Index

Bold numbers denote main entries classifiers, 106

conveying, 814
abrasion peeling, 121 fluidised beds, 80, 252, 496, 500, 708
absolute humidity, 482 knives, 706
absorption, air-blast freezers, 662
carbon dioxide ± active packaging, 764 air knives, 706, 707
cooking oils, 569, 705 alcohol, distillation, 448±453
ethylene ± fruit ripening, 624 alcoholic and mixed alcohol±acid fermentations,
± active packaging, 764 253, 874
latent heat ± phase transition, 343±345, 409, 432, alginates, 15, 16, 153, 757, 846
484, 651, 656±659, 689, 883 algorithms ± computer control, 119, 828, 878
moisture, 55 alkaline phosphatase ± milk, 323, 363, 383, 878
radiant energy, 604 alkylcyclobutanones ± irradiated foods, 284
absorptivity, infrared energy, 604 aluminium
accelerated freeze drying, 603, 694 cans, 726±728
accelerated shelf-life testing, 81 foil, 728
accumulating conveyors, 815 amino acids, 22±25, 57, 84, 237, 243, 257, 281,
acetic acid, 80, 243, 529, 549, 859, 874 424, 473, 535, 546±548, 570, 572, 849
acid foods, 44, 46, 878 ammonia ± refrigerant, 625±629
acids, bases and pH, 44 anchor and gate agitator, 171
acoustic drying, 331, 511 annealing, glass, 730, 878
acronyms, list, 887±891 antifoam ± fermentations, 249
acrylamide, 548, 572 antifreeze proteins, 674
active packaging, 549, 761±767, 878 antimicrobial ingredients, 262, 307, 526, 529, 549
acylglycerols, lipids, 17 antimicrobial packaging, 762, 765
additives in foods, 4, 238, 857±860, 878 antioxidants in foods, 33, 377, 466, 474, 518, 529,
adiabatic cooling of air, 293, 484 533, 567, 672, 765, 849, 857
adiabatic heating aromas in foods, 50
high pressure processing, 292 aromas produced by baking, 546±547
blanching, 373 aroma recovery, 440, 447±448
adsorption ± immobilised enzymes, 260, 764 Arrhenius equation, 56, 81
aerosol cans, 728, 792 aseptic packaging, 33, 319, 414, 746, 796
aflatoxins, 67, 243, 257, 878 aseptic processing, 396, 414±423, 447, 602, 783,
agglomeration ± powders, 114, 501, 502, 508±510, 878
878 aspiration ± sorting, 106, 115
agitators ± mixing, 162, 164±177 ATEX directive, 140, 169, 207
aims of the food industry, 3 atomisers ± spray drying, 504, 508
air attrition force ± size reduction,127
as a drying medium, 482±493, 499±512 attrition mills see disc mills
as a freezing medium, 661±665 automated guided vehicles, 837
896 Index

