkaran whose formal regnal name was Mahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa -
the king of, the kingdom of which its power centralized on Java island of Indonesia. He was
Crowned as Rakai Panangkaran, and was the immediate successor of Sri Sanjaya, the founder of
Sanjaya Dynasty as mentioned in the Kalasan inscription. The name of Panangkaran is
mentioned in the Balitung charter (found in the Kedu Plain area) as the line of kings who were
named as the 'builders of ‘Krton'- which is a generic name for a palace type structure.

The Shailendra dynasty from Sanskrit combined words Śaila and Indra, meaning "King of the
Mountain",also spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra) was the name of a
notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century Java, whose reign signified a cultural
renaissance in the region. The Shailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism with
the glimpses of Hinduism, and covered the Kedu Plain of Central Java with
Buddhist monuments, one of which is the colossal stupa of Borobudur, now a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. (See Dr Uday Dokras’ book Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple on
academia.edu)

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The Shailendras are considered to have been a thalassocracy and ruled vast territories of
maritime Southeast Asia, however they also relied on agricultural pursuits, by way of intensive
rice cultivation on the Kedu Plain of Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the ruling family
of both the Medang Kingdom of Central Java, for some period, and the Srivijaya Kingdom in
Sumatra.
Decoding Inscriptions: To throw some light on these mysterious characters llet us examine some
inscriptions. The inscriptions created by Shailendras use three languages; Old Malay, Old
Javanese, and Sanskrit - written either in the Kawi alphabet, or pre-Nāgarī script. The use of Old
Malay has sparked speculation of a Sumatran origin, or Srivijayan connection of this family. On
the other hand, the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political grip.
A. The Sojomerto inscription (c. 725) discovered in Batang Regency, Central Java,
mentioned the name Dapunta Selendra and Selendranamah. The name 'Selendra' was
another spelling of Shailendra, suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the progenitor of
Shailendra family in Central Java.[6] The inscription is Shaivist in nature, which suggests
that the family was probably initially Hindu Shaivist before converting
to Mahayana Buddhism.

B. The earliest dated inscription in Indonesia in which clearly mentioned the dynastic name
of Śailēndra as Śailēndravamśatilaka appears is the Kalasan inscription (778) of central
Java, which mention its ruler Mahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa and
commemorates the establishment of a Buddhist shrine, Candi Kalasan, dedicated for the
goddess Tara.

C. The name also appears in several other inscriptions like the Kelurak inscription (782) and
the Karangtengah inscription (824). Outside Indonesia, the name Shailendra is to be
found in the Ligor inscription (775) on the Malay peninsula and Nalanda
inscription (860) in India. It is possible that it was Paṇaṃkaraṇa that create the Chaiya,
or Ligor inscription (775), and took control over Srivijayan realm in the Southern
Thailand Malay Peninsula.

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Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred in Kedu Plain in the Javanese heartland, their
origin has been the subject of discussionApart from Java itself; an earlier homeland
in Sumatra, India or Cambodia has been suggested. The latest studies apparently favour a native
origin of the dynasty. Despite their connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and Thai-Malay
Peninsula, the Shailendras were more likely of Javanese origin.
India Connect: According to Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, an Indian scholar, the Shailendra
dynasty that established itself in the Indonesian archipelago originated from Kalinga in Eastern
India. This opinion is also shared by Nilakanta Sastri and J. L. Moens. Moens further describes
that the Shailendras originated in India and established themselves in Palembang before the
arrival of Srivijaya's Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. In 683, the Shailendras moved to Java
because of the pressure exerted by Dapunta Hyang and his troops.
Sumatra connect: Other scholars hold that the expansion of Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was
involved in the rise of the dynasty in Java. Supporters of this connection emphasize the shared
Mahayana patronage; the intermarriages and the Ligor inscription. Also the fact that some of
Shailendra's inscriptions were written in old Malay, which suggested Srivijaya or Sumatran
connections. The name 'Selendra' was first mentioned in Sojomerto inscription (725) as
"Dapunta Selendra". Dapunta Selendra is suggested as the ancestor of Shailendras. The title
Dapunta is similar to those of Srivijayan King Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, and the inscription
— although discovered in Central Java north coast — was written in old Malay, which suggested
the Sumatran origin or Srivijayan connection to this family.
Java Connect: Another theory suggests that Shailendra was a native Javanese dynasty and
the Sanjaya dynasty was actually a branch of the Shailendras since Sri Sanjaya and his offspring
belong to the Shailendra family that were initially the Shaivist rulers of the Medang Kingdom.
The association of Shailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Panaraban
or Panangkaran to Buddhism. This theory is based on the Carita Parahyangan, which tells of the
ailing King Sanjaya ordering his son, Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran, to convert to Buddhism
because their faith in Shiva was feared by the people in favor of the pacifist Buddhist faith. The
conversion of Panangkaran to Buddhism also corresponds to the Raja Sankhara inscription,
which tells of a king named Sankhara (identified as Panangkaran) converting to Buddhism
because his Shaiva faith was feared by the people. Unfortunately, the Raja Sankhara inscription
is now missing.

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Discounted proposal: In 1934, the French scholar Coedes proposed a relation with
the Funan kingdom in Cambodia.( See further on ) Coedes believed that the Funanese rulers
used similar-sounding 'mountainlord' titles, but several Cambodia specialists have discounted
this. They hold there is no historical evidence for such titles in the Funan period.

Borobudur, the largest Buddhist structure in the world.

The Shailendra rulers maintained cordial relations, including marriage alliances
with Srivijaya in Sumatra. For instance, Samaragrawira married Dewi Tara, a daughter of
Srivijayan Maharaja Dharmasetu. The mutual alliance between the two kingdoms ensured that
Srivijaya had no need to fear the emergence of a Javanese rival and that the Shailendra had
access to the international market.

Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned about king Samaratungga. His daughter
named Pramodhawardhani has inaugurated a Jinalaya, a sacred buddhist sanctuary. The
inscription also mentioned a sacred Buddhist building called Venuvana to place the cremated
ashes of King Indra. The Tri Tepusan inscription dated 842 mentioned about the sima (tax free)
lands awarded by Śrī Kahulunan (Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga) to ensure the
funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān itself from the
word mula which means 'the place of origin', a sacred building to honor the ancestors. These
findings suggested that either the ancestors of the Shailendras were originated from Central Java,
or as the sign that Shailendra have established their holds on Java. Casparis suggested that Bhūmi
Sambhāra Bhudhāra which in Sanskrit means "The mountain of combined virtues of the ten
stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur.

The received older version holds that the Shailendra dynasty existed next to the Sanjaya
dynasty in Java. Much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence and cooperation
but towards the middle of the 9th century relations had deteriorated. Around 852 the Sanjaya
ruler Pikatan had defeated Balaputra, the offspring of the Shailendra monarch Samaratunga and
princess Tara. This ended the Shailendra presence in Java and Balaputra retreated to the
Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra, where he became the paramount ruler.

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Earlier historians, such as N.J. Krom and Coedes, equate Samaragrawira and Samaratungga as
the same person. However, later historians such as Slamet Muljana equate Samaratungga with
Rakai Garung, mentioned in Mantyasih inscription as fifth monarch of Mataram Kingdom.
Which means Samaratungga was the successor of Samaragrawira, and Balaputradewa that is also
Samaragrawira's son, is Samaratungga's younger brother and ruled in Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra),
and he is not Samaratungga's son. This version holds Balaputra that reign in Sumatra challenged
the Pikatan-Pramodhawardhani legitimation in Java, arguing that his niece and her husband has
less rights to rule Java compared to his.

In 851 an Arabic merchant named Sulaimaan recorded an event about

Javanese Sailendras staging a surprise attack on the Khmers by approaching the capital from the
river, after a sea crossing from Java. The young king of Khmer was later punished by the
Maharaja, and subsequently the kingdom became a vassal of Sailendra dynasty. In 916 CE,
a Javanese kingdom invaded Khmer Empire, using 1000 "medium-sized" vessels, which results
in Javanese victory. The head of Khmer's king then brought to Java.

