Module 1

OVERVIEW OF POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY

I. Introduction
The quality of crops cannot be improved after harvest, only maintained; therefore,
it is important to harvest fruits, vegetables, and flowers at the proper stage and size and
at peak quality. Immature or over mature produce may not last as long in storage as that
picked at proper maturity.
This module was prepared as an overview of the general principles involved in the
post-harvest handling and storage of agricultural crops. This includes the definition of
terminologies, objectives and importance of Postharvest Technology, Relations of the
field study of Postharvest handling under Postproduction, and the extent of post-harvest
losses in agricultural crops.

II. Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
a. Define the different postharvest terminologies
b. Understand the Objectives and importance of postharvest technology
c. Discuss the relations of Postharvest Handling and Postproduction
d. Determine the Extent of Postharvest losses

III. Learning Concept /Topics

a. Postharvest Terminologies
b. Objectives and Importance of postharvest technology
c. Relations of the field study of Postharvest handling under Postproduction
d. Extent of Postharvest losses

Definition of Terminologies

1) Harvesting- deliberate separation of the commodity from the parent plant.

2) Perishables- food crops whose food value can be maintained over a short period
of time after harvest.
3) Durables- food crops whose food value can be maintained over a longer period of
time after harvest relative to perishables.
4) Quality- overall edible and aesthetic properties of the crop
5) Loss- any change in the chemical and physical properties of the crop which directly
or indirectly affects quality consequently reducing its acceptability or completely
making it unfit for human consumption.
6) Qualitative losses- loss in terms of quality or wholesomeness such as taste,
appearance, texture, aroma, and nutritive value.
7) Quantitative losses- loss in terms of number or volume of the commodities.
8) Post Production-general term applied to the handling of crops from harvest up to
the time they reach the consumer,
9) Postharvest handling- operations undertaken from the time of the crop is
detached; from the parent plant up to the time the crop in fresh or whole form
reaches the end user (e.g. consumer, processor manufacturer). For perishables,
post-harvest handling operations generally include field handling, packinghouse
operations, packaging, transport, storage and ripening operations. For durables,
these include threshing or shelling, cleaning and drying.
10) Postharvest technology-constitutes an inter-disciplinary science applied to
agricultural commodities after harvest for the purpose of preservation,
conservation, quality control/ enhancement, processing, packaging, storage,
distribution and marketing to meet the food and nutritional requirements of
consumers.
11) Primary processing- the removal of unneeded or inedible pat of the crop either
or not intended to be processed into other product forms (secondary processing).
In durables specifically rice and corn, it is referred to as milling.
12) Respiration- the oxidative process occurring within living cells by which the
chemical energy of organic molecules is released in a series of metabolic steps
involving the consumption of oxygen and the liberation of carbon dioxide and
water.
13) Transpiration- is the process of water movement through a plant and its
evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers
14) Senescence- the final phase in a life of an organ.
15) Bruise - damage to plant tissue: damage to underlying plant or fruit tissue,
visible as a soft discoloured area on the unbroken surface and caused by pressure
or impact
16) Burlap - coarse cloth: coarse cloth woven from jute, hemp, or a similar rough
thread
17) Cartons - a box made of cardboard, paperboard or fiberboard.
18) Chilling injury - damage cause in fruits due to cold temperature
19) Crate - box or basket: a large basket or a large open sturdy box used to carry or
store objects
20) Dumping - Produce must somehow be removed from the field bin or harvesting
container and moved through the packinghouse.
21) Harvesting tool - tool used to gather crops; it is specialized in some crops
22) Maturity indices - indicators that the crop is fully grown and developed, ready for
consumption
23) Palm leaf bags - commonly used for field collection or for shipping small volumes
of commodities to nearby markets.
24) Postharvest - Stage after harvesting
25) Relative humidity - percentage of water vapour in air: the ratio of the amount of
water vapour in the air at a given temperature to the maximum amount air can hold
at the same temperature, expressed as a percent
26) Storage - space for storing: space in which to store things, especially the amount
of such space
 27) Temperature - degree of heat: the degree of heat as an inherent quality of objects
expressed as hotness or coldness relative to something else
28) Ventilation - opening for air: a small opening that allows fresh air to enter or stale
air, gas, smoke, or steam to escape

NATURE AND IMPORTANCE

What is postharvest handling?

It is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling,
cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or
separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate.