automatic control, 121, 248±250, 278, 412, 457, blanchers, 371

587, 594, 661, 708, 823±836 blanching, 369±380, 595, 696, 878
aw see water activity effect on foods, 376, 680
azeotropes, 29, 449, 627 effect on enzymes and micro-organisms, 378
equipment, 371±376
B-value, heat processing, 417 hot-water blanchers, 375
bacon, slicer, 131 newer blanching methods, 375, 593, 595, 603
bacteria, 59±69 steam blanchers, 372
D- and z-values, 284, 302, 359±363, 382, 398 theory, 369
pathogens, 61±67, 143, 230, 242, 262, 280, 303, blast freezers, 662
360, 382, 534, 548, 595, 643, 751, 865±868 blending see mixing
bacteriocins and antimicrobial ingredients, 262, 307, bloom, chocolate, 17, 147, 182, 292, 704, 706, 878
878 blow moulding ± packaging, 730, 739±740
bakery products, 3, 33, 55, 57, 60, 117, 145±146, boards ± packaging, 792
253, 545±550. 614, 650, 703, 750 boilers, steam, 345, 355
fermentation, 253 boiling pans, 388, 431
glass transition, staling, 55 boiling point, 343, 432, 441
baking and roasting, 273, 538±558 Bond's law, size reduction, 128
batch and semi-continuous ovens, 542 botulin, 62, 398, 866, 878
continuous ovens, 544 bound moisture, 511, 878
control of ovens, 545 boundary films, 72, 78, 348, 350, 432, 485, 539,
effects on foods, 146, 545 557, 662, 664, 878
effects on micro-organisms, 548 bowl centrifuge, 191, 193±194
effects on sensory characteristics, 545 bowl chopper, 139
effects on nutritional value, 547 bread moulding equipment, 178
equipment, 541 bread, slicer, 131
heat transfer, 348 breadcrumbs, 591, 603, 703, 705
infrared, 603 breading equipment, 707
radio frequency, 591 breakfast cereals, 456, 471, 482, 591
theory, 538, 605 broken heating curve ± canning, 399
ball dryer, 512 bucket elevators, 815
ball mill, 134 bulk density, 34±35, 125, 473, 490, 508±510, 822
band sealer, 794 butter, 2, 17, 144, 152, 169, 209, 253, 482, 592,
bar codes, 635, 769, 835 614, 628
baroresistance, micro-organisms, 296, 301, 878
barrier properties ± packaging, 73, 716 C-value, heat processing, 417, 879
basic principles, food processing, 11±95 caesium ± irradiation, 274
basket centrifuges, 195 cage press, 203
basket press, 203 cakes, 33, 40, 54, 323, 328, 540, 543, 548±549, 650,
batch culture ± fermentation, 243 703, 750, 765
batch ovens, 542 cake batters, 153
batch retorts, 411 calandria, 440, 879
batching, automatic, 829 calcium chloride ± blanching, 377, 424
battered foods, 555, 703 can manufacture, 3, 725±728
batters, 153, 555, 570, 705 canning, 2, 397±413, 423±426, 786, 790
beading, cans, 726 carbohydrates, 12
beer, 2, 191, 194, 199, 200, 217, 253, 382, 387, carbon dioxide
453, 724, 732, 761, 766, 874 controlled and modified atmospheres, 623, 635
Beer±Lambert law, 716 cryogenic grinding, 133, 139
belt freezer, 662 dry ice, 628
belt press, 204 effect on micro-organisms, 643
Bernoulli's equation, 77 high pressure processing, 306
BET (Brunauer±Emmett±Teller) monolayer, 41 latent heat ± cryogenic chilling, 619, 667
bin dryers, 496, 497 MAP, 749±753
Bingham or Casson plastic fluids, 37, 878 pressure-temperature diagram, 208
biochemical changes to foods, 56 properties, 619, 622
biochemical preservation, 80 refrigerant, 619±623, 625±629, 667
biochemical properties of foods, 44±47 supercritical extraction, 207±211
biodegradable packaging, 754±761 toxicity, 622
biological oxidation demand (BOD), 104, 819, 878 transmission, flexible films, 720
bioplastics see biodegradable pckaging, carborundum, 121, 879
Biot number, 353, 620, 658, 660 carboxymethyle cellulose, 15, 846
biotechnology, 229±270 carrageenan, 13, 16, 153, 242, 711, 846
biscuit formers, 179±180 cartons, 792
black body radiators, 604, 878 case hardening, dehydration, 518, 629, 879
 Index 897