Shailendra in Sumatra: After 824, there are no more references to the Shailendra house in the
Javanese ephigraphic record. Around 860 the name re-appears in the Nalanda inscription in
India. According to the text, the king Devapaladeva of Bengala (Pala Empire) had granted
'Balaputra, the king of Suvarna-dvipa' (Sumatra) the revenues of 5 villages to a Buddhist
monastery near Bodh Gaya. Balaputra was styled a descendant from the Shailendra dynasty and
grandson of the king of Java. From Sumatra, the Shailendras also maintained overseas relations
with the Chola kingdom in Southern India, as shown by several south Indian inscriptions. An
11th-century inscription mentioned the grant of revenues to a local Buddhist sanctuary, built in
1005 by the king of the Srivijaya. In spite the relations were initially fairly cordial, hostilities had
broken out in 1025. Rajendra Chola I the Emperor of the Chola dynasty conquered some
territories of the Shailendra Dynasty in the 11th century. The devastation caused by Chola
invasion of Srivijaya in 1025, marked the end of Shailendra family as the ruling dynasty in
Sumatra.

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The last king of Shailendra dynasty — the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman — was
imprisoned and taken as hostage. Nevertheless, amity was re-established between the two states,
before the end of the 11th century. In 1090 a new charter was granted to the old Buddhist
sanctuary, it is the last known inscription with a reference to the Shailendras. With the absence of
legitimate successor, Shailendra dynasty seems ceased to rule. Other family within Srivijaya
mandala took over the throne, a new Maharaja named Sri Deva according to Chinese source
establishing new dynasty to rule Srivijaya. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028.

CE.Shailendra in Bali: Sri Kesari Warmadewa was said to be a Buddhist king of the
Shailendra Dynasty, leading a military expedition, to establishing a Mahayana Buddhist
government in Bali. In 914, he left a record of his endeavour in the Belanjong pillar in Sanur in
Bali. According to this inscription Warmadewa dynasty was probably the branch of Shailendras
that rule Bali.

Family gtree: Traditionally, the Shailendra period was viewed to span from the 8th to the 9th
century, confined only in Central Java, from the era of Panangkaran to Samaratungga. However
the recent interpretation suggests the longer period of Shailendra family might existed, from mid
7th century (edict of Sojomerto inscription) to early 11th century (the fall of Shailendran dynasty
of Srivijaya under Chola invasion). For certain period, Shailendras ruled both Central Java and
Sumatra. Their alliance and intermarriage with Srivijayan ruling family resulted with the
merging of two royal houses, with Shailendran finally emerge as the ruling family of both
Srivijaya and Medang Mataram (Central Java).

Some historians tried to reconstruct the order and list of Shailendra rulers, although there is some
disagreement on the list. Boechari tried to reconstruct the early stage of Shailendra based on
Sojomerto inscription, while other historians such as Slamet Muljana and Poerbatjaraka tried to
reconstruct the list of Shailendran king in middle and later period with their connections
to Sanjaya and Srivijaya, based on inscriptions and Carita Parahyangan manuscript. However,
there is some confusion occurred, because the Shailendra seems to rule many kingdoms;
Kalingga, Medang and later Srivijaya. As the result name of the same kings often overlapped and
seens to rule these kingdoms simultaneously.

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 King's or Stone inscription and source
Date Capital Event
ruler's name of historical account

The Shaivist old Malay-

speaking family began to
settle in coastal Central
Sojomerto inscription (c. 670— Java, suggested of
c. 650 Santanu ?
700) Sumatran origin (?) or
native Javanese family
under Srivijayan
influences (vassal)

Establishing ruling
Batang family, the first time the
Dapunta Sojomerto inscription (c. 670—
c. 674 (Central Java name 'Selendra'
Selendra 700)
north coast) (Shailendra) was
mentioned

Kalingga,
Carita Parahyangan, Chinese
somewhere
674— account on Hwi-ning visits Ruling the kingdom
Shima (?) between Peka
703 to Ho-ling kingdom (664) and of Kalingga
longan and Je
the reign of queen Hsi-mo (674)
para

Son-in-law of Shima,
703— Mandiminyak
? Carita Parahyangan ruling the kingdom
710 (?)
of Galuh

Sanna ruled Java, but

after his death the
710— Canggal inscription (732), Carita
Sanna ? kingdom fell to chaotic
717 Parahyangan
disunity by usurper or
foreign invasion

Sanjaya, the nephew (or

717— Mataram, Canggal inscription (732), Carita
Sanjaya son?) of Sanna restore the
760 Central Java Parahyangan
order and ascend to
throne, some early

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 King's or Stone inscription and source
Date Capital Event
ruler's name of historical account

historian took this event

as the establishment of
new Sanjaya Dynasty,
while other hold that this
only the continuation of
Shailendras

Rakai Panangkaran
Raja Sankhara
converted from Shaivism
760— Rakai Mataram, inscription, Kalasan
to Mahayana Buddhism,
775 Panangkaran Central Java inscription (778), Carita
construction
Parahyangan
of Kalasan temple

Also ruled Srivijaya in

Sumatra, construction
of Manjusrigrha temple,
775— Mataram, Kelurak inscription (782), Ligor started the construction
Dharanindra
800 Central Java inscription (c. 782 or 787) of Borobudur (c. 770),
Java ruled Ligor and
Southern Cambodia
(Chenla) (c. 790)

800— Samaragrawira[1 Mataram, Also ruled Srivijaya, lost

8]:92–93 Ligor inscription (c. 787)
812 Central Java Cambodia (802)

Also ruled Srivijaya,

812— Mataram,
Samaratungga Karangtengah inscription (824) completion of Borobudur
833 Central Java
(825)

Defeated and
expelled Balaputra to
Pramodhawardh Srivijaya (Sumatra).
ani co-reign with Construction
833— Mamrati,
her Shivagrha inscription (856) of Prambanan and Plaosa
856 Central Java
husband Rakai n temple. The successors
Pikatan of Pikatan, the series
of Medang kings from
Lokapala (850—890)
to Wawa (924—929)

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 King's or Stone inscription and source
Date Capital Event
ruler's name of historical account

could be considered as the

continuation of
Shailendra lineage,
although
King Balitung (898—
910) in Mantyasih
inscription (907) sought
ancestor only as far as
Sanjaya, thus enforced
the Sanjaya
dynasty theory.

Defeated by Pikatan-
Pramodhawardhani,
expelled from Central
Srivijaya, Shivagrha Java, took refuge in
833—
Balaputradewa South inscription (856), Nalanda Sumatra and
850
Sumatra inscription (860) rule Srivijaya, claim as
the legitimate successor
of Shailendra dynasty
from Java

Śri Srivijaya, Sending embassies,

Embassies to China (960 and
c. 960 Udayadityavarm South tribute and trade mission
962)
an Sumatra to China

Srivijaya, Sending embassies,

c. 980 Haji (Hia-Tche) South Embassies to China (980–983) tribute and trade mission
Sumatra to China

Sending embassies,
tribute and trade mission
to China, Javanese
Srivijaya, Embassies to China (988-992-
Sri Cudamani King Dharmawangsa inva
c. 988 South 1003), Tanjore Inscription or
Warmadewa sion on Srivijaya,
Sumatra Leiden Inscription (1044)
building of temple for
Chinese Emperor, gift of
village by Raja-raja I

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 King's or Stone inscription and source
Date Capital Event
ruler's name of historical account

Sri Srivijaya, Sending embassies,

c. 1008 Maravijayottung South Embassies to China (1008) tribute and trade mission
ga Sumatra to China (1008)

Srivijaya, Sending embassies,

c. 1017 Sumatrabhumi South Embassies to China (1017) tribute and trade mission
Sumatra to China (1017)

Sangrama Srivijaya, Chola raid on Srivijaya,

Chola Inscription on the temple
c. 1025 Vijayatunggavar South the capital captured
of Rajaraja, Tanjore
man Sumatra by Rajendra Chola

Relationships: There are some theories regarding the Sañjaya-Sailendra relationship. Some
scholars suggested that there is no such things as Sanjaya dynasty, since there was only one
dynasty called Sailendra that ruled central Java. This theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and
suggested that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is called Medang with
the capital in Mataram area, and the ruling dynasty is Sailendra. He holds that Sanjaya and all of
his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially were Shivaist.

Another suggests that the Sañjaya dynasty then was forced to the north of Java by the Sailendra
dynasty, which emerged around 778. The evidence for this event is based on the Kalasan
inscription. During this period, the Sañjaya dynasty existed next to Sailendra dynasty in Central
Java, and much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence and cooperation.

