PROGRAMME LEONARDO TOI

PROJECT PIT.AGORÀ
Cup code : G12f10000140006

Mathematics Workshops

Numbers and Calculations with the ancient Sumerians

Notes by Raffaella Petti

The Garden of Archimedes.
A Museum for Mathematics

Il presente progetto è finanziato con il sostegno della

Commissione europea. L’autore è il solo responsabile di questa pubblicazione
e la Commissione declina ogni responsabilità sull’uso che
potrà essere fatto delle informazioni in essa contenute
2
 Sumerian Calculating Pebbles

Introduction
The way we count is certainly one of the most powerful and fully developed systems ever
invented. But it is also one of the most complex and difficult to learn. Other strategies, pre-
liminary or alternative, other viewpoints, more primitive but in some cases no less effective,
give us a better understanding of some aspects of counting, and help us to overcome some
difficulties, to grasp the potentials of the way we count, and also provide us with some details
of the fascinating history of counting.
With this in mind, Garden of Archimedes laboratories were set up, dedicated to numbering
systems and designed for all types of schools and grades of students, and to some of these
ancient ways of counting.
The purpose of this booklet, dedicated to the numbering system of the Ancient Sumerians,
is to provide teachers who want to carry out this activity with some theory and many practical
tips for the workshops.

Contents
Historical Remarks 5

The Technique of Sumerian Calculation 7

Representation and Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Subtractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