catalase, 371 in-place (CIP), 176, 220, 247, 446, 807, 811, 816,
caustic peeling, 122 823
cavitation, 150±151, 301, 330, 511, 672, 879 out-of-place (COP), 811
cellulose, 13±15, 733, 741, 846, 848 climacteric ripening ± fruits, 638, 879
film, 3, 733, 754 climbing film evaporator, 442
centralised control systems, 832 Clostridium botulinum, 62, 262, 280, 303, 363, 398,
centrifugal 416, 423, 531, 534, 682, 751, 866
atomiser ± spray drying, 504 closures ± packaging, 787±792
clarification, 189, 194 coated films ± packaging, 736, 743
clarifier, 193±194 coating, 703±712, 879
decanter, 195 batters, powders and breadcrumbs, 705
evaporator, 441, 445 chocolate and compound coatings, 704
filtration, 195 dusting or breading, 707
fluidised bed dryer, 502 enrobers, 706
force, 189 equipment, 706
pumps, 815 microencapsulation, 709
separation, 189±194 pan coating, 708
centrifugation, 189±196, 697 coaxial and cofield chambers, PEF, 319
equipment, 193±196 cobalt ± irradiation source, 274
theory, 189 cocoa, 2, 16, 57, 137, 447, 472, 502, 503, 538, 547,
centrifuges, 193±196 603, 636, 704, 875
CFCs, refrigerants, 626 cocoa butter, 147, 256, 292, 704
chain conveyor, 813 co-current flow, heat exchanger, 351
changes to foods caused by processing, 81±83 coefficient of performance (COP), refrigeration, 618,
checkweighing, 801 622
cheese, 2, 17, 33, 38, 54, 65, 110, 131, 217, 236, coextruded films ± packaging, 738
254, 292, 525, 614, 875 coffee, 3, 188, 193, 209, 217, 430, 446, 482, 688,
chemical oxidation demand (COD), 104, 820, 879 875
chest freezers, 661 cold
chill storage, 613, 620±622, 630, 638 chain, 651, 674
temperature monitoring, 631 extrusion, 456
chilled foods, 4, 54, 56, 614±649, 717 shortening ± meats, 99, 641, 879
chilling 613±649 smoking, 525±526
applications, 635 stores, 618, 620, 622, 630, 635, 661±662
cold storage, 620, 630 collapse temperature ± freeze drying, 691, 879
cryogenic chilling, 619, 628 collation sorting, 116
effects on micro-organisms, 643 colloid mills, 151
effects on sensory and nutritional qualities of colloidal food systems, 39
foods, 56, 638 colour, 48, 83
equipment. 624±626 changes in foods due to
fresh foods, 614, 635, 638 baking, 547
injury, fruits, 56, 638±640, 879 blanching, 377
mechanical refrigerators, 625±628 canning, 423±425
processed foods, 637 dehydration, 519
temperature monitoring, 628, 631 evaporation, 447
theory, 614±623 extrusion, 473
chilling injury ± fruits, 56, 638±640, 879 fermentation, 256
chiral, molecules, 12, 879 freezing, 678
chitin and chitosan, 262, 307, 711 frying, 570
chlorine, 2 high pressure processing, 294, 305
chlorination, water, 100, 818 homogenisation, 153
chlorofluorocarbons, refrigerants, 626±628 pasteurisation, 393
chlorophyll, 31, 118, 305, 377, 423, 425, 519, 640, smoking, 532
674, 678, 853 UHT processing, 425
chocolate, 17, 147, 182, 292, 470, 472, 592, sensors, 822
703±705, 709 sorting, 108, 116, 119
bloom, 147 colourants
cholesterol, 21, 146, 209, 861 in foods, 31, 857
chopping, 126 used in glass, 729
cider, 67, 138, 199, 204, 217 combo-bins, 628, 714, 812
classifiers, air, 106 combined heat and power, 356
cleaning combined packaging systems, 747
compounds, 810 commercial sterility, 360 398, 879
equipment, 806, 808±812 comminution see size reduction
foods, 103±110 compound coatings, 703, 879
898 Index