The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja
Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to buddhism. The later Sailendran kings, successors
of Panangkaran become Mahayana Buddhist too and gave Buddhism royal patronage in Java
until the end of Samaratungga reign. This theory was based on Raja Sankhara Inscription (now
missing), Sojomerto inscription and Carita Parahyangan manuscript. Shivaist Hindu gain royal
patronage again since the reign of Pikatan, well until the end of the Medang kingdom.

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Another evidence pointed that Sailendra family was using old Malay language in some of their
inscriptions, which suggested Sailendra dynasty's foreign origin in Sumatra and their connections
with Srivijaya. This theory holds that the Sailendras, with their strong connections to Srivijaya,
managed to gain control of Central Java and imposing overlordship on the Rakais (local Javanese
lords) including the Sañjaya, thus incorporated the kings of Mataram Sañjaya dynasty in their
bureaucracy. The center of the dynasty court seems to be located in South Kedu (around
Magelang, North of Yogyakarta).

Campa: Kingdoms of Java maintain a close relationship with Champa kingdom in mainland
Southeast Asia since at least the reign of Sañjaya dynasty . Like the Javanese, the Cham are
Indianized Austronesian people. An example of relationship can be seen in architectural features
in Cham temples, that have many similarities with architectural styles of temples in central Java
that was built during the reign of Sañjaya dynasty.

Rulers of Central Java: who was the crown prince of the Sañjaya Dynasty, wedded
Pramodhawardhani (833–856), a daughter of Samaratungga, king of Sailendra. From that time
onwards, the influence of Sañjaya, who was a Hindu adherer, began to emerge in Mataram,
replacing the Buddhist Sailendra. Rakai Pikatan toppled king Balaputra, son of Samaratungga,
also the brother of Pramodhawardhani. As a result, in 850, the Sañjaya Dynasty was the sole
ruler in Mataram. This ended the Sailendra presence in Central Java and Balaputra retreated to
Srivijaya in Sumatra, where he became the paramount ruler.

The information about Sañjaya Dynasty is also found in the Balitung inscription dated 907.
According to the Balitung inscription – when a ruler died, they transformed into a divine form.

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From this inscriptions, the scholars estimated the possible sequence of the ruling kings of
Sañjaya dynasty:

 Sanjaya (732—760)
 Panangkaran (760—780)
 Panungalan (780-800)
 Samaragrawira(Rakai Warak) (800—819)
 Rakai Garung (819—838)
 Rakai Pikatan (838—850)
 Rakai Kayuwangi (850—898), also known as Lokapala
 Balitung (898—910)

It was also during the reign of the Sañjaya dynasty, the classic Javanese literature blossomed.
The translations and adaptation of classic Hindu literatures into Old Javanese was conducted,
such as the Kakawin Ramayana. Around 850s, Pikatan initiated the construction of the
Prambanan temple in Central Java, later completed and expanded extensively by king Balitung.
Prambanan temple complex is one of the largest Hindu temple in Southeast-Asia and its
greatness rivalled Borobudur, which happened to be the biggest Buddhist temple in the world.

The successions of Sañjaya kings after Balitung are:

 Daksa (910—919)
 Tulodong (919—924)
 Wawa (924—929)
 Mpu Sindok (929—947)

Decline: In 929, Mpu Sindok moved the court of Mataram from Central Java to East Java. It is
not entirely clear the actual reasons of the movement. There are some possible reasons; an
eruption of Merapi volcano, the power struggle, or political pressure from Sailendran based in
Srivijaya Empire may have caused the move.[1] [5]:128

The shift to East Java marked the end for the Central Javanese Sañjaya dynasty, and from then

on a new dynasty named the Isyana Dynasty emerged in East Java. 2

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With the flourishing of cultures in Rome, India and China at the turn of the millennium into the
common era my traders in Southeast Asia became rich. This was epitomized by the Khmer
kingdom of Funan. However with the fragmentation of Rome combined with civil wars in China
demand dropped precipitously and the Funan kingdom languished. In the 6th and 7th century
trade began to flourish again. This was after the disastrous Chinese civil wars of the Three
Kingdoms era and at beginning of the Sui dynasty followed immediately by the powerful and
long lasting Tang dynasty.
The Straights of Malacca: Although trade with China was beginning to grow again after
their civil wars, it did not return to the Gulf of Thailand. Instead exchange of goods between East
and West channeled through my islands.
The westward side of my Gulf of Thailand is called the Malay Peninsula. Just south of this
peninsula is a long and narrow island called Sumatra. The island begins midway up the peninsula
and extends an equivalent distance past the end of the peninsula. Between Sumatra and the
peninsula are the Straits of Malacca. The Straits of Malacca are the only way from India and the
West to the Gulf of Thailand, which connects up with China and the East of Asia. It is a narrow
corridor whose trade winds correspond to the alternation of the monsoons. Beyond Sumatra is
another long skinny island called Java, which we shall also visit. These islands are part of the
Indonesian archipelago.
Palembang
We mentioned how Hinduism and Buddhism was spread throughout the land of Southeast Asia
due to the influence of Indian traders. The Buddhism that was being spread from India was
mixed up heavily with Hinduism, as it preceded the Theravada purifications that were coming.
Because of this Indian influence and inspiration a Indianized kingdom with maharajahs began to
emerge at a trading port in southern Sumatra on the way from the Bay of Bengal to the Gulf of
Thailand.( See Chapter,,)
The name of the port was Palembang. As well as being an important port it was also an
important religious center as well. It was an entrepôt for the spread of religious ideas between
India and China. As early as the 7th century it was visited by Chinese and Indian devotees to
study doctrines and copy manuscripts in institutions that rivaled those in India. Due to the
importance of Palembang as a cultural and trade center wealth began to accumulate.
Capturing the China trade

16
Palembang supplanted Vyadhapura of Funan as the new entrepôt. There were multiple reasons
behind this transformation. So as not to lose perspective in the discussion that follows India was
the dominant influence in Palembang, just as it was in Funan. Chinese Buddhists were traveling
to Palembang to get Indian information, not vice versa. The Indian influence on the kingdom
based at Palembang on the island of Sumatra was considerable.
However in terms of trade, the Western market was still weak due to wars in and around the
Mediterranean. Rome was collapsing and had yet to be replaced by anything comparable. On the
other hand the China market was expanding due to an expanding economy resulting from peace
and internal consolidation that occurred during the Tang dynasty. Sensitive to possibilities the
traders from the East Indies were interested in capturing the growing Chinese market. That was
where the money was to be made.
As mentioned earlier as a warrior culture the ruling class in China were not supposed to engage
in trade. Further the Chinese considered themselves the center of the civilized world. As
evidence there is no word for China in Chinese. Instead they call themselves the Middle
Kingdom. What this meant was that traders from other kingdoms and cultures were meant to
visit China - not the other way around.
In the Chinese imperial mind the rest of the world consisted of vassal states that were meant to
pay tribute. As matter of interest this condition persisted into the modern era up until the 20th
century. The Chinese were not meant to explore and trade. They were so superior that they were
brought tribute and gave out presents. Hence at this point in history the Chinese were not traders
although they supplied manufactured goods to traders. Shanghai and Taiwan then as now were
trading ports where huge volumes of merchandise changed hands. The main difference was that
all the traders were foreign barbarians because the Chinese were not allowed by custom to leave
China.
The Austronesian sailors from my islands, who had spent centuries on the sea, were glad to
provide this function to China. They sailed into Chinese ports with foreign goods to supply the
Chinese appetite and purchased Chinese goods for resale in their ports to Indian merchants. To
accommodate this big customer and capture her exclusive trade rights, the entrepôt of Palembang
in Sumatra pledged obeisance to China as a vassal state. This meant that her foreign trade was
treated as tribute, and the goods they received in exchange were merely considered imperial
presents. By stroking the Chinese imperial ego the Palembang traders, like the Funanese before