What is postharvest handling technology?

It an interdisciplinary science and technique applied to agricultural produce after

harvest for its production, conservation, processing, packaging, distribution, marketing
and utilization to meet the food and nutritional requirements of the people in relation to
their needs.

A. 2022 Updates for Postharvest losses in the Philippines

i. Philippines as an Agricultural Country

 It is mainly composed of small farms.

 Has a characteristic tropical climate and variable weather conditions.
 Wide variation in topography and soil types.
 Very diverse flora and fauna.
 A mixture of cultures in numerous communities.

ii. Philippine Population, Crop Agriculture and Land Use in the Philippines
 There are about 14.60 M ha (49% from 30,018,000 M ha total land area of
the Philippines) that is amenable for agriculture.
 In 2020, the total land area used for agricultural crop cultivation in the
Philippines was around 13.42 million hectares.
Philippine Population:
 2023 – 117,337,368 ------- 1.54% growth rate
 2022 – 115,559,009 ------- 1.47% growth rate
 2021 – 113,880,328 ------- 1.51% growth rate

iii. The Philippines has:

  Approximately 250 kinds of vegetables, 41 of which are commercially
important;
 318 species of fruit-bearing plants with approximately 56 species now grown
by farmers;
 Close to 10, 000 species of flowering plants; and
 More than 2, 000 plantation, 21 of which are economically important.
 Horticultural crops are an important part of agricultural production in the
Philippines, accounting for 44% of the total volume of food crops.
 These make a major contribution to the economy, and are an important source
of export earnings. Average postharvest losses are 42% for vegetables and
28% for fruit.
 Transport of produce from the field to the market is difficult due to the poor
condition of many rural roads, especially in remote areas where only narrow
and unpaved feeder roads exist. Carts, sleds, horses or people carry products
to collection points. High transit temperature during daytime aggravates this
problem.
 For transport to market, vegetables such as cabbage, potatoes, carrots or snap
beans are placed in polyethylene bags or plastic mesh bags. Larger
commodities like squash are put directly into trucks.
 Studies of postharvest losses of vegetables identified losses in the range of 20
to 40%. Cabbage losses were amongst the highest, at 20 to 30%. Most of this
was from trimming and transportation losses.
 Loss of garlic in the Philippines was 20 to 42%, which is high compared to most
other countries. A study of varietal differences in postharvest losses of tomato
found interesting differences between varieties. This implies that plant breeding
may be a useful approach to loss prevention.
 Breeders should always keep in mind the storage life after harvest, as well as
performance in the field.
 Some tomato varieties such as BPI-TMz, although they are agronomically
successful, are becoming less popular among growers in the Philippines
because of their greater susceptibility to postharvest damage.

B. NEED FOR POSTHARVEST HANDLING

1. Food security

There is urgency in increasing food supply to feed the rapidly increasing population in
tropical countries. The usual solutions are to increase productivity per unit area,
expand the area of production and control the rate of population. Proper postharvest
handling is an additional or complementary method of solving food needs.

a) Reducing losses can be relatively cheap.

b) Loss prevention is not risky
 c) The energy used to produce food that would otherwise be lost could be
conserved. If part of the crop is not used, the energy used for production is
wasted.

2. Increasing urbanization and industrialization-

 As a country becomes more and more industry-oriented, the people
increasingly more to the cities while the production areas are pushed farther
away from population centers.
 The increasing distance between production areas and markets makes it more
difficult to maintain the freshness of produce.

3. Huge opportunities and stiff competition in exporting fresh produce

 GATT facilitated world trade in fresh produce. It removed tariff barriers and
subsidies.
 We are competing with other countries not only in their lands but also in our
own markets. The Philippines is importing a lot of fruits and vegetables that
could be or are being grown in the country.
 To be able to export fresh produce from the Philippines by refrigerated ship or
container vans, we have to keep the produce fresh-looking for 2-3 weeks if it is
to be shipped to China, 2 weeks to Hongkong and Japan, 3-4 weeks to Middle
East and 4-6 weeks to Europe and North America.

4. Growing attention to quality

 Restaurants, especially those big hotels, get most of their fruits and vegetables
from abroad because they cannot get consistently good quality produce at the
right amount from local suppliers.
 More than ever, customers are looking for and are willing to pay a premium
price for good quality produce.