components of smoke, 528 convection ± in heat transfer, 348, 399±401, 656

compression force ± size reduction, 127 conversion factors, 876
computer control of equipment, 4, 116, 118, 131, conveyor dryer, 491, 496, 498±499
140, 167, 178, 184, 201, 249±250, 358, 413, conveyors, 812±815
420, 470, 498, 515, 532, 545, 594, 628, cook-chill systems, 624, 637, 642
630±631, 661, 783, 804, 821±836 cook value, canning, 397
concentration cooker±coolers, 412
freeze, 696 cooking oil see oils
membrane, 211±224, 696 cooled air freezers, 661
polarisation, membrane concentration, 215 cooled liquid freezers, 664
concentric tube heat exchangers, 388 cooled suface freezers, 665
conching, chocolate, 704 cooling crops and carcasses, 99±102
condensers cooling equipment, 99, 101
evaporation/distillation, 446 corn syrup, 12, 14, 199, 444, 470, 705, 710
freeze drying, 691, 693 corrosion
mechanical refrigerators, 614±618 containers, 377, 387, 409, 726
conduction ± heat transfer, 346, 399±401, 431, 484, refrigerators, 626
539, 557±559, 656, 879 corrugated board, 714, 744, 792
conductivity counter-current
electrical, 597, 598, 822, 879 blanchers, 375
thermal, 36, 340±342, 493, 512, 540, 592, 598, drying, 499, 503, 504, 507
656, 659, 885 extraction, 210, 211
confectionery, 3, 4, 182, 431, 456, 470, 704, 706, freezers, 664, 668
708, 709 flow through heat exchangers, 351, 388, 421
confectionery moulders, 182±185 cream, 17, 40, 75, 144, 149, 152, 188, 193, 382,
conical dough moulder, 179 417, 549, 613, 688, 728, 783
constant rate period ± dehydration, 486, 879 critical
constituents, smoke, 528±529 collapse temperature ± freeze drying, 691
contact dryers, 694 control points, 85±86, 879
containers moisture content ± dehydration, 486, 880
aerosol, 728, 792 point
aluminium foil, 728 near-critical fluid, 209
bag±in±box, 734, 738, 747 heat penetration, 399
barcodes, 635, 769, 835 pressure
can seam formation, 790±792 carbon dioxide, 207
checkweighing, 801 water, 29
closures, 787±790, 798 speed ± tumbling mixers, 168
filling and sealing, 782±803 temperature
flexible films, 732±741 carbon dioxide, 207
glass, 729±732 indicators, 634
interactions with foods, 283, 714, water, 29
intermediate bulk (IBCs), 628, 714, 812 zone ± freezing, 652
labelling, 54, 798±800 crop cooling, 99±102, 635±638
lids for glass and plastic containers, 787±790, 798 crumb, 880
mechanical strength, 722±723 crushing see size reduction
metal, 725±728 cryogenic
paper and board, 741±747, 792 chilling, 619, 628±630
printing, 726±728, 767±769 freezing, 661, 667
retail, 714 grinding, 133, 629
rigid plastic, 408, 739, 783 cryogens, 625±627
shipping, 714 latent heat, 619, 667, 880
textile, 724 cryoprotectants, 674, 880
wooden, 724 cryostabilisers, 880
contaminants in foods, 103±110 crystallisation
continuous culture, fermentation, 245 cocoa butter, 704
continuous phase ± emulsions, 39, 144, 149, equipment, 697
152±153, 879 ice, 651, 653
continuous phase ± mixing, 157 lipids, 17, 19, 295, 331, 651±656, 671, 704, 846
control of processing see computer control of polysaccharides, 55
equipment sugars, 153, 331, 444, 709
controlled atmosphere storage, 613, 623±624, cullet, 729, 773
635±638 cutting equipment, 129±133
controlled release technologies, 261 cyclone separator, 128, 504, 507
controllers ± automation see programmable logic
controllers (PLCs) D-values, 359±360, 364, 382, 398, 402, 526, 865±868
 Index 899

enzymes, 364 diffusion, 72, 488

micro-organisms, 283, 303, 321, 322, 360±364 dilatant foods, 37, 162, 880
pathogens, 284, 360, 549 direct heating methods, 355, 419, 497, 542, 560
pigments, 364 direct heating
vitamins, 364 dryers, 497
dairy products, 16, 54, 57, 60, 146, 152, 220, 224, ovens, 542, 880
240, 253, 292, 388±391, 414±426, 443, 614, disc bowl centrifuge, 193±194
655, 750 disc mills, 134, 151
date-marking, foods, 54 disc sorter,112
dealcoholised wine, 217 disaccharides, 12
death rate curve, 283, 359 disinfection, equipment, 808±812
decanting centrifuge, 195 disinfestation using irradiation, 280
decimal reduction time, 359, 382, 398, 880 dispensing containers, 790
deck ovens, 542 dispersed phase ± emulsions, 39, 144, 152±153, 880
dedicated control systems, 832 dispersed phase ± mixing, 157
deep fat frying, 556±577 distillation, 2, 447±455
changes to oil, 567±568 boiling point/concentration diagram, 450
dehydration, 481±524, 688 column, 451±452
constant rate, 486 effect on foods and micro-organisms, 453
control of dryers, 515 equipment, 451±453
effect on foods, 516 theory, 448±451
effect on micro-organisms, 520 distributed control systems, 832
equipment, 495±516 distribution chain, 614, 629, 631, 651, 838
falling rate, 488 distribution logistics, control, 4, 631, 838
in freezing, foods, 676 dose distribution ± irradiation, 275±278
intermediate moisture foods, 495 dosimeters, 276, 278, 880
losses in freezing, 662 double emulsions, 149
mass transfer, 485 double seam ± canning, 790
mechanisms, 485 dough mixing, 159±161
microwave, 590±591 dough moulding, 178
rate calculation, 487±493 dough properties, 540
rehydration, 516 drip losses, 301, 546, 641, 660, 671, 676, 681
theory, 482±495 drum
using heated air, 482±495 blanchers, 374
using heated surfaces, 493±512 dryers, 494, 496, 512±514, 515
using infrared energy, 603 filters, 168±169
using ultrasound, 511 screens ± sorting, 114
dehydrofreezing, 673, 880 washers, 105
density drums ± packaging, 722, 724
foods, 34±35, 75±80, 105, 115, 125, 144, 158, dry bulb temperature, 484, 880
163, 189±190, 275, 294, 341, 348, 446, 464, dry cleaning, foods, 106±110
473, 490, 508±510, 540, 598, 602, 822 drying see dehydration
ice, 35, 656 drying curves, 486
water, 26, 28, 34, 75±80 drying rate, 489
depositors ± confectionery, 184, 880 Duhring chart, 432±433
desludging or dewatering centrifuges, 195 dusting equipment, 707
desorption, moisture, 488, 689, 880 dynamic data exchange, 833
detection of irradiated foods, 284±286 dynamic viscosity ± fluids, 38
detection thresholds ± odours and tastes, 50
detergents, 39, 809±812, 880 e-numbers, 857±860
dew point, 484, 880 edible and biodegradable packaging, 733, 749, 759
dewatering centrifuge, 195 edible coatings for foods, 711
dextrose equivalent, 14 edible protective superficial layers, 756
diatomaceous earth, 199 effect of
dicing and flaking equipment, 126, 129, 131±133 frying on oils, 567
die, extrusion, 456, 463, 880 heat on micro-organisms, 56, 359, 378, 382,±383,
dielectric 473, 545, 595
constant, 583±584, 880 heat on nutritional and sensory characteristics,
loss factor, 583±584 82±83, 224, 363, 423, 447, 453, 473, 516,
properties of foods, 583 545, 568, 595, 695
dielectric heating, 581±595, 691, 880 effectiveness of sorting, 111
applications, 590, 592±594 effluent treatment, 104, 819±821
effect on foods and micro-organisms, 595 egg sorter, 114
equipment, 586 elastic stress limit± size reduction, 126
theory, 582 electric arc discharge, processing, 324
900 Index