17
them, were able to dominate that enormous market. To further sweeten the pot and attract the
Chinese pilgrims, Palembang began to stress China’s Mahayana Buddhism over Hinduism.
With this mass infusion of funds being funneled into Sumatra a great Empire began to grow.
Based in Palembang it was called the Srivijaya Empire. It began in the 7th century and lasted
into the 13th century. It laid many foundations for the politics and religion in Southeast Asia,
which we shall explore.
One of the other causes of their growth as an Empire was that the traders of Palembang began to
control the Straits of Malacca. They were the first empire to do so, but not the last. With the
control of the Straits of Malacca all trade between the East and West was channeled through their
hands. The Srivijaya Empire became the entrepôt between East and West.
This Palembang/Srivijaya Empire as it is sometimes called eventually grew to have a loose
control over the islands of Java and Sumatra, as well as the Malay peninsula. However they ruled
by prestige rather than by military power.
Cooperation and Mandala Politics in Eastern Asia
Southeast Asia: “Enough advertising. Back to my story. You’re set up enough of a contrast. In
your part of the world military domination combined with cultural propaganda is the rule. But
not in mine.
In order to understand the political organization of the Srivijaya Empire we need to explore the
mandala kingdom or empire. All the modern nation states are based upon clearly defined
property boundaries. Real estate is of primary importance in terms of tax collection as well as
property rights. Each modern country has clearly defined borders with a clearly defined
citizenry. Alternately the mandala state of Eastern Asia has no specific territory, as its influence
emanates from the center. Rather than defending the perimeter, the idea is to strengthen the
center.
With this type of political organization strict boundaries don’t exist. Instead power emanates
from the center. This power is based upon military and cultural prestige. The country is defined
by the capital. The spheres of influence are determined by the vassal states on the perimeter who
pay tribute to the king or emperor in the center. In return for tribute the supreme ruler provides
military protection and certain privileges.
In the case of the Srivijaya Empire, they were provided with exclusive trading rights with the
Chinese Empire in exchange by becoming one of her vassal states. In such a way the Srivijaya

18
Empire was part of the Chinese Empire in terms of the organization. Similarly the kingdom of
Funan was provided trade privileges when they pledged obeisance and tribute to China.
.”
Cooperating with China created the entrepôt port of Palembang and the Srivijaya Empire. This
was another kingdom with vassal states, who were also rewarded for cooperating. Hence
although the Srivijaya Empire had an Indianized political structure, it had the Chinese mandala
system for its Empire.
“Cooperate and you will be rewarded,” seemed to be the mantra that Srivijaya used with its
vassal islands. The Arab historians don’t ever mention piracy in their trading ventures in the East
Indies during these times. It seems that then as now that cultures that depend on trade realize that
safety is good for all. The positive side of trade is that it thrives on peace.
This maritime empire seems to have had only a limited army. They based their empire on
positive reinforcement - through cultivation of business contacts, rather than the negative
reinforcement of domination by military prowess.
Because power emanates in concentric circles from the center, there is a fluid, rather than fixed,
field of power. This means that if the center is weak the boundaries of influence collapse. Vice
versa when the center is strong the boundaries expand. This organization applies to the religious
sphere as well as the political. Under the political system the theoretical boundaries are
continually shifting depending on who gives the best deal and has the most prestige rather than
on who has the biggest army.”
Military domination of the sea was extremely difficult at this time. There was no equivalent to
the military technology of bronze combined with the chariot and horse - which allowed the
complete domination of one culture by another in the land based cultures. Because military
domination was impossible in these island kingdoms the cultures instead relied upon cooperation
and bribery.

Stability of Chaos
Despite the fact that these borders and spheres of influence were incredibly fluid, or perhaps
because of, these empires and kingdoms were incredibly stable. The Srivijaya Empire wasn’t
urbanized, didn’t have many cities, didn’t have a big army, didn’t occupy a capital continuously,

19
and didn’t have clearly defined territories and yet it lasted nearly 700 years. Further its influence
continues to modern times. Its impact has extended itself through time as well as through
geography. Indra’s Order was not able to keep our Dragon’s Chaos down.
The Empire survived by trade and agriculture rather than military prowess. It was not a territorial
unit, as much as capital based. In the case of Srivijaya Palembang was its center. However when
Palembang was attacked and conquered by the Chola Empire about 1000, it was in no ways the
end of Srivijaya, they simply moved their capital elsewhere and continued for another 300 years.
Similarly when the barbarians from the Central Asian steppes attacked and defeated the Chou
dynasty of China in their own capital, they didn’t capitulate or disintegrate, they simply moved
their capital south across the Yangtze River to get away. They also continued for another 300
years.
The Sailendra Dynasty & Borobudur
My cultures were hit from two directions because of the alternation of the monsoons. When the
winds blew one way it would bring the Indian traders and their culture in and the Chinese home.
When it blew the other way it would bring the Chinese and their culture back and the Indian
traders home. This cycle exposed my island cultures to both Chinese and Indian culture. As
we’ve mentioned one of these cultural meeting points was at Palembang, where Chinese, Hindu,
and local scholars congregated to study Hindu and Buddhist thought. Another place that became
a cultural spreading center of both Buddhism and Hinduism was a plateau on Java ruled by the
Sailendra dynasty, a vassal state to the Srivijaya Empire.
Common culture of India binds my region
Indian influence had reached Indonesia in the 1st century AD, but the first Indianized kingdoms
emerged in west Java, Sumatra and Borneo in the middle of the millennium from the 3rd to 6th
centuries. There was a certain prestige associated with the adoption of Indian political forms. It
was also a convenient way of shifting loyalties and energies from the clan and family to the
greater nation.
Prior to this the people of my islands and my mainland all participated in a cult of ancestors. This
spirit or ancestor worship seems to be a universal among your species. While we land masses are
very rooted already, honoring the spirits of your forefathers allows you ephemeral humans to
sink some roots into the past. It gives you a sense of continuity that extends past your short
century on the planet.

20
Of course the problem with this clan worship is that it tends to separate you from other clans or
tribes because you worship different spirits. This sense of difference frequently degenerates into
aggression and warfare. One way of joining disparate tribes was through the worship of national
heroes. In this way the patriotism of the nation replaces the tribalism of ancestor worship. Of
course the larger nations tend to separate themselves into warring groups because they too
worship different spirits.
The next globalization of this innate spirit worship has to do with worshipping the same gods.
Hence the tribes of my area could all worship the same Hindu gods, This religious universality
not only bound them to their nation but also to my entire territory, as well. Thus India’s
maharajah system combined with their Hindu gods united my humans in a way that they never
had been before. My central Java kingdom, who were speaking a Austronesian dialect,
communicated directly with the contemporary Khmer kingdom of Chenla, who spoke a
Austroasiatic dialect. Both these kingdoms and more were in constant cultural contact with both
Sri Lanka, the Tamils of southern India, and the Burmese, who spoke respectively an Indo
Aryan, Dravidian, and Sino-Tibetan language. Thus the culture of India connected clans, tribes
and nations who spoke languages from 5 different language families. Note these are not dialects;
they are more different than Spanish and English.
Of course the next stage of human belligerence has to do with competing universal gods
connected to competing nation spirits. This is the modern state of affairs. Hence the Christian
nations have been battling the Muslim nations which have been battling the Jewish nation for
over a thousand years. When they stop the religious wars they revert to wars of nationalism. You
humans are certainly an aggressive species. It is almost as if there is nothing to fight over, you
will find something.
Unfortunately your modern cult of science has killed all the spirits of your ancestors, the spirits
of nations, and the gods, which leaves you poor pathetic humans rootless, swept away by the
latest fad or political idea. Your innate sense of family loyalty which connects you with past and
future has been washed away by a supposedly scientific rational nationalism - which threatens to
destroy my planet - for your species at least. Better to root yourself in my Earth and extend your
spine to the Heavens to maintain an autonomy from the mob mentality that seems to dominate
your behavior - leading you to your demise - like a moth to a flame.

21
The Javanese God-kings first Devarajas

The valley between the Progo and Opak Rivers in the central valley of Java, is one of the most
bountiful on earth because of lava and volcanic ash that falls regularly from Mount Merabi and
other volcanic mountains in the vicinity. The farmers have a guaranteed surplus with which to
supply the needs of an Empire. And they did. While power has gradually shifted to the northwest
coast, the kingdoms of Java began and extended from this agricultural center. The ancient city of
Yogyakarta, noted on the map on page 211, was a locus for human emergence.

This fertile plateau was the birthplace of devarajas, god-kings. In a Sanskrit inscription from 684
AD to commemorate the building of a park we have the first clear cut example of a ruler
presenting himself as a divine religious leader. In this King’s prayer, he assures the reader that
building this park will bring merit to all involved. He goes on to say that while disloyalty to the
king brings death that obedience brings eternal bliss. In such a way these rulers aligned

22
themselves with the gods in bringing agony or ecstasy to their populace. If the ruler manifested
divine qualities then those around him were attracted to his court and kingdom. This idea was the
foundation of the mandala kingdom.