5. Changing tastes and lifestyles

 With the rapid development in communications, consumers around the world
have become more aware of rage of produce available.
 Self-service air-conditioned retails store called supermarkets are now found not
only in cities but also in many small towns.

6. Growing concerns about food safety

 People are now more careful about the food they eat. Food safety is also rapidly
becoming mandatory in the export market.

7. Heightened health consciousness

 Preservation of the nutritive value goes hand in hand with the prevention of
quality deterioration.
 People are becoming aware not only of the nutritive value of fruits and
vegetables but also of their disease –preventing properties.
 8. Fluctuating supply and prices over time
 Under the commodity approach the focus is placed on the product or it is an
approach on the marketing on commodity wise basis.
 Example: The POT (package of technology) starts from production, storing,
processing and marketing. The concept of seed to shelf technology is the
essence of the commodity approach.
 Storing of food must be well planned.

9. Huge losses
 The losses reported in developing countries are two to three times higher than
those of developed countries. Unless these postharvest losses are minimized,
the gains from production will be offset and the potential income cannot be fully
realized.

C. MILESTONES IN POSTHARVEST LOSS REDUCTION

 The World Food Conference in 1974 drew international attention to food loss
prevention as one opportunity to meet mankind's food requirements. It
concluded that production of food alone does not solve the food scarcity
problem.
 In 1975 at its 75th special session, the UN General Assembly resolved that, as
a matter of priority, postharvest food losses be reduced by 50% by 1985
particularly in developing countries.
 As a result of the resolutions, a number of national and international donor
agencies initiated new programs in reducing postharvest losses. The Food and
Agriculture Organization ‘s food loss prevention program initiated in 1975 was
focused mainly on grains. Later, programs on other crops were initiated.
 Thus in 1977, the Australian government established the PHTRC as an ASEAN
Center under the Food Handling Project of the ASEAN-Australia Economic
Cooperation Program.
 In 1981, the Association of Agriculture Colleges and Universities recommended
that postharvest technology be a top priority in curriculum development in
agricultural degrees at the undergraduate level in Asia.
 The Association of Colleges of Agriculture in the Philippines initiated moves in
1982 to institute postharvest handling of grains as a subject and to infuse
concepts of postharvest Handling of Perishable Crops into existing crop
science courses.
 The Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of the Philippines promulgated
in 1997 recognized the significance of postharvest handling of both durable and
perishable crops as a significant aspect in the modernization of Philippine
agriculture.
Objectives and Importance of Postharvest Technology
The three main objectives of applying postharvest technology to harvested fruits
and vegetables are:
1. To maintain quality (appearance, texture, flavor, nutritive value)
2. To protect food safety, and
3. To reduce losses between harvest and consumption.

Principles of Postharvest handling

1) Agricultural produce are living plant material with a high degree of organization.
Believe it or not they are ALIVE and requires Tender Loving Care (TLC).
2) Harvested crops carry-out respiration, transpiration and senescence.
3) Commodities have different characteristics and requires different handling
requirements
4) Quality produce can only be attained through appropriate handling requirements.
5) Harvested commodities respond to Physical, Biological and chemical environment.

POSTHARVEST LOSSES
1. Quantitative loss - referring to the reduction in weight due to moisture loss and
loss of dry matter by respiration

 A decline in the availability, utility and saleable weight.

 It can be readily measured.

2. Qualitative loss - referring to freshness deterioration leading to loss of consumer

appeal and nutritional loss including loss in vitamins, minerals, sugars, etc.

 A decline in acceptability by the consumer. A change in chemical constituents,

appearance or nutritive value can decrease edibility and acceptability.
Both quantitative and qualitative losses occur at all stages in the post-harvest
handling system of the distribution chain of perishables (from harvesting, through
handling, packing, storage and transportation to final delivery of the fresh produce to the
consumer). Factors affecting post-harvest losses vary widely from place to place and are
more and more difficult. A farmer growing fruits for his family’s consumption does not
mind too much if his produce has a few bruises and scars and if it is not packed for a
suitable transportation to a market at a certain distance. Meantime if he is producing for
the market at any distance from his own farm he must have a different attitude if he wants
to get the best return from his produce: he must know about the quality requirements
wanted by the consumers and the proper containers needed for the transport.
By knowing the market and its needs, the grower can and must judge how important
are the requirements of appearance, maturity and flavor of his produce for the consumer.
Those requirements are strictly related with maturity indexes, which are influenced by a
proper harvesting time. A farmer must, therefore, know the proper harvesting time for his
produce. The farmer must decide whether the investment in packaging will increase his
revenue from the crop. It will be of no value to buy expensive containers for his produce
if the harvesting is not properly done and bruises and scars damage the content before
packaging. It is more important for the grower to change his attitude toward reducing post-
harvest losses, through improving harvesting, than to think that the purchase of expensive
packages will automatically solve his problem and increase his income.