The Babylonian positional system 11

Workshop Guidelines 13

3
Historical Remarks
A very ancient tool used practically every-
where to help you to count comprises just
a few pebbles. Unsurprisingly, the word
“calculation” comes from the Latin “cal-
culus”, which means pebble. To count the
sheep leaving a pen, you just take one stone
for each sheep. You make a small heap
of pebbles which represents the number of
sheep. Maybe you don’t even count them,
you just move one of them from left to right
each time a sheep returns to the pen in the
evening, to make sure none have gone miss-
ing.
Counting with pebbles, even in the sim-
plest way, shows some of the fundamental
aspects of how we count, assigning labels
in sequence, one, two, three, to objects we
are trying to establish the quantity of. In
both cases, the pebbles and numbers act
as reference sets, and neither the pebbles
nor the numbers refer to the nature of what
is being counted; each number refers to an
individual object in a sequence. We give
a number in sequence to each object and
then stop when we run out of objects.
The pebbles, however, are not abstract
numbers; they are concrete, material things
that can be picked up and put down, which
makes them more immediate and easy to
use. Counting with pebbles, the cardinal
aspect of a number is evident and it is
easy to understand what putting pebbles
together or taking them away means.
The rudimentary practice of counting
with pebbles was first refined in the Mid-
dle East where, at some point, clay beads
were used to replace natural stones. Unlike
4
the stones, all the same, the beads can be
made into different shapes. Some peoples
made cones or sticks, simple beads, discs,
larger cones, spheres and so on, including
perforated spheres. The ability to distin-
guish between different types of pebbles is
a tremendous advance, because one stone
no longer necessarily corresponds to one ob-
ject, but may represent ten or a hundred.
In other words, the artificially made beads
had different values.
The Assyrians and Babylonians called
these counting beads abnu, meaning peb-
bles. The Sumerians called them imna, or
clay pebbles. Later, in Latin, the word cal-
culus (i. e. pebble) was used as the basis
of the word meaning “to calculate”.
In the regions of Mesopotamia, Iran,
Syria and the surrounding area, these dif-
ferently shaped and coloured beads, from
about the mid fourth century b.C., were
kept in hollow oval containers also made
of clay, known as “bullae”. These objects
represent the first concrete record of ac-
counting operations among the then ex-
panding communities of the Sumerians and
Elamites. They were used, for example, to
quantify a debt or payment or to register
property. When the ball was closed, the
beads could not get lost, and when it was
sealed the quantity of beads inside acquired
a legal value. The system of registering a
quantity by sealing beads in a ball had the
disadvantage that to read the number the
seal had to be broken each time and then
restored.
The reconstruction of the events that led
from this to a system of writing numbers is
based on archaeological finds, particularly
abundant and significant in the Elamite
city of Susa, now in modern day Iran. From
3300 b. C. on the outside of the ball, in
addition to the seal, symbols were pressed
representing the pebbles contained in it, a
sort of summary or symbolic representation
of the contents of each accounting docu-
ment. At this point, the balls and peb-
bles served no purpose and, in fact, shortly
afterwards were replaced by round or long
clay “records” which slowly became flatter
and flatter, and of the same size: the first
tablets. These were used to record the same
information that used to appear on the out-
side of the balls, i.e. the quantities now ex-
pressed not by physical objects (the calculi )
but by representations of them, obtained at
first by pressing the pebbles on the clay and
later reproducing them by means of a sty-
lus.
The first form for the symbolic writing
of a number was therefore a “drawing”
of the material object previously used for
counting, a direct descendant of the origi-
nal counting stones.
Various peoples used the pebbles and
then the signs that represented them with
different shapes and values, albeit partly
recurrent. At the end of the fourth mil-
lennium for example the Elamites used an
accounting system based on different orders
in the form of a stick, bead, disc, small cone
and large perforated cone. These calculi
and their signs corresponded to 1, 10, 100,
300 and 3000 simple units.
The Sumerians, on the other hand, used
a small cone, bead, large cone, large perfo-
rated cone, sphere and perforated sphere,
which corresponded respectively to 1, 10,
5
60 (a large unit), 600, 3600 and 36000.
In the archaic or curved form of Sume-
rian writing, the signs were impressed onto
the tablets using two types of stylus, both
circular but with different diameters (about
4 and 10 millimeters) which could be used
perpendicular or inclined to the tablet to
reproduce all the shapes of the pebbles;
with the pointed tip, other pictured signs
were impressed into the clay. In the most
ancient period, about 3200 b.C., the shapes
and directions of the numerical forms were
generally as shown below:
In 2700-2600 b.C., the stylus changed
shape: the end was cut to make a straight
line to press wedge-shaped signs onto the
clay. This gave rise to the so called
cuneiform writing, which gradually devel-
oped with the numbers changing shape and
the addition of a new symbol for 36000×6,
that is 216,000:
Numerous centuries later, around the 19th
century b.C., Babylonian scientists took
this Sumerian counting system to create
a system of writing based entirely on two
symbols: and . The first symbol,
which signified 1, also signified 60. The
same shape was used long since for both,
but with different sizes. Now, the same
symbol with the same size was used for
both, and the difference had to be un-
derstood from the context or position.
For example the number 62 was written
, in which the first wedge signifies
60 and the other two represent 2. In
a similar way, groups of signs could be
added representing the increasing power
of 60, so that represents
3600+12×60+21=4341.
The Technique of Sumerian
Calculation
The appearance of the first tablets and the
first forms of writing coincide with the dis-
appearance of the balls, but not of the
counting stones. They continued to be
used, as we know from archaeological finds
where they have been discovered without
container alongside accounting tablets writ-
ten with archaic numbers up to the end of
the third millennium b.C., just before these
numbers were replaced with the cuneiform
type of writing.
The fact that both the counting pebbles
and the archaic numbers were used at the
same time probably means that the pebbles
did not serve as records but were used in
calculations.
Representation and Changes
In the complete system there are six differ-
ent types of counting stone: a small cone,
a small sphere, a large cone, a large perfo-
rated cone, a large sphere and a large per-
forated sphere.
The values of these counting pebbles in-
crease according to a scale which proceeds
by alternately 10 and 6, i.e. 10 pebbles
of the first type correspond to one pebble
of the second type, but six pebbles of the
6
second type correspond to one of the third,
10 pebbles of the third type correspond to
one of the fourth and 6 of the fourth type
correspond to one of the fifth, while 10 of
the fifth type make one of the sixth.
−→
−→
−→
−→
−→
In other words, the pebbles correspond to
the numbers 1, 10, 60, 600, 3600 and 36000.
The values of the counting pebbles, or
possibly of their signs, are added up to
make the number we want to express.
Thus: , that is three cones, repre-
sent the number 3. , represents the
number twenty-one, comprising two peb-
bles of value ten and one of value one.
corresponds to our 3683, given
by 1 × 3600 + 1 × 60 + 2 × 10 + 3 × 1.