The Javanese were worshippers of Shiva, called Shaivites - presumably because of the many
active volcanoes on Java and on the surrounding islands. Shiva, one of the three main gods of
Hinduism, was noted for being an ascetic, as well as the god of destruction. As such he was
considered the consummate Yogi. Hence these Kings were also ascetics like Shiva.
The Javanese, being of a flexible mind, were also Buddhists. Under the influence of Mahayana
Buddhism this god-king became a Bodhisattva, a divine being who was meant to assist people on
their path to enlightenment. Whether on my mainland or my islands, my kings have regularly
played the role of the compassionate one, the Bodhisattva - providing the means of personal
salvation to others.

As such they attempted to maintain their country as a holy land, by providing an environment
where religion could flourish. This was a huge responsibility. It meant keeping the peace,
protecting religious sites, encouraging spiritual practices such as purification and scriptural
study, and teaching his people about the religious significance of life on the earth. Along these
lines my Bodhisattva Kings were meant to help his subjects along the spiritual path by providing
them with opportunities for spiritual advancement and growth.

Borobudur - architectural Buddhism

One such ‘opportunity’ was supporting the king by helping in the construction of temples. In this
way they could earn religious merit. There are even inscriptions which reveal that local Javanese
princes ‘cheerfully’ participated in these projects. rather than being required to by law. The rulers
of the Sailendra dynasty manifested the concept of the devaraja on a grand scale. During their
rule they constructed many religious monuments designed to instruct their people and the
following generations to enter on the path to enlightenment. The most famous of these
monuments is Borobudur, a Buddhist masterpiece of superior grandeur and beauty. Consisting of
1.3 million stone blocks, it was carved and constructed by 50,000 Javanese over 50 years. At 115
feet tall atop a 403 foot square, it is still the largest Buddhist stupa in the world.

23
This area became historical in 732 CE, when a Hindu noble, Sanjaya, established a kingdom
called Mataram in one of the fertile central valleys of Java. In 775 CE his kingdom began
construction on a monument to commemorate the introduction of Hinduism to Java - near the
confluence of the Progo River and its tributaries. Ten years later this Hindu kingdom was
replaced by the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty, vassals to the Srivijaya Empire. Accordingly they
shifted the orientation of the temple to Buddhism. It took 50 more years to complete this
architectural monument at Borobudur. Revered for less than 200 years, it seemed to have been
buried by volcanic ash in the 11th century, possibly by an eruption of one of the many active
volcanoes. It was lost until the Dutch discovered and uncovered it in 1907.

Although Borobudur is built in the style of the Indian tjandis with a pyramidal structure, the
Javanese introduced their own innovations. The Indian tjandis were meant to house the gods -
provide them a home - a resting spot - a sophisticated spirit house. However Borobudur was not
just meant as a memorial or shrine of the gods, a place of worship. Instead it was meant to be an
architectural representation of Buddhist philosophy. It was designed to represent complex
metaphysical theories. At this level it was completely original. As such it provided the pattern for
Angkor.

The temple mountain at Borobudur, like the Indian tjandi, was constructed from a solid mass of
stone, 2 million cubic feet around small hill, with little or no interior space - certainly no internal
shrines. (In contrast the Khmer temples of Angkor are noted for their vast amount of empty
space created by structural pillars.)

24
Based upon the supreme mystical power of the mandala, Borobudur has 10 stories corresponding
with the 10 stages until Buddhist Enlightenment. The first level is the entry level. The next five
are associated with the 5 Buddhas which represent the entire external Universe - the vajra-
dhatu - the realm of total reality. This group of 5 Buddhas is familiar in the diverse areas of
Tibet, Japan, and northeast India. These levels are all squarish, having a zigzag external design
on their corners which is similar to the Hindu yantra.

The next three levels are all circular terraces with stupas on top. They represent the 3 Buddhas of
the esoteric tradition associated with Tantric Buddhism - the garbha-dhatu - the womb of
innermost secrets. The 10th level is empty, representing the final goal of Enlightenment, the
abandonment of attachment to Form. This is the Void of the Vairocana Buddha.

On the walls of each level there are sculptured relief panels, 1500 over all, which represent the
trials and traps on the journey to enlightenment. The zigzag corridors and prescribed direction
concealed the Buddhist statuary so that the adherent wouldn’t be dsitracted by what lay ahead

25
and could focus upon the lesson at hand. Thus on one level the entire monument is a Buddhist
teaching device.

The Sacred Mountain

On another level this enormous pyramid is meant to be viewed as a sacred mountain. The sacred
mountain has many parallels in religion. The most immediate is Mount Meru of Hindu
mythology. Frequently these tjandis, upon which Borobudur was based, were meant to be
temporal representations of Mount Meru, a mythical mountain in the center of the Universe,
which connects god and man.
This merged neatly with native beliefs. As with many early cultures the Javanese had always
worshipped sacred places. Seeing as how their central plane had 6 active volcanic mountains,
ranging in height from 6000 to over 10,000 feet, the Javanese had great respect for mountains.
Mount Merabi, an active volcano in the vicinity of Borobudur, had already been dedicated to
Shiva - the entire mountain, not just a temple.

Javanese Devaraja contrasted with other god kings

Hence in constructing this mountain temple, the king was fulfilling his role as Bodhisattva. This
public project established this idea on many planes simultaneously. As Bodhisattva, the king was

26
constructing a teaching device to aid in the quest for enlightenment for his people. The king was
also building this sacred mountain to establish his correspondence with the gods. Finally he was
providing an external circumstance where a maximum of his subjects could earn merit towards
enlightenment by service to their king, who was actually god or Buddha on earth.
The Javanese devaraja - their god/king is to be differentiated from the Pope or Mohammed who
are merely meant to be God’s representatives rather than God or Allah himself. The Roman and
Chinese Emperors were worshipped in their own right as divine beings. However in each of
these circumstances the ruler was worshipped as one of many gods, not as the god. Indeed there
has always been a tendency, even today, for humans to worship a powerful ruler as a link
between the divine and temporal world. This is expressed in the idea of fulfilling manifest
destiny or the divine right of kings in the West or as the Mandate of Heaven in China. These
manifestations of godlike powers are on the political plane only, while my devarajas manifest on
the spiritual plane.
Many god kings in the rest of the world built elaborate burial shrines as a testament to their
power on earth. As examples we have the Egyptian pyramids or the burial mounds of the Chin
Emperor of China. In contrast Borobudur was not meant to glorify the Javanese king in any way.
It was not meant as form of king worship or as a burial shrine. As a monument it was and is
merely meant to spread Buddhism.
The Javanese notion of Bodhisattva-king puts a greater spiritual responsibility upon the royalty
than in the aforementioned circumstances. While in the Chinese tradition the Emperor has the
duty to rule well, as expressed through Confucianism, this does not include assisting his subjects
in their quest for enlightenment. The rulers in the west may have been worshipped but it was
only for their manifestation of external power and nothing to do with their role as a spiritual
leader. In many tribes there existed a chief and a shaman, one to deal with the political the other
to do with the spiritual. In modern times we have priests and politicians. While the political and
religious leader of a culture merges from time to time into one person, most of the time he is
thought of as a representative of the gods rather than as a god himself. In Java this was different.
The king was not just representing the gods, he was the god himself. This wouldn’t bear so much
attention except that this idea of devaraja - god/king, was continued by the Khmer in Cambodia
and then in Thailand, even up to the present.
Connection between Devaraja and the Ramayana

27
Where did the idea of devaraja come from? Who knows?

We will offer one plausible explanation, which has no scholarly foundation whatsoever. Only the
wealthy classes could read. Therefore the sophisticated ideas of Buddhism or Hinduism could
not be read by the bulk of the people. To remedy this situation the stories of Hinduism were
spread because they could be understood by all. One of the most widely disseminated stories of
all time, as we’ve mentioned earlier in this lengthy tome, was and is the Ramayana. To refresh
your memory Rama is a prince who is an incarnation of Vishnu, one of the supreme gods of
Hinduism. Vishnu incarnates to save the world of humans as well as the world of the gods. This
story told over and over, dramatized, sculpted, and painted, inculcated the consciousness of
entire cultures. Inspired by this powerful literature the populace would hope that their King
would be the incarnation of Vishnu and the King might think himself a divine incarnation.