Relations of the field study of Postharvest handling under Postproduction

All the practices and operations that produce undergo from harvest until the produce
is consumed tall under postharvest or post- production technology. This was referred to
as marketing technology. However, developments in science and technology in post-
production systems have also ushered in new perspectives and technology usage. Post
production technology can be divided into primary and secondary processing. Primary
processing refers to product handling that will make the product more suitable to the
manufacturers and consumers. It may or may not involve structural change. Secondary
processing refers to product handling which results in a product that can no longer be
subjected to another change. For horticultural crops, secondary processing methods
include food processing for food crops and industrial processing for non-food crops. The
methods involved in primary and secondary processing may be the same. Some
processing methods may therefore be primary or secondary, depending on whether or
not their resultant product can be processed further. For example, fermentation and
drying are primary processing methods for coffee as beverage, but they become
secondary processing methods for mango because mango wine (product of fermentation)
and dried mango slices (product of drying) are the ultimate products of processing the
fruit. Fresh mango prepared for export is a product of primary processing.
Theoretically, the processing of seeds after harvest falls under post production
horticulture. It has been discussed earlier under seed propagation. Primary processing of
fruits, flowers and vegetables is more commonly called postharvest handling and the
study of the processes going on in the commodities is called postharvest physiology.
Postharvest physiology and handling are a new field of endeavor within horticulture in
developing countries. In the Philippines, it was introduced only in the late 60's. The term
primary processing is retained for plantation crops. Some of the primary processing
operations Such as cleaning, sorting, grading and storage of produce are common to
horticultural commodities.
POSTHARVEST LOSSES
TAKE NOTE:
1) Losses can occur during harvesting, all along the handling route and up to the
consumer’s level.
2) Losses occur because the materials for the container used are of inferior quality.
3) High temperatures during transit, storage and distribution during the day and lack
of facilities; predominance of rough roads, irresponsible drivers and delays in
distribution; absence of grading, all contribute to increase in losses.

Extent of Postharvest Losses

It is well known fact that harvested crops are living commodities even after harvest
and continue to respire, transpire and carryout other biochemical activities. Therefore,
they are more perishable when compared to other agricultural commodities. The
deterioration in harvested fresh produce occurs both quantitatively and qualitatively.
The losses that occur from the time of harvesting of fresh produce till they reach the
consumer are referred as post-harvest losses.

Post-Harvest Situation
The estimates of post-harvest losses of highly perishable produce such as fruits,
vegetables and root crops in developing countries ca be high as 50%.
 In the Philippines, agriculture contributes about 8.6% of the country’s Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). Agricultural products are high volume, low value and highly perishable.
These produce are generally wasted during the process of food distribution in the supply
chain. Major contributors to huge losses are the inherent nature of these produce, the
tropical setting of the country, lack of post-harvest infrastructure and facilities, the way of
handling and the multi-layered distribution system. In the Philippines, substantial post-
harvest losses of up to 50% was recorded from the initial harvesting, grading, packaging
and transportation from field to storage and distribution to the consumers.
Post-harvest losses in High-value crops
Horticultural crops such as fruits and vegetables are often called high- value crops
due to its significant contribution to the agricultural economy. These types of crops that
account tor 44% of the total volume of food crops, is a very important source of export
earnings.

The post-harvest losses are:

Pineapple - 30-40%
Banana - 25-3 35%%
Cabbage - 20-30%
Garlic - 20-42%
Potato - 12.5%
Lettuce - 19.6%
Tomato - 1.6-16%

Cost of preventing losses after harvest in general is less than cost of producing a
similar additional amount of produce and reduction in these losses is a complimentary
means for increasing production. These losses could be minimized to a large extent by
following proper pre-harvest treatments, harvesting at right maturity stage and adopting
proper harvesting, handling, packing, transportation and storage techniques.
NATURE OF LOSSES
 Mechanical – loss due to unintentional damage sustained by the commodity
(abrasion, punctures)
 Biological – loss due to disease organisms and insects.
 Physio-chemical – postproduction activities that involve conversion of harvested
crops into stable products that can no longer be changed into other forms. It is also
referred to as full processing.

CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST LOSS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

 Technical causes – are those that can be controlled by employing technological
strategies.

Example: Improper handling, high temperature and disease. During harvesting,

losses in the Philippines are caused by unsuitable harvesting tools and aids;
containers and supplies; lack of planning, preparation and organization.

 Non-technical or extra-technical causes – are those that cannot be solved by

technology, such as inefficiencies in infrastructure, inappropriate or inadequate
policies and socio- economic factors.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POSTHARVEST LOSSES AND POVERTY

 If the quality of the produce is decreased or becomes inferior, there will be a lower
probability of repeat sales.
 With more losses, there will be less food available for the population, resulting in
increased cost per unit of food and further making it difficult for lower income
families.
 Losses result in decreased nutritive value of produce that can lead to lesser
capacity of a person to work efficiently, resulting ultimately in lesser pay.
 The monetary value of the lost produce is usually passed on to the consumer who
has to pay for a price normally higher than usual.

STATUS OF POSTHARVEST HANDLING EFFORTS

 Awareness of concerned people – many people do not realize how much fruits,
vegetables, or flowers are lost after harvest. They are also not aware that
postharvest losses can be prevented or minimized. The two general attitudes of
farmers towards losses fall under two categories: fatalism and tolerance.

 Instruction – very few schools are teaching postharvest handling. It is still a

relatively new field of study. More than 200 schools and colleges of agriculture in
the Philippines, there are less than 10% teaching POSTHARVEST HANDLING OF
PERISHABLE CROPS as a subjects.
  Research – there are very few institutions doing research work on the postharvest
handling of tropical perishable commodities , hence the few research programs on
these crops.

 Extension – less than 1% of the 24,000 government and private extension

workers in the Philippines has any training on the postharvest handling of
perishable crops.

 Information materials – There are very few information materials on postharvest

handling in tropical perishable crops. There is also a need to produce radio
broadcasts, television programs, as well as modules for training programs. This
emphasizes the need for training people in academic and research institutions.

SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE OF POSTHARVEST HANDLING

Characteristics of a viable and appropriate postharvest technology
 Technically feasible – postharvest technology should be commodity, location,
and situation-specific. It should be effective for the particular commodity handled
in a specific location and situation.
 Economically feasible – a change in the handling method is considered an
improvement when the benefits outweigh the costs of postharvest improvement.
 Socially acceptable – a postharvest intervention or system must be suited to the
intended user’s situation.
 Environment-friendly – this is an emerging concern because technologies
generally involve changes in use of resources, which might be harmful to our
environment.

THE FRESH PRODUCE AGRIBUSINESS SYSTEM

1. Production subsystem- An integrated approach is only possible in corporate
farms or cooperatives where there is a mutually beneficial partnership between
growers and a trading partner or where the grower does the marketing himself.
People involved are:

 Small farmers – fragmented, resource-poor small farms have limited

capital and knowledge of production and handling techniques.
 Farmers cooperatives/associations - cooperatives can provide good
quality produce. However, in the Philippines, very seldom are there
cooperatives that plan to produce crops at specified volumes and times to
meet market requirements.
 Corporate farms - these are highly efficient and capital –intensive farms
that are integrated in operation and have access to the latest technologies
and information.
 2. Marketing subsystem- people involved are market participants or so-called
intermediaries including village agents, assemblers, wholesalers, consignees,
retailer, exporters and importers.

The function of this subsystem is to make the produce available to the

consumers in the right form at the right price, place and time.

The postharvest operations done by the subsystem are cleaning, sorting,

trimming, packaging, storage and transport.

3. Consumption subsystem- the people involved are the final receivers of

produce from the farmers. This sub-system is becoming an increasingly potent
force in the system due to the heightened concern for health, malnutrition and
costumer safety, growth of the fast food and or food service sector, and influx
of cheap imported fresh produce that have made the systems demand
requirements more diverse and taxing for farmers and traders like.
People involved are:
 Local households - final-end-users buying from retail markets.
 Institutional buyers- hotels, restaurants, supermarkets, hospitals and
military bases.
 Food service sector- the fast food chains, airline caterers, and
enterprises that deliver peeled and fresh cut fruits and vegetables, or
intact produce to hotels and restaurants.
 Processors – those who make bottled, canned, or packed dried fruits
and vegetables.
 Importers – those who receive the produce in foreign markets.