Twelve small cones, , rep-
resent the number twelve, but it is easier
to represent the same number with a small
sphere and two small cones: . This
means we can “change” one symbol for an-
other, where a given number of symbols of
the lower order corresponds to one symbol
of the higher order, according to the scale
described above. By making these changes
we don’t have to use many symbols of the
same kind, and a number can be expressed
with just a few signs, making it easier to
understand. Vice versa, one higher sym-
bol can be broken down into a number of
symbols of the lower order. These changes
of symbol are the basis for making calcula-
tions, using various techniques. In Sume-
rian calculations you have to remember the
different groupings of ten and six.
Additions
The system for representing values by peb-
bles or their signs is an additive system.
As in all additive systems, the sum of two
numbers is very easy. To add two values,
you just put together the symbols of each
addend. If we use stones, we just put them
all together, and then read off the total. For
example if we want to add to , we
obtain . move a ball but there is no ball. So we have
Adding up is therefore something that
“does itself” due to the system of repre-
sentation. In order to show the result in
the best form possible, all we have to do
is to convert, when necessary, some groups
of pebbles or signs into one stone or sign
from a higher order. For example if we add
to first we
obtain . but
ten cones can be replaced by a perforated
cone, so the result is .
Subtractions
Subtractions are carried out as follows.
Make one pile of counting pebbles which
represent the number from which the sec-
ond number will be subtracted. Then take
from this pile the pebbles that form the sec-
ond number. The remaining pebbles give
the result.
For example if we take and sub-
tract , we form the first number by
7
means of one ball and five small cones and
we remove four small cones from this group.
The pebbles left over give the result: .
It could happen that the first pile doesn’t
contain the pebbles to be removed. In this
case, we need to change one of the symbols
in the group to the pebbles one order lower,
so that we can proceed as above.
For example, if we want to subtract
from , we begin
with a group of six large cones. From
that group we remove first four large cones,
, leaving two large cones: .
To complete the subtraction we need to re-
to replace one of the large cones with six
balls, which are the equivalent. So now, in
the first pile, we have and in the
second . We remove a ball from
the first pile and add it those we had pre-
viously removed. Now the pebbles we have
removed are the same as the pebbles in the
number we are subtracting and the pebbles
left in the first pile give us the result of the
subtraction: .
Multiplication
One way of doing multiplications which is
conceptually very simple is to transform the
multiplication into repeated additions. We
could take the pebbles in the number to be
multiplied and create a series of identical
groups, as many times as we need to multi-
ply the number. Then we put all the groups
together and change the pebbles from one
order to the next, as appropriate to reduce
the total number of pebbles required to ex-
press the result.
For example, if we want to multiply
by four, we make a group in which every
stone in the first group is included four
times. This second group will contain four
large cones, four balls and four more balls,
giving the answer: .
Often we will need to change several sym-
bols into a single one of one order higher,
to express the final result in the most com-
pact and readily understandable form. For
example, if we want to multiply
by 2 we obtain . Replac-
ing six balls with a large cone, the result is:
. −→
To make things faster, particularly if the
numbers are rather large, some refinements
can be used. For example, we can see that
if we need to multiply a large cone by ten
we can replace it with a perforated cone, to
multiply it by sixty, we can replace it with
a large sphere, and to multiply it by 600,
in other words 10×6×10, we can replace
it with a large perforated sphere. In other
words some pebbles can be multiplied im-
mediately by 10 and by 6×10, 10×6×10,
6×10×6×10, and others by 6 and 10x6,
6x10x6 as we can see below:
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
×10 ×6 ×10 ×6 ×10
When we need to multiply one number
with another, it is useful to see whether
this second number can be decomposed into
sums of 6, 10 or their products. The best
way to break the number down depends on
8
the other number, the one we are multiply-
ing.
For example, if we want to multiply two
large cones and a small sphere , by
12, by 12, we can go about as follows. We
start with the two large cones, which we
−→
know we can multiply easily by 10: ×10
. So it will be a good idea to break down
12 into 10 + 2 and multiply in two separate
steps. We multiply the cones first by ten
and then by 2. To multiply by 10 we replace
each large cone with a perforated cone; to
multiply by two we take two cones for each
cone in the number we are multiplying.
−→
×10
×2
Adding the two partial results I obtain the
result of the two cones multiplied by twelve:
−→
×12
The small spheres, on the other hand, can
be easily multiplied by 6: −→
. So it
×6
will be useful to break down 12 into 6 + 6.
For each sphere we take a large cone (thus
multiplying by six) and then another large
cone (we have multiplied by six again):
−→
×12
The result comes from putting all the peb-
bles together after replacing any with peb-
bles of a higher order, as necessary. In our
example, we obtain two perforated cones
and six large cones:
−→
×12
Translating this calculation, we have multi-
plied 130 by 12 obtaining 2×600+6×60 =
1560.
Divisions
Division is very important in social life and
is often featured in ancient tablets. In one
of these (about 2650 b.C.) there is a calcu-
lation of how to divide 1152000 measures of
barley into 7 equal parts.
Using the counting pebbles we can divide
the number into seven identical heaps of
pebbles which, if put back together, would
make up the original number. The need to
properly and fairly distribute resources is
one of the reasons divisions are important
for any society. When the divisor is quite
small, say around ten, the calculation is not
difficult, even where we are dividing a very
large number, as in the case of the measures
of barley.
Let’s take an easier example to start with.
Say we want to divide
into three equal parts. The procedure in-
volves setting out rows of three stones, all
identical, starting with the stone with the
highest value:
We obtain two complete rows; and we are
left with a large cone that has nowhere to
go. We take one stone from each of the
identical rows and set it aside because it
will be part of the solution:
−→
−→
The pebbles remaining in the complete
9
lines have no further purpose and we can
collect them up and put them somewhere
for safe keeping. To carry on with the divi-
sion, we take the pebbles left over, which
we didn’t put into the lines of three; in
other words all the pebbles we couldn’t put
into three and we change them with peb-
bles from one order down. In our example,
we replace the large cone with six balls:
−→ . If there were some balls in
the original pile we put these together with
the six balls. In our case, we now have eight
balls. Now we go back to putting them into
rows of three
Again, we take one stone from each iden-
tical row and put them together with the
pebbles we set aside earlier as part of the
result, because these pebbles are also part
of the result. The other pebbles in the iden-
tical rows can be eliminated.
−→
−→
We are now left over with the two balls
we couldn’t put into the rows. We re-
place them with the pebbles of one order
down, in other words ten small cones for
each ball. In the original pile there were no
small cones so we now have twenty small
cones to put into rows of three:

We take one stone from each of these iden-
tical rows and place them with the others
in the partial result:
−→
−→
−→
−→
−→
−→
We have now got to the smallest stone so
we cannot replace anything any more, and
the division stops. The group of pebbles in
the partial result is the result, the quotient,
in our case two large cones, two balls and
six small cones:
. The two small cones left
over are the remainder. Translating into
our numbers, we divided 440 by three, ob-
taining 146 and a remainder of 2.
The Babylonian positional sys-
tem
Writing and Ambiguity
The positional sexagesimal system devel-
oped by Babylonian scientists used just
two symbols, as we said above: and .
Within each order the values from 1 to 59
were constructing by adding on. Hence, 3,
13 and 32 are written as: , ,
Repeated identical symbols were
not put in line, but grouped together, for
more immediate understanding. For exam-
10
ple numbers from 4 to 9 were written as
follows:
The numbers 40 and 50 were written like
this: , .
The same symbols are used for the higher
orders: sixties, three thousand six hun-
dreds, and so on, for other powers of sixty.
This system is perfect for writing very
large numbers and also very small num-
bers, because the same symbols were used
for fractions. Fractions were written to the
right of whole numbers, one sixtieth, one
three thousand six hundredth and so on,
with negative powers of sixty. Thus 12 , in
other words 30 60
, was written: , whilst
the symbol 7
corresponds to 60 30
+ 602,
1
i.e. 8 . Usually the context makes it clear
whether the numbers are integers or frac-
tions.
Where the context doesn’t help there re-
main possible ambiguities, even in relation
to whole numbers, due to the absence of a
zero or the fact that the numbers from 1 to
59 within each order are indicated only by
two symbols, and . For example, the
symbol could be interpreted as 23,
i.e. 10+10+1+1+1, but also as 613, i.e.
10×60+10+3, or as 1203, i.e. 20×60+3, or
as 36721, i.e. 10×3600+12×60+1, and so
on.
Small differences in the spacing between
the symbols sometimes allow these ambigu-
ities to be clarified. At some point, presum-
ably around the end of the IVth century b.
C., a spacer appeared, albeit not systemat-
ically, indicating the absence of any units
in one of the orders. The sign was two these values are constructed as the sum of
tilted wedge shapes , with some small units and tens means that we need to know
variants. This would make 25 and 1205 eas- only some products and we can construct
the others applying the distributive prop-
ily distinguishable, respectively as erty. For example it is useful to remem-
and .
ber that times makes and use
this value when we calculate the products
Calculations
of composite values.
With the Babylonian positional system cal- Division is carried out like multiplication
culations are made similarly to how they calculating the inverse of the divisor. Those
are carried out in our system of represen- who needed to make divisions had tables
tation. The fact that each symbol is con- of inverse numbers to help them with their
structed by addition means that writing the calculations.
symbols sometimes aids calculation.
In additions, for example, after placing
symbols in the same order of size in one col-
umn, the result is given by the total num-
ber of symbols properly re-ordered in each
column, making any change of symbol re-
quired for symbols repeated a large num-
ber of times: ten give and six give
in the column of the order immediately
higher.
In subtractions, the result is given by
the symbols in the first number that re-
main after eliminating all the symbols in
the second number, obviously crossing out
like symbols in the same order. To cross
out all the like symbols, some may need to
be replaced with an equivalent number of
symbols in the lower order.
Multiplication was carried out as in our
system by multiplying the various sym-
bols in the different orders of size sep-
arately and then adding the products.
The Pythagorean table for multiplications
based on a system of sixty would go from
1x1 to 59x59. In reality, the fact that all