In the West Either God Or Man: In the East a Continuum

28
Again let us stress the difference between East and West. In the Biblical West there is an
unbridgeable gulf between God and human, while in the East there is a continuum between god
and man. The whole Vishnu story is based on regular divine incarnation. In some ways
Buddhism could be called the Way for Everyman to move up the continuum to achieve Divinity.
In the Biblical West we have an Either/Or Polarity based upon the man/god duality, while in
Asian East we have a Both/And Continuum. In this Eastern sense Jesus’ statement that he was
the son of God would have just meant that he was closer than the rest of us. In fact it has been
suggested that he studied in the East in India, where he might been exposed to the Man/God
Continuum. If this was the case then modern Christianity is based upon a colossal
misunderstanding. When Jesus said that he was the son of god, he was actually only affirming
humanity’s connection with divinity. God is in all of us. We are only attempting to realize our
God nature - our Buddha nature. Jesus was successful.

Hinduism refers to uncovering the divinity within, Buddhism talks about realizing our own true
nature, Taoism speaks about constantly purifying in order to allow our Self to manifest as purely
as possible and Yoga emphasizes the need to transcend the Duality. The Sailendra kings who
produced Borobudur were of this nature to a greater extent. On this continuum their subjects and
the king himself considered that he had purified enough to have reached this sacred state. Indeed
the Sailendra kings also worshipped Shiva as another manifestation of Buddha. Shiva was
considered the god of the Ascetic, who was a Yogi, who had transcended the Duality. Hence the
yogi/king could experience reality directly because he had transcended the Verbal Duality
through a rigorous program of meditation and practicing austerities. This is Yoga - restraint.
Through the practice of Yoga the king realized his Buddha nature - In the realization of his
Buddha nature, he naturally manifested as a Bodhisattva in this world. This could be called the
purified human or it could be called god-like. It pretty much amounts to the same thing. To
reiterate the Javanese king practiced Yogic asceticism in order to cleanse his inner self of all the
social accretions so that he could lead his population to the enlightenment of Bodhisattva-hood.

Mandala Self vs. Territorial Self

The mandala organization of the country and empire was further reflected in the pyramid
architecture. This huge monument was the central point of the spiritual empire. The mandala

29
conception of the self is quite different than what we will call the territorial conception of the
self. The territorial sense of self is the traditional one. We are our Body. The mandala sense of
self says that we are the point where our consciousness is. The body is merely one of our spheres
of influence rather than really being our self. Our self is merely the point of consciousness -
which is everything, rather than being the external body, which is merely an emanation from the
middle. Just as the mandala empire was maintained by treating her subjects well, similarly the
mandala self is maintained by treating the body well rather than by ignoring her needs. Both
emanate from the center to influence those around by virtue of the personal power that it is
generated internally.

In order to generate personal power, the internal self must be pruned of excess ballast that will
sink the boat or prevent the balloon from rising to the Heavens. Focusing an entire culture on
creating a spiritual masterpiece upon the Earth is to transform the whole culture into a
Bodhisattva. Hence the Sailendra dynasty generated a Bodhisattva culture, which attempted to
assist all of humanity in their quest to polish their luminous Egg of cultural accretions so that
they could manifest clearly. However the more that the Self or Self-Culture grasps territoriality
as the foundation of personal boundaries the greater the reduction in spiritual power because it is
just too fat to resonate with the Universal harmonies.

Java’s Prambanam temple complex

While the Sailendra Dynasty lasted less than 100 years, they also built other religious
monuments on this fertile mountain plateau. To indicate the direct borrowing from Indian
architecture, one was called Tjandi Ngawen and the other Tjandi Mendut.

The Sailendra Dynasty, who had their roots in the Sumatran based Srivijaya Empire,were
peaceful invaders. The Sanjaya family who they had replaced were not destroyed. They had
simply moved to the sidelines. With the ascendancy of the Sailendra Dynasty the Sanjaya family
bowed out to become a vassal state on their perimeter. With the decline of the Sumatran dynasty
the Sanjaya family reasserted control over the valley in the middle of the 9th century and the
Sailendra court moved to Sumatra.

30
Legend has it that a Sanjaya prince married a Sailendra princess to become king. Because of the
paucity of historical information, it is not clear if his was a military takeover or if he were merely
stepping in to fill a power vacuum. Because religious construction normally comes to a halt
during times of military stress we prefer the second explanation.

The temple building frenzy continued unabated under this renewed Hindu kingdom of
Mataram for another 30 years. It was not even close to being over yet. Under the Mahayana
Buddhism of the Sailendra dynasty the Hindu worship of Shiva and Vishnu was not eliminated
or even suppressed.

Similarly the other way around. The Sanjaya family, showing typical Javanese tolerance, created
some more Buddhist temples, Candi Sari and Candi Plaoson. Close by on the same plateau they
also went on to build some Hindu temples called the Prambanam complex. There was no decline
in quality. They continued to create the first class art of Java. Here is a map of all the temples
that were created during this century.

In opposition to the moral didacticism of Buddhism, symbolized by relatively squat Borobudur,

these Hindu temples, dedicated to Shiva, Hindu literature and aesthetics, soared skyward. As
contrasted with the Buddhist tjandis many of these had interior space and included sculpture in
the round. One of the most impressive of these is called Lara Janggrang. It was built about 900

31
CE. It is a colossal work meant to represent Mount Meru, the cosmic mountain of Hinduism. It
reminds one of the temples of Angkor with its vegetal lotus structure shown below.

size perspective here is someone at one of the entryways.

Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma, the three gods of Hinduism are all represented. It also includes
representations of the Kala monster, which represents Time, vomiting scrolls. Plus it includes
sculptural representations in stone of many Hindu stories. Including - the Ramayana. Reiterating
its timeless themes: a parent’s binding love of their child, combined with the necessity of
breaking free to fulfill an individual destiny - the transforming power of romantic love - the
necessity of seeking assistance from friends to achieve one’s ends. These universal themes are

32
combined with some unique concepts primary of which is the possibility and perhaps probability
that a god has incarnated in each of us to accomplish a divine mission. This mission has to do
with driving away or conquering the dark forces. This cosmic battle not only assists the
individual to accomplish his or her individual goals but also assists the rest of humanity as well
as the gods themselves. Further the whole story comes to a happy ending because of forgiveness.

In many ways the Khmer temples of Angkor were more in the tradition of these Hindu temples
than the Buddhist stupas of Borobudur. Further their kingdoms were contemporary with each
other. They probably even shared some of the same craftsman, especially after the fall of these
Java kingdoms in the early 900s due to volcanic activity.

This efflorescence of temple building in Java came to an abrupt halt with the eruption of some
local volcanoes in about 930 AD. As evidence one of the temples, while covered with 3 feet of
ash, is well preserved - showing no signs of decay or looting. It seems to have been suddenly
abandoned, like the buildings of Pompeii. Evidence suggests that the population suddenly
dropped, going to the coast. Hence from 732 CE to 930 CE, about 200 years, this culture on the
Javanese plateau created multiple architectural religious masterpieces and then suddenly
disappeared.

Like the Khmer of Angkor, the Malay of Java must have thought that their kingdom was
destined to last forever - aligned as they were with the gods. Unfortunately for them the Universe
had other plans.

Legitimization of leadership

Another function of the temple building was to legitimize leadership. Prior to the advent of the
maharajah system from India the Malays had organized themselves in smaller egalitarian tribes.
The hierarchical organization of Hinduism and China, with the potential for nation and empire
building was foreign to the Malays. Hence to establish legitimacy for his court the devaraja hit
upon the idea of employing large percentages of the population in these public works projects.
This not only bound them to the new aristocracy for employment, but also was a cultural
bonding experience. Previously the individual might have considered himself a part of his tribe
with no need for a centralized government. However once he was involved in one of these

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national projects, it would increase his tendency to identify with the larger group. Hence these
national temple building projects were not only to legitimize the power of the king they were
actually the method of actually building a sense of nation in the populace. Participation led to a
shift from tribal identification to national identification.

In many ways these massive temples created the nation rather than being a manifestation of
national or religious pride. This may have been why each successive king kept building these
temples, almost feverishly. It legitimized their rule and created the idea of nation as opposed to
tribe. Further the emphasis upon Buddhist and Hindu mythology minimized the importance of
spirit and ancestor worship, which was so prevalent in that area.