electric fields, processing see pulsed electric fields wastes, 104, 819±821
electrical conductivity of foods, 582, 597, 880 water, 818±821
electrical resistance ± ohmic heating, 596±603 environmental management systems, 821
electrodialysis, 212, 222, 880 enzyme linked immunosorbant assay, irradiated
electroheating, 597, 880 foods see ELISA test
electromagnetic radiation, 326, 582, 603 enzyme production by GM micro-organisms, 236,
electromagnetic spectrum, 326, 582 870±875
electron accelerators, 274, 277 enzymes, 25±26
electronic noses and tongues, 826 separation and concentration, 188, 217
electroporation, 318, 880 equilibrium moisture content, 43, 488, 718±719, 881
electrostatic cleaners, 106 equilibrium relative humidity, 43, 717, 837, 881
elevators, materials handling, 812 equipment ± cleaning, 806, 808±812
ELISA test, 238 essential fatty acids, 19
emissivity, 604 essential oils, 188, 193, 206, 209, 217, 448
emmitters, infrared, 606 ethanol
emulsification, 125, 144, 148, 880 distillation, 448±453
emulsifying agents, 39, 144±147, 704, 710, 858, 880 emitters, packaging, 550, 750, 765
emulsions, 3, 39, 144, 152, 193, 331, 382, 676, 710 fermentation, 253, 874
encapsulation, 482, 502, 510, 710, 881 ethylene
end-over-end agitation, canning, 399, 411 ripening fruits, 623, 632, 638, 717
energy scavengers, packaging, 762
audit, 357 eutectic plate chillers, 628
balances, 76, 345, 462 eutectic temperatures, 653, 654, 881
conservation, 357±358, 373, 437, 497, 631 evaporation, 215, 217, 430±447, 497
consumption in food processing, 4, 259, 356±357, economics, 437
373, 431, 437, 497, 557 effect on foods and micro-organisms, 447
efficiency audits, 357 equipment, 76, 440±446
infrared, 603±606 mass balance, 434
inputs for different types of processing, 357 multiple effect, 437
inputs for pumping, 76 steam consumption, 437±446
losses in fluid flow, 75±80 theory, 431±437
management, 358 vapour recompression, 438
microwave, 581±588, 590±596 exhausting of containers ± canning, 377, 881
packaging manufacture, 771 expellers ± oil extraction, 205, 881
radio frequency, 588±596 explosion puff drying, 500
recovery, 358 expression ± of food components, 202±206, 881
sources in food processing, 354 equipment, 203
transfer in heating, 346, 463 theory, 202
ultrasonic, 151, 329±332 extraction, solvent, 206±210
energy use in equipment, 209
baking, 541, 544 oils, 202±211
blanching, 373 solvents, 207
drying, 497 supercritical CO2, 207
evaporation, 215, 431, 437 theory, 207
extrusion, 462 extremophile, bacteria, 260
fermentation, 2, 251 extruders, 205, 456±470, 881
food distribution, 4, 836±844 changes in extrusion cooking, 467
freeze drying, 687 operating characteristics, 462, 467
frying, 559 single screw, 458, 464±465
irradiation, 227 throttle rings, 464, 466
membrane concentration, 215, 223 twin screw, 458, 466
size reduction, 127 extrusion, 456±477, 881
enrobing, 706, 881 applications, 457, 470
enthalpy, 344, 667, 881 cereal products, 457, 471
enthalpy ± cryogens, 667 cold extrusion, 456
entrainment confectionery products, 457, 470
evaporation, 439, 881 control of extruders, 463, 469
frying, 559 cooking, 456±477
environmental considerations effects on foods, 459, 473
effluents, 819±821 effects on micro-organisms, 474
energy, 4, 356±358, 437 equipment, 456±470
frying, 563 extruder operating characteristics, 462, 467
packaging, 715, 770 meat and fish products, 457, 472
refrigerants, 625±626 operating characteristics, 462, 467
storage, 54 properties of ingredients, 459±462
 Index 901