11
Workshop Guidelines
Other materials: terracotta pebbles to represent Sumerian counting stones, presentations,
the book “Uri, il piccolo Sumero” (“Uri, the little Sumerian”).

The presentations are contained in a CD-Rom, in the “Sumerian” folder. They are slides in
PowerPoint to be projected during the workshop. They contain images and brief comments
as well as explanations on how to set up the exercises to be carried out.
The presentations are ordered by increasing complexity. Level 0, pre-calculation, is de-
signed for the very young, five years of age. Levels 1 and 2 are designed for the first and
second class of Primary School. Level 3 is designed for Lower Secondary School and level
4 for Upper Secondary School. References to age are general recommendations: individual
teachers can decide whether to use materials from a different level, according to the class,
or whether to limit the topics dealt with.
Some presentations include forms to be printed out and used during the workshop.
For calculation activities the terracotta pebbles can be used, with the following values: 1,
10, 60, 600, 3600, 36000. In activities at level 0 and level 1 only one or two pebbles are used:
the cone and the ball. Instead of using the small format, it is recommended to use the large
cone and ball, which are easier for children of that age to handle. Only when the 60 is also
used will the smaller objects be required for 1 and 10.
The story “‘Uri, il piccolo Sumero”, whose characters appear in the presentations, suitably
adapted to each level, is a good thread going through the activities of the youngest and
Primary School children.

Level 0
Recommended Age: 5 Years of Age

Before Starting the Workshop

The workshop contributes to an understanding of various aspects of pre-calculation. The

fundamental aspect is how to understand what a certain group of objects represents in
terms of numbers. The understanding of symbolic and abstract representation is fostered
only gradually. Another important aspect is the introduction of writing.
The entire presentation and the recommended activities refer to the story of Uri which is a
narrative featuring some of the steps in the historical development of the Sumerian system:
at a time when “they didn’t know how to count”, Uri makes for himself small fingers of clay,
in order not to have to use his own fingers to count on. Every time his mother asks him
to go and get a certain number of objects, he puts some pebbles into a ball. When there
are a lot of pebbles in the ball it is difficult to keep them all together without losing them.

12
But one day, in a dream, he meets the Genie of the fingers, U (the Sumerian word for ten).
Writing on tablets can also be included in the story: at some point our hero wonders what
he could do not to have to take the pebbles with him all the time, with the risk of losing
them and having to make and break the seal each time, so he invents the writing tablets.
Writing is useful in order not to have to remember things and to make a permanent record
of what you want to remember.
At this point the hand is used as an instrument for counting. Counting using the hands
is repeated many times. The children who already know how to count on fingers will have
their understanding reinforced whilst the children who do not know will learn for the first
time. Moving from fingers to objects is the first step on the way to abstraction, introducing
cone shaped stones, all the same shape, which can be used to count with.
Unlike the fingers, which can go only up to ten, we can use as many pebbles as we want.
In other words, they can be used to correspond to a large number of objects together. Over
the number ten, at this level, the teacher should not expect the children to have a good
understanding or to associate the numbers with words; just add one stone each time, like
Uri, transforming the fingers (or things) into stones. The terracotta bowl (the equivalent of
the Sumerian ball) to collect the pebbles for the results shows that the final number, the
quantity obtained, is the result of a procedure.
One delicate step is the introduction of the number ten. Here a single object is used to
represent many objects.The story of Uri and the genius of the fingers can be very useful to
overcome this difficulty. The symbol for ten is represented by a head, and where there is
a head there are ten fingers (each child can see it in the other children); but whereas the
children can see the head and the fingers at the same time, with the genius you see either
the head or ten fingers, never both at the same time. Similarly, a ball can represent ten
cones, and vice versa.
The activities with plasticine are a first approach to writing, reproducing the historical
development of writing. Initially, pebbles are pressed into it to leave a stone-shaped mark
on the plasticine and only subsequently are “styluses” used to write.
At the teacher’s discretion, this workshop can be simplified by limiting the activities to
just the use of the conical stones, without introducing the number ten, and then going on
to writing on tablets (not using the circular stamp).