This is a global phenomenon - the replacement of pride in family heritage with national
identification and patriotism. This is quite apparent in modern American society where many
people have little knowledge of ancestry and could care less, while the city, state, and especially
national pride and patriotism is stressed in all the cultural propaganda from our education system
and media. The theory that the state was created by the temple building is supported by the rapid
demise of these Javanese kingships once the temple building ceased. We already saw a similar
phenomenon in the Khmer civilization of Cambodia.

The Devaraja vs. the Bodhisattva king

While the art and temples of the Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms were quite different, the practical
role of these rulers of Java was nearly identical. The Hindu king was considered a devaraja -a
god-king, and the Buddhist king was considered a Bodhisattva, Buddha’s helper. However they
both tended to the spiritual well being of their people. Both type of kings inspired their subjects
to create religious monuments. And in both cases the religious monuments were meant to
incorporate religious philosophy. Because the practical manifestations of the two types of kings
is so similar, we use the terms interchangeably. Buddhist object to this merger of their kings.
The devaraja of Hinduism is based upon faulty understanding of human divinity, they thought.
Gods and kings are both illusion. Internal growth through dispelling ignorance is the only reality.
In our quest for personal enlightenment we reject the supernatural as well as worldly power.

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Yet from a Hindu perspective and in contrast they embrace the supernatural and the caste of
warrior-king. In actual practice the Hindu god-king and the Buddhist Bodhisattva king were both
meant to assist the spiritual growth of their subjects by ruling wisely. The words of your two
religious philosophies contain significant differences and emphases, but the end result was the
same for the people.

One reason that Buddhism faded out in India was that all of their teachings were already
incorporated in Hinduism. While Buddhism divided humanity into two categories, those on the
serious quest and the rest, called householders, Hinduism more effectively dealt with the social
obligations of each class. Although Hinduism could be criticized for being too obsessive in its
class distinctions, Buddhism could be criticized for its simplistic view of humanity.

This is why Mahayana Buddhists allow for the persistence of local traditions as long as there is a
Buddhist overlay. They even tolerate Hinduism as long as the practitioner acknowledges the
superior ideas of the Buddha. Practical Buddhism. Witness both Borobudur and the Hindu
temples standing almst “side by side.Alternately the Hindus easily accommodated Buddhism as
one of our myriad cults.This is why they got along so famously.

The Malay cultures blended the tenets and gods of this diverse cultural mix into one. For
instance the Buddhist Sailendra kings were also Shaivites, worshippers of the Shiva, a Hindu
god.This is not contradictory at all. Remember that an underlying tenet of Mahayana Buddhism
was that any god or goddess could be worshipped externally as long as the worshipper
understood that it was only Form, which was all illusion. For instance the Chinese worshipped
their own gods under the auspices of Buddhism, not the Hindu gods.

On the other hand the Malays mixed up the Hindu gods, not the Chinese gods, with their
Buddhism. As an example, on the central plateau of Java, there is both Borobudur which is
distinctly Buddhist and also the impressive Lara Janggrang, the exquisite Hindu temple devoted
to Shiva. In fact the Buddhist temple of Borobudur was completed by the same Hindu ruler who
created Lara Janggrang. Being neighbors, the Khmer of Cambodia were no different than the
Malays Their syncretic religious field, like ours, mixed Hindu gods with Buddhism rather than
the Chinese gods.

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A Khmer Prince( who created Angkor Wat) returns from his education in Java

In the brief 100 years of the Sailendra dynasty of the Srivijaya Empire, the kings
as devarajas created a series of monuments on the high mountain plateau on my island of Java.
During this period a young Khmer prince had been sent to Java for upbringing and education.
There had already been a long history of connection between Cambodia and Java. The Javanese
even considered themselves descendants of the Funanese of Cambodia.

This Cambodian prince was exposed to the Javanese concept of the devaraja connected with
their pyramid building - these god kings creating their own Mount Meru. Inspired by the great
Javanese culture this young Cambodian prince, who was being held as hostage or was merely
being educated abroad, escaped or just returned home to Cambodia with grandiose ideas. This
was in 790 AD, when Borobudur was still in the middle of its 50 years of construction.
Jayavarman II was the name of this Java educated Khmer Prince who returned to Cambodia and
founded the Khmer Empire which eventually created Angkor Wat.

Summarizing

The Khmer of Cambodia founded an Indianized kingdom, which was a mixture or blending of
Hindu culture with an indigenous stone cutting culture which had already been around for over a
thousand years. However, the Khmer were part of the your greater Southeast Asian cultural web.
As such they were heavily influenced by the Sailendra dynasty of the Java based Srivijaya
Empire, which traced its roots to the first Khmer kingdom of Funan - from which Angkor
derived.

In terms of the cultural energy.

Due to the geographical location of Cambodia with its proximity to the Gulf of Thailand, the city
of Vyadhapura became the first important Southeast Asian entrepôt. Because of the influx of
foreign traders and the resulting wealth the native tribal culture was mixed with the Hindu
culture to create the kingdom of Funan. This was symbolized by the marriage of the Naga
Princess with a Hindu prince, whose child was the Khmer.

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As a result of Chinese civil wars, which impoverished their best client, combined with disastrous
floods which destroyed their port city of Vyadhapura, the Funan kingdom declined in economic
and cultural importance. While Funan was replaced politically by the Chenla kingdom as the
dominant kingdom of mainland Southeast Asia, the cultural and political energy of the Funan
actually shifted to the island based Srivijaya Empire of Sumatra and Java, which had captured
the China trade by controlling the trade routes and funneling the profits through Palembang in
Sumatra. This new entrepôt, which supplanted the Funanese entrepôt, generated the wealth and
cultural exchange which created the new mandala empire.

Our Khmer prince was then educated in Java under one of the most artistic dynasties of the
Srivijaya Empire, the Sailendra. He returned to Cambodia with great visions which re-energized
the Southeast Asian mainland. Extending irrigation techniques that were already in place, he was
able to feed a larger population due to multiple annual growing seasons. Further he inspired the
local population to create great works of art which bound them together as a community. This
was related with the idea of the devaraja or god king concept of the Srivijaya Empire. The
Southeast Asian king as a Buddhist Bodhisattva was responsible for inspiring and educating his
people - leading them to spiritual transformation and growth.

After quite a few centuries this Khmer temple building sputtered out - probably due to
ecological, as well as cultural devolution. At this point the Thai people, pushed out of Southern
China by Genghis Kahn and the Mongols, moved into the mainland of Southeast Asia. They
conquered the Khmer but they also assumed their spiritual, cultural and political mantle. The
Thai continued the tradition of the devaraja, which they maintain to this day - particularly in
Bangkok, but in Thailand in general. The Thai King, named after Rama of the Ramayana, looks
after the spiritual health of the country by encouraging the local culture and funding the creation
and renovation of temples, which employs the artistic community as well as providing for the
edification of the greater community, including the rest of the world.

In short all countries of Cambodia, Thailand, and Indonesia are connected into a neat little
bundle which goes back thousands of years.

My Intermediate Empires

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Srivijaya’s Story (7th- 11th AD)

We left the Srivijaya Empire at the point that the Khmer Empire was established at Angkor in
and about 900 CE. The Srivijay empire had a good life, as empires go and lasted from the 7th to
13th centuries of the modern era. The peak of their power was about 800 AD. They dominated
the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, as well as the Malay Peninsula. Although theirs was an
Indianized kingdom with a courtly culture, the prosperity and political strength was based upon a
relationship with China. China considered Srijijay as her imperial representative. As such she
supported channeling her trade through the principle Srivijay port of Palembang on the island of
Sumatra.

Palembang was the center of the mandala of the political power. Srivijay was a mandala empire
with no real boundaries. My overlordship issued gradually. No armies. They maintained control
of their vassal states through cultural and economic politics. Economically they attempted to
provide a protective and mutually beneficial trading arrangement to all by enforcing a peaceful
environment.

Further Palembang, was the heartland for 4 centuries, until her fall to the Chola dynasty early in
2nd millennium, was a major cultural center and nexus between India and China. I -ching, a
Buddhist pilgrim from China, visited in 671 AD on a 20 day voyage from Canton in southern
China on his way to India. He recommended Palembang as an excellent Buddhist center. To
indicate the international flavor the art of Palembang reveals artistic network with Mon
Dvaravati kingdom of the mainland, where Thailand is now. They both made bronze Buddhas
and Bodhisattvas.