protein based foods, 457, 472 frozen storage, 675

single-screw extruders, 458, 464±465 modified atmosphere packaging, 749
snack foods, 457, 471 smoking, 525±537
textured vegetable protein, 472 flaking equipment, 126
theory, 458 flame peeling, 122
twin-screw extruders, 458, 466 flame sterilisation, 410
types of extruded foods, 457 flash steam peeling, 121
weaning foods, 457, 472 flat plate membranes, 220
flavour, 49
F-value ± heat sterilisation, 402±408, 881 applicators, 707, 710
F0 value, 402, 403, 594±595 coatings, 703, 705
factory layout, 806 flavour ± changes in foods due to
falling film evaporator, 442 baking, 546
falling rate period ± dehydration, 488, 881 canning, 424
fat-holding capacity, 152 dehydration, 518
fat substitutes, 15, 21, 571 evaporation, 447
fats and oils see lipids extrusion, 473
fatty acids, 18±20, 567±568 fermentations, 256
feedback control, 668, 827, 881 freezing/frozen storage, 678±680
feed-forward control, 668, 827, 881 frying, 570
fermentations, 1, 2, 13, 15, 35, 47, 67,69, 80, 83, heat, 363
199, 217, 225, 229, 238, 243±261, 313, 331, high pressure processing, 274
448, 545, 548, 573, 750, 754, 755, 829, 847, irradiation, 281
848, 873±875 pasteurisation, 394
fermentation technology, 243±261 smoking, 528, 532
commercial food fermentations, 252, 873±875 UHT processing, 425
control, 247±249 flavour compounds ± supercritical extraction, 207
effects on foods, 256 flavour recovery see volatile recovery
equipment, 247±252 flexible films, 732±741, 794
solid substrates, 251 flotation washing, 105
submerged culture, 247±250 flotation sorting, 115
theory, 243±247 fluid dynamics,75, 349
fermented fluid flow, 75±80, 163, 349, 461, 600
alcoholic products, 253 fluidisation, 80, 374, 500, 664, 708, 710, 881
bakery products, 253 fluidised
dairy products, 1, 253 bed blancher, 374
foods, 253±256, 873±875 bed dryer, 487, 496, 500, 508
meat and fish, 54 bed freezers, 664
mycoprotein, 254 beds, 80, 708, 710
pickling and curing, 255 fluids
soy sauce, 256 Newtonian, 37, 147
fh/u-g tables ± canning, 405 non-Newtonian, 37, 147, 162, 388, 464
fibreboard, packaging, 744 pressure drop, 76±77, 464
filling and sealing of containers, 782±803 properties, 36
cans, 409, 783, 790±792 pumps, 76, 815
flexible films, 794 fluorohydrocarbons, refrigerants, 626
liquid fillers, 783 flux ± membrane concentration, 213±217, 881
rigid and semi-rigid containers, 410, 783±793 foam mat dryer, 496, 499
shrink and stretch wrapping,797 foams, 40
tamper-resistant containers, 798 control in fermenters, 249
films control in evaporators, 440
boundary ± fluid flow, 72, 348, 350, 432, 485, food
539, 557, 662, 664, 878 biotechnology, 229±270
flexible ± packaging, 732±738 composition, 11±34
filter aids, 199 contact materials, 806
filter cake, 195, 197±202, industry today, 3
filtration, 196±202, 564, 697, 881 poisoning, 61±69, 865±868
equipment , 199±202 safety, 60
theory, 196 spoilage, 53
fish forced circulation evaporators, 443
chill storage, 614 foreign bodies, contaminants, 54, 60, 103, 822, 824,
coated products, 705 830
fermentation, 874 inspection, 110
fried, 556 form-fill-seal equipment, 794±797
frozen, 650 forming, 157, 178±187, 456, 881
902 Index