Contents of the Presentations of the Workshop

The first slides introduce the story of Uri. The first aspect to focus on is the representation
of numbers with the fingers of the hand. Initially, use only one hand. Counting on fingers
means associating with each cow one finger of the hand, then using the hand to indicate
the number of cows, which is the result of counting. Slowly, the names of the numbers can
be introduced. The next slide is entitled “Our counting card”. Here we recommend getting

13
each child to start building a card which will be useful for the following activities. This card
will, in the end, show the pictures of two hands, with the ten fingers open. Children can
trace around their own hands to make the pictures. Alternatively, a printed picture could
be used for the hands and the children would put their hands onto the image, to see that
the number of fingers is the same. Or a teacher may prefer to postpone the pictures of the
hands to the moment when the second hand is introduced.
The next slide is also used for counting. This time there are six objects to count. One
hand is not enough, so the second hand will be needed. After this, the children are invited
to count from one to ten using both hands, one finger at a time. Then the children show
their fingers to indicate the number of objects shown. Then they start to fill in the card
with the pictures of the two hands, or complete it if they have started already.
Now the problem of recording the result of counting is introduced, using small objects
instead of the fingers: Uri’s fake fingers. The children are asked to count using not their
own fingers but Uri’s fake fingers, i.e. terracotta cones. This can be done with the help of
the pictures of the hands: each cone can be placed inside a drawn finger.
Cones are placed in the ball directly or, if necessary, using the card once more. The ball
shows that the result is final and can be preserved (memorized).
The last example shows how the fake fingers can be used to represent a number which is
larger than the number of fingers a child has.
The next problem dealt with is what happens when there are so many cones that we
cannot manage them all. At this point a new stone is introduced, the sphere, which takes
the place of - and represents - ten cones. The next slides show a number of fingers and the
children are asked to put into the ball the corresponding number of cones. One way to help
the children, as suggested by the slide, is to tell them that every time there are ten stones, or
ten fingers, both hands open, the genius appears, the ten fingers disappear and are replaced
by the genius’ head; so the children put the head of the genius into the ball, not his fingers.
Another way to do it is to ask some of the children (two, three or four, according to the
class) to show the numbers with their fingers and the children with both hands open become
geniuses. Their numbers are represented by a head (sphere).
Other slides then do the reverse: pebbles are shown and the children are asked to represent
them with their fingers. If there is a sphere, the children show both hands open with all ten
fingers.
The next step is writing on a tablet.
The final part of the slides refers to writing on tablets. Each child or group of children
makes a tablet. Remodeling the plasticine, a number of different things can be written. We
start with the most primitive form of writing, in which the pebbles are “impressed” onto
the plasticine. The numbers given in the slides are first represented by the stones; the entire
group of pebbles can be put onto the tablet of plasticine by pressing them onto the surface.
The cone should be pressed down so it leaves the impression of just the point or tip, easily

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distinguishable from the sphere. After writing, the children then learn to read the numbers
they have impressed onto the tablets.
Then the teacher can show how very similar signs can be made using sticks. The children
then experiment with writing, with the slides showing heaps, sacks and children. Others
pictorial signs can be invented to show what the numbers refer to.

Level 1
Recommended Age: 6-7 Years of Age.

Before Starting the Workshop

For the activities at this level the Sumerian number system is used but limiting ourselves
to the numbers from 1 to 10. A delicate moment occurs when the number ten is introduced.
The pebbles are used to make groups of ten, when the symbol must be changed, an
operation of fundamental importance for the understanding of numbers. It is also useful
for carrying out calculations, whether they be additions (when the next order of symbol
is introduced) or subtractions (when a lower order is introduced). Additions teach the
principle of “carrying over” and subtractions the principle of “borrowing”.