Quality Assurance: the system’s goal and common component

 Quality Assurance (QA) is at the heart of the three subsystems. It transcends
production, marketing and consumption since maintaining the quality (thus
reducing losses) of the produce starts from the farm and continues until it reaches
the market. it is the ultimate goal of the system.

 Food safety is an emerging concern. Thus, end or market quality is the result of
the chain reactions of the different system components.
 The factors that are responsible for the deterioration of Horticultural produce are
Biological factors and Environmental factors

Biological factors
1) Respiration rate - being living entities fruits, vegetables, flowers respire actively
after harvest. Oxygen from the air breaks down carbohydrates in the plant into
carbon dioxide and water. This reaction produces energy in the form of heat.

2) Ethylene production - ethylene plays a vital role in postharvest produce. Its

detailed physiological changes are described in the next lecture.

3) Compositional changes -Many pigment changes also take place even after
harvest in some commodities. These changes are:
a. Loss of chlorophyll (green color) – In vegetables
b. Loss of carotenoids (yellow and orange color) – In apricot, peaches, citrus
fruits and tomato
c. Loss of anthocyanins (red and blue color) – In apples, cherries and
strawberries
d. Change in carbohydrates
e. Starch to sugar conversion – potato
f. Sugar to starch conversion – peas, sweet corn
g. Breakdown of pectin and other polysaccharides – causes softening of fruit
h. Change in organic acids, proteins, amino acids and lipids. – can influence
flavor
i. Loss in vitamins – effects nutritional quality

4) Growth and development - In some commodity growth and development

continue even after harvest which accelerates deterioration. For example
a. Sprouting of potato, onion and garlic
b. Fresh rooting of onions
c. Harvested corps continues to grows even after harvest but is very much
evident in Asparagus
d. Increase of volume in lettuce

5) Transpiration - Most fresh produce contain 80-90 % of water when harvested.

Transpiration is a physical process in which high amount of water is lost from the
produce, which is the main cause of deterioration. This exchange of water vapor
in produce is carried through the cuticle, epidermis cells, stomata and hairs of the
produce. Produce stored at high temperature will have high transpiration rate.

When the harvested produce loses 5 % or more of its fresh weight, it begins to wilt
and soon becomes unusable. Water loss also causes loss in quality, such as
reduced crispness and other undesirable changes in color, palatability and loss of
nutritional quality.
Factors influence the transpiration rate in various commodities:
a. Surface of the commodity - commodities having greater surface area in
relation to their weight will lose water more rapidly. It is clearly visible in
leafy vegetables where the water loss is much faster than a fruit as they
have more surface area to volume ratio.
b. Surface injuries - Mechanical damages accelerate the rate of water loss
from the harvested produce. Bruising and abrasion injuries will damage the
protective surface layer and directly expose the underlying tissues to the
atmosphere allowing greater transpiration.
c. Maturity stage - less matured fruits lose more moisture then matured
fruits/vegetables
d. Skin texture - Fresh produce having thin skin with many more spores lose
water quickly than those having thick skin with fewer spores.
e. Temperature - Water loss is high with increase in storage temperature. The
loss will be further enhanced when high temperature is combined with low
relative humidity
f. Relative humidity - The rate at which water is lost from fresh produce also
depends on the water vapor pressure difference between the produce and
the surrounding air. So water loss from fresh produce will be low when the
relative humidity i.e. moisture content of the air is high. Further, the faster
the surrounding air moves over fresh produce the quicker will be the water
loss.