It is said that the Khmer Empire, who created Angkor in the Tonle Sap region of Cambodia
between the 9th to the 13th centuries was inspired by Srivijay. Theirs too wa a most impressive
mandala empire. Their devaraja, their god-king, more than anyone else, transformed the physical
environment to reflect the connection between the state and heaven. Their water system, based
upon ancient Indian techniques, was most intricate. It supplied the kingdom with 3 to 4 crops of
rice per year. This abundance supported 1 million people in the vicinity of Angkor. Each of
Angkor’s king regularly built a new capital to reflect their flexibility. Finally however they
located permanently and surrendered their mandala flexibility

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Anyway in the heyday the Chinese relied on Srivijay people to do all her foreign shipping - her
import/export business. China considered them as one of her barbarian vassals and provided us
with tributary trade. In exchange Srivijay provided her merchants with a safe base in the islands
of Indonesia. The trade began growing in the 5th and 6th centuries, but with the Chinese civil
wars, trade dropped off in the late 6th and early 7th centuries. With the rise of the stable Tang
dynasty Srivijay wanted to capture the lucrative China trade. First the rulers in Palembang
pretended to be vassals to cater to the Chinese ego. Second the rulers determined to control all
the harbors in the region by controlling the Straits of Malacca through Palembang. Prior to this
there had been many small harbor kingdoms. This militancy is reflected in some of the old
Malay inscriptions.

The power of Srivijay maharajahs depended on the alliance with those who possessed warships -
the Chinese. Plus a China connection gave lots of prestige. There is no mention of piracy in the
Arab accounts of the time. They governed and ruled through positive reinforcement nationally
and individually. The subjects were rewarded with wealth, posts of honor, and supernatural
rewards for cooperating. In such a way a this maritime Malay grouping was formed which was
the Srivijaya Empire.

They were powerful as long as Palembang was a thriving entrepôt. The bounty of the rulers
depended on the tributary status with China, which needed a great and secure entrepôt. The early
Malay history is one of this Sino Malay alliance. The Chinese felt that Srijijay maharajas were
her imperial agents. Unfortunately the Malay unity was undermined when Chinese began doing
her own shipping in the 10th century. After this there was no single entrepôt anymore. The
mandala centralization collapsed and Srivijay were left prey to the next invader, which happened
to be the Chola dynasty of southern India.

The Story of the Chola Dynasty (11th- 13th AD)

Like Srivijaya, Chola was a political dynasty - Tamils from southern India to be exact. The wave
of Chola expansion began about 750 AD, when my dynasty established control of the southern
part of the Indian peninsula. From here their maritime culture expanded into the Sea of Bengal,
conquering Ceylon. They then took control of the Malay Peninsula. Intent on eliminating the

39
middle man in the lucrative spice and silk trade between Southeast Asia and the Arabs and the
Africans, they launched a naval attack on the Srivijaya Empire in 1025 AD. The force of the
attacks, like a wave, crashed with so much force that it washed away the entrepôt of Palembang
which had been the source of wealth and prestige for Srivijaya. In typical Malay fashion the
Srivijay just moved to another port in Java, but this effectively sent their Empire into a long
decline.

This military victory eliminated Srivijaya as the middle man and enabled Chola people to
establish control over most of the ports of call and transit areas which were used to connect the
traders of the Indian Ocean with the traders of Eastern Asia. From this point they were able to
trade directly with China. Now they were the new middle man for the valuable spices sold at
high profits in Europe. The prosperity from this trade fueled the Empire for another few hundred
years. This was the golden age between the 11th and 13th centuries. Then their wave lost its
forward momentum, fragmented and dissolved back into the great sea of humanity. At our peak
they were invincible and then suddenly only traces in the sand - nothing more. The Chola, Tamil
dynasty of southern India was replaced by the Java based Majapahit Empire. The reason was that
the Cholas could not hold on to the new territory but cfreated a vassel state and most of they
sailed back to Tamil lands. Theirs was a plundering conquest- also to eliminatge the piracy of the
Srivijay.

The Majapahit Empire (13th-to16th AD)

Majapahit was the last Indianized kingdom in Indonesia. In many ways it was a continuation of
the Srivijaya Empire. Once back the Chola disintegrated due to problems at home, his vassal
states began to reassert themselves. Among those were remnants of the Srivijaya Empire. They
had moved to Java from their Sumatran capital of Palembang when attacked by the Chola
culture. Having bided their time for a few hundred years they moved to insert themselves into the
power vacuum.
The Mongols, who had just conquered China under Kublai Khan sent an emissary. The court
evidently didn’t treat the emissary with respect because the Muslim culture in the Middle East
executed their emissary, the Mongols obliterated and overran many cities - killing many of
people. Because Java was so far away, it took some time before the Mongols found out how their
emissary was treated. However when they did they immediately organized themselves for

40
revenge. Somehow they arranged for their famous horseman to be shipped to Java to avenge this
insult to their culture. By the time they arrived a new ruler was in place who didn’t even
remember what had happened.
Vijaya, a descendant of Sanjaya, who founded the Mataram kingdom of Java in the 8th century,
was vying with Srivijaya’s court for power. He befriended the Mongols, got them to expel the
ruler, and then convinced them to go home, leaving him in charge. This was 1277 AD, the
beginning of the Golden Age.

Majapahit Empire, while similar to Srivijaya, was actually a resurrection of the Mataram
kingdom of Java. The rivalry with Srivijaya went back to the 8th century. Sanjaya, after founding
our Mataram kingdom, initiated the construction of the first Hindu temple on our fertile island.
Then the Sailendra dynasty of Srivijaya pushed them. A mere century later they were displaced
and then built more Hindu and Buddhist temples on the central plateau in Java. This Golden Age
was interrupted by the eruption of a volcano. To indicate the importance of each of our
traditions, the Sanjaya family is still the royal family of Java to this day. And when the last
Prince of Srivijaya converted to Muslim, all of the Malay followed in his lead.

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While competing for political dominance we islanders shared a common culture. Our kings. like
theirs, were ascetics, who were revered as Shiva-Buddhas. They had an obligation to the gods to
cleanse our kingdom, the holy land of Java, and thus the world, of impurities, by permeating the
world with their royal divinity. With this mission in mind they attempted to maintain the country
as a literary temple.

In the typical mandala politics of the region, the kings ruled by prestige rather than by force. The
king was responsible for keeping the peace so that trade could occur rather than waging war on
his neighbors with a strong military. The kings of the dynasty made regular tours of the
countryside to ensure that citizens were being taken care of. The influence of Javanese Empire
was considerable although only demanded homage and tribute. Note that this was similar to the
political system of our allies, the Chinese.

Because there was very little military strength involved in maintaining our influence, the power
of our Empire depended upon the prestige of our king,Accordingly the golden age of the
Majapahit Empire coincided with the rule of our greatest king, Hayam Wuruk. Unfortunately he
died in 1389. Everything - good and evil, great and small, is consumed by the Fire of Time.
There was a power struggle to take his place. Many vassal states arose to fill the vacuum slowly

fragmenting.1

REFERENCES
1. Posting Lebih BaruPosting LamaBeranda

2.Szczepanski, Kallie. "The Shailendra Kingdom of Java." Thought Co, Feb. 11, 2020,
thoughtco.com/the-shailendra-kingdom-of-java-195519.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Briggs, Lawrence Palmer. 1951. [Review of] South East Asia. Crossroad of Religions by
K.P. Landon. The Far Eastern Quarterly 9 (3): 271–277.
 Claude, Jacques, R.B. Smith, and W. Watson. 1979. "Funan," "Zhenla." The Reality
Concealed by These Chinese Views of IndoChina. In Early South East Asia. Essays in
Archaeology, History, and Historical Geography, 371–389. New York/Kuala Lumpur:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0197135870

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 De Casparis, J.G. de. 1956. Prasasti Indonesia II: Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to
the 9th Centuries AD. Bandung: Masu Baru.
 G. Coedes. 1934. On the Origins of the Sailendras of Indonesia. Journal of the Greater
India Society I: 61–70.
 Kenneth Perry Landon. 1969. Southeast Asia. Crossroad of Religions. University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 0226468402
 K.R. Hall. 1985. Maritime Trade and State Development in Early South East
Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824809599
 M. Vickery. 2003–2004. Funan Reviewed: Deconstructing the Ancients. Bulletin de l'
Ecole Francaise d' Extreme Orient: 101–143.

The following images have specially created for this book by our well wisher and
contributing Artist Ms. Kerry Penny, Contemporary British Artist

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