Contents of the Presentation of the Workshop

The first slides show how to count to ten, repeating the cone shaped stone, and how to
use the spherical stone for the number ten.
This is followed by exercises in which groups of pebbles are shown and the children are
asked what numbers they represent. Then, the children are asked to represent some numbers
using the cones and spheres.
At this point the role of the ball can be explained. The ball will be used later in the
workshop to contain the answers to the exercises.
The next slides show how to change one symbol for another: a group of ten cones is
replaced by a single sphere. This is followed by some exercises in which some pebbles are
shown and the children are asked to put the same number into the ball using as few pebbles
as possible; for example, instead of thirteen cones as shown on the slide, the children should
put one sphere and three cones into the balls, which also make thirteen.
Next, adding up is explained, putting two numbers together and putting the result into
the ball. The first example, very simple, does not require a change of symbol. In the second
example, there are more than ten cones so, before putting the pebbles into the balls, ten of
these cones should be replaced by a sphere. This is followed by some additions, the first few
without carrying over and the next with carrying over and hence a change of symbol.

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 Next comes an explanation of how to subtract, representing the first number and making
the second using the pebbles from the first; the result is then put into the ball. The example
of subtraction given does not involve “borrowing” or changing from one type of stone to
another, which is explained after the exercises and then followed by exercises illustrating the
topic.
The last slides show how to move on to writing on tablets. Here, too, we recommend
using two phases, following the historical development of writing. In the first phase, the
children press the pebbles onto the plasticine, making recognizable signs (the cone should
be pressed down lying flat). In the second phase “styluses” are used. Writing on tablets can
be introduced when the teacher feels it is appropriate, for example before or after additions
or subtractions. Once it has been introduced the results of the exercises can be expressed in
written form and not by the stones. If it is introduced before the additions and subtractions,
these exercises can be carried out in written form.
In the second phase, two styluses are used, one slender. Writing on tablets can be in-
troduced when the teacher feels it is appropriate, for example before or after additions or
subtractions. Once it has been introduced the results of the exercises can be expressed in
written form and not by the stones. If it is introduced before the additions and subtractions,
these exercises can be carried out in written form on the tablets, rather than putting the
pebbles into balls.

Level 2
Recommended Age: 8-10 Years of Age

Before Starting the Workshop

For activities at this level the Sumerian numbering system is used limiting the counting
pebbles to the values of 1, 10, 60 and 600, i.e. the cone, small spheres, large cone and
perforated cone. This allows the children to work with a base which is not ten. The use of
the number 60 and 600 and the breaking down of quantities is a good exercise in mental
arithmetic. For additions and subtractions, carrying over and borrowing, see the previous
level. At this level, some simple multiplications are also shown, indicating how they reduce
to repeated additions. Divisions are shown by making identical groups.

Contents of the Presentation of the Workshop

The first slides illustrate the functioning of representation starting with exercises on rec-
ognizing some values and, vice versa, how to make numbers with the stones. This is followed
by explaining how to change one symbol into another, with exercises using cones, spheres

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and large cones. Results should be put into the balls.
The next slides explain how to carry out additions, with a very simple example followed by
a second which requires a change of symbol to get to the final answer. With the exception
of the first, the examples require changes to get the result. The final answer should be put
in the balls.
Next, subtraction is explained using the pebbles to form the first number, and removing
those corresponding to the second number. Here, too, the first example does not require a
change of symbol but the examples that follow do require a symbol to be changed. This is
followed by subtraction exercises.
Multiplication is then illustrated, transforming the operation into repeated additions.
Division is explained by making identical groups. This is followed by exercises.
A slide then illustrates writing on tablets with “styluses”. This slide could be used at any
time in the workshop to introduce the concept of writing. To represent the four shapes of
the pebbles two pens of different diameters are introduced, to be used alone or combined,
tilting them or holding them perpendicular. The exercises can then be done by writing the
results on the tablets rather than forming numbers using the stones. N.B.: the calculations
are always carried out using the pebbles. It is only the end result that can be written on
the tablet rather than putting the pebbles into the balls.

Level 3
Recommended age: 10-14 years of age.

Before Starting the Workshop

At this level all the symbols in the Sumerian numerical system are used, with values of
1, 10, 60, 600, 3600 and 36000. Representations and calculations are carried out in the
most complex form. The sexagesimal system is used fully and the exercises are designed to
enhance the children’s ability in mental arithmetic.

Contents of the Presentation of the Workshop

The first slides introduce the six values and groups of pebbles are presented and the
children are asked to give their values.
After the exercises in representation, the concept of changing a symbol is introduced when
groups of 10 or 6 are reached, depending on which symbol is involved. The next slides show
piles of pebbles that can be reduced to a simpler form by replacing them with another type
of stone. At the beginning, it is recommended to make the heaps of pebbles in the workshop,
to replace them with other pebbles and put the results into the balls.