Transpiration results in following type of deterioration:

a. Loss in weight
b. Loss in appearance (wilting and shriveling)
c. Textural quality (softening, loss of crispiness and juiciness)

6) Physiological breakdown - When produce is exposed to an undesirable

temperature physiological breakdown takes place.
Following physiological breakdowns are common in various commodities:
a. Freezing injury - when commodity stored at below their freezing
temperature
b. Chilling injury - when commodity stored at below their desired storage
temperature
c. Heat injury - when commodity exposed to direct sunlight or at excessively
high temperature. It causes defects like sunburn, bleaching, scalding,
uneven ripening and excessive softening. Very low O2 (<1%) and high CO2
(>20%) atmosphere during storage can cause physiological Problems, Loss
of texture, structure and microbial damage
 7) Physical damage - Various types of physical damages responsible for
deterioration are
a. Mechanical injury/cut - during harvesting, handling, storage,
transportation etc.
b. Bruising due to vibration (during transportation), impact (dropping) and
compression (overfilling)

8) Pathological breakdown- This is the most common symptom of deterioration

where it is mainly caused by the activities of bacteria and fungi (yeast and mould).
Succulent nature of fruits and vegetables make themeasily invaded by these
organisms. The common pathogens causing rots in fruits and vegetables are fungi
such as Alternaria, Btrytis, Diplodia, Phomopsis, Rhizopus, Pencillium and
Fusarium and among bacteria, Ervina and Pseudomonas cause extensive damage

Microorganisms usually directly consume small amounts of the food but they
damage the produce to the point that it becomes unacceptable because of rotting
or other defects. Losses from post-harvest disease in fresh produce can be both
quantitative and qualitative. Loss in quantity occurs where deep penetration of
decay makes the infected produce unusable. Loss in quality occurs when the
disease affects only the surface of produce causing skin blemishes that can lower
the value of a commercial crop.

9) Surface area to volume - grater surface leads to greater weight and respiratory
loss

10) Membrane permeability - fluctuation in storage temperature and physiological

injuries like chilling injury leads to membrane damage resulting in electrolyte
leakage

Environmental factors
Following environmental factors are responsible for deterioration
1) Temperature - Environmental temperature plays very major role in deterioration
of produce.
a. Every increase of 100C temperature above optimum increases the
deterioration by two times
b. Exposure to undesirable temperature results in many physiological
disorders like; freezing injury, chilling injury and heat injury etc.
c. Temperature influence growth rate of fungal spores and other
pathogens.
d. It affects the respiration and transpiration rate of produce.

2) Relative humidity - The rate of loss of water from fruit, vegetables and flowers
depends upon the vapor pressure deficit between the surrounding ambient air,
which is influenced by temperature and relative humidity. The rate of deterioration
 is a combined factor of temperature and relative humidity and affects the produce
in following manner:
a. Low Temp. & High Relative Humidity -- Low deterioration
b. Low Temp. & Low Relative Humidity -- Moderate deterioration
c. High Temperature & High Relative Humidity -- High deterioration
d. High Temperature & Low Humidity -- Very high deterioration

3) Atmospheric gas composition - Build-up of undesirably high carbon dioxide and

very low levels of oxygen in the storage facility can lead to many physiological
disorders leading to spoilage. Eg. Hollow heart disease in potato is due to faulty
oxygen balance in storage or during transportation. Exposure of fresh fruits and
vegetable to O2 levels below the tolerance limits or to CO2 levels above their
tolerance limits in storage rooms may increase anaerobic respiration and the
consequent accumulation of ethanol and acetaldehyde, causing off-flavours. The
other bad effects of unfavourable gas composition include irregular ripening of
certain fruits, soft texture, lack of characteristic aroma, poor skin color
development, etc.

Example: CA storage of Apples (0-10C with 1-2%CO2 and 2-3%O2, RH 90-95%)

for 6-12 month.

4) Ethylene - Effect of ethylene on harvested horticulture commodities may be

desirable or undesirable. On one hand ethylene can be used to promote faster and
more uniform ripening of fruits. On other hand exposure to ethylene can deteriorate
the quality of certain vegetables such as destruction of green color in leafy and
other vegetables, early senescence of flowers, bitterness in carrots, increased
toughness, accelerated softening, discoloration and off-flavor, etc.

5) Light - Exposure of potatoes to light results in greening of the tuber due to

formation of chlorophyll and solanine which is toxic to human on consumption.

6) Presence of microorganisms, insects and other pests greater their exposure

to these biological agents the faster deterioration. - in susceptible commodities,
the

Practices involved is- washing, fumigation and disinfestation.

7) Other factors - Various kinds of chemicals (eg. pesticides, growth regulators)

applied to the commodities also contribute to deterioration. Many of the chemical
constituents present in stored commodities spontaneously react causing loss of
color, flavor, texture and nutritional value. Further there can also be accidental or
deliberate contamination of food with harmful chemicals such as pesticides or
lubricating oils.