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 Then, additions are explained, putting together the pebbles of two numbers and making
any changes required to get the end result. Examples include various pebbles that need to
be changed.
This is followed by an explanation of subtractions. Here, too, the first example does not
require a change of symbol, but the following examples do. Then the children do exercises
in some of which changes are necessary.
Multiplication is explained and illustrated as a series of repeated additions. The teacher
can decide whether to use the simplified system explained in the notes which uses the special
values of 6 and 1.
Division is then explained, making identical groups of stones. This is followed by exercises.
The activities at this level do not include writing on tablets. If the teacher wants to
include it, the slides from the previous level can be used. Alternatively, the Sumerian
cuneiform writing can be explained and the children taught how to write these symbols (see
the Historical Remarks) and the results of calculations on paper.

Level 4
Recommended Age: 14 and Above.

Before Starting the Workshop

This level presents the transition from the Sumerian system of counting pebbles to the
Babylonian positional system. The counting pebbles are explained as in the previous level,
eliminating some of the simpler examples.
The positional system is then explained.The transition from the counting pebbles to this
system shows the advantages of a positional system. The difficulties of the Babylonian
system lead to thinking about what a positional system requires in order to be complete.
Specifically, the class can be invited to think about the use of zero in our system and the
difference with the spacer sign introduced at some point into the Babylonian system.
The fact that the base of the numerical system is not ten also enhances the ability to make
mental calculations, and to distinguish between different aspects of a numerical system:
the choice of the numerical base, the choice of the system of representation (additional,
positional, a mixture of the two), the choice of symbols.
Many slides contain a translation of sexagesimal notation according to more modern con-
ventions. They are systems of the type [2; 5; 28], in which each number indicates the units
of the increasing orders; in other words, the writing system [2; 5; 28] signifies twenty-eight
simple units, five sixties and two three thousand-six hundreds; in decimal notation this is
28 + 5 × 60 + 2 × 602 . Teachers can decide whether to use this notation system in order to
explore non-decimal numerical systems or ignore them.

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 Positional representation is reinforced by the part dedicated to fractions. This provides
interesting opportunities to discuss representation using decimal points for rational num-
bers. For example, some fractions can be written in decimal and sexagesimal notation and
their properties compared and contrasted; the length of the period can be discussed. More
in general, it will be evident that the fact that a number admits a finite or a periodical
representation depends only on the choice of the numerical basis.
The part of the calculations carried out using the cuneiform Babylonian system can
be compared with the Sumerian system of counting pebbles to show how the differ-
ent ways of representing numbers leads to different ways of carrying out calculations.
Specifically, a written positional system such as the Babylonian system is half way be-
tween the Sumerian system of counting pebbles and our system of calculation by algorithms.

Contents of the Presentation of the Workshop

The first slides introduce the six stones. This is followed by some exercises on recognition
and the representation of numbers using groups of stones. Then the concept of changing
one type of stone with another is introduced, for groups of 10 or 6 stones, depending on the
type. Some exercises are suggested.
Additions are then explained with some examples, followed by subtractions, with some
examples, using the stones. The class then carries out some exercises. Multiplications and
divisions are then illustrated.
The cuneiform representation system used by Babylonian scientists is introduced. The
first slides show the passage from the curved forms of the Sumerian system to the cuneiform
shapes of the Babylonian positional system. This is followed by some exercises in writing
and reading the cuneiform writing system.
The next slides deal with the difficulties of the Babylonian system and introduce the spacer
sign to eliminate some ambiguities.
The class then goes on to look at sexagesimal fractions. First, the teacher explains how
sexagesimal fractions are written using positional notation. Then some decimal fractions
are converted into sexagesimal fractions. The first examples are limited to the denominator
of sixty whilst the following examples use as denominator different powers of 60. The last
example shows a fraction which leads to a periodic representation.
This is followed by the part dedicated to calculations. First, the teacher shows how change-
overs of symbol are translated into positional cuneiform notation. This is followed by an
explanation of additions and some exercises. Then subtractions are illustrated, followed by
some examples to be carried out.
Multiplication differs more evidently from additions and subtractions than in the Sumerian
system of counting stones. The slides give a step-by-step illustration of how to multiply, using
one example, followed by exercises.

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 The session ends with division, showing how this can be reduced to a multiplication,
calculating the inverse of the divisor. This is followed by exercises.

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