bread moulders, 178 cleaning, 105

confectionery moulders and depositors, 182 climacteric ripening, 638±639
pie, tart and biscuit formers, 179 concentrates, 431
fouling, evaporators, 432±433, 881 dried, 482
fourdrinier wire, 742 effect of canning, 423±425
Fourier number, 346 effect of dehydration, 516±520
fractional distillation, 440 effect of feezing, 676
free radicals, 274 effluent production, processing, 819
freeze concentration, 696±698, 882 frozen, 650
effect on foods and micro±organisms, 698 glass transition temperatures, 655
equipment, 697 high pressure processing, 305
theory, 696 inspection, 110
freeze drying, 592, 688±695, 711, 882 irradiation, 280
effect on foods and micro±organisms, 695 juice extraction, 188, 202±204, 290
equipment, 592, 693±695 juice evaporation, 430, 444
theory, 689±693 juice fitration, 200
freezer burn, 56, 662, 680, 717 modified atmosphere packaging, 749, 751
freezing, 2, 4, 650±686, 689, 696 modified atmosphere storage, 623, 636, 640
calculation of freezing time, 656±660 packing, 786
coefficient of performance (COP), refrigerators, pasteurisation, 381
672 peeling, 121
cryogenic freezers, 667±670 pulping, 137±139
cryoprotectants, 674 press, 204±205
curve, 653 ripening, 280, 638
dehydrofreezing, 673 sorting, 107, 110, 114±115, 117, 119
effects on foods, 676 storage conditions, 632
effects on micro-organisms, 681 frying, 555±577, 705
energy required, 651 atmospheric fryers, 559
equipment, 661±674 changes to colour and flavour, oils, 567
glass transition, 654±656 changes to texture colour and flavour, foods, 570
frozen storage, 674 control of fryer operation, 564
hydrofluidisation, 672 effects on foods, 558, 568
ice crystal formation, 651±654 effects on micro-organisms, 573
immersion, 664, 668 effects on oils, 567
individual quick freezing (IQF), 662, 664, 668, equipment, 559
681 heat and mass transfer, 557
magnetic, 673 heat recovery, 565
mechanical freezers, 625, 661 microwave, 593
new developments in freezing, 670±674 oil absorption, 569, 705
plateau, 653, 882 oil filtration, 564
point, foods, 650±653, 689, 6970 theory, 557
pressure assisted, 300, 670±672 time and temperature, 559
recrystallisation, 56, 680 types of oils used for frying, 565
refrigeration, 614±623, 625 vacuum and pressure fryers. 563
solute concentration, 650, 654 fuels, 354
storage life, 675 functional components of foods, 861
temperature monitoring, 675 functional foods, 240±242, 861
thawing, 659, 676±681 health claims and regulation, 241
theory, 651±660 prebiotic foods, 242
ultrasound, 672 probiotic foods, 241
fresh crops functions of packaging, 713
controlled atmospheres, 624, 630, 635 fuzzy logic, 119, 250, 470, 515, 661, 830, 882
storage, 632
washing, 104 gamma rays, 274, 315
friability, size reduction, 127, 882 dosimeters ± irradiation, 284
friction ± fluid flow, 76 gas control, active packaging, 761±765
fried foods, 195, 556±577 gelatin, 182, 188, 444, 494, 546, 847
froth flotation, washing, 105 gelatinisation, starch, 14, 84, 305, 424, 459±461,
Froude number ± fluid flow, 78±90, 163 546, 570, 591, 597, 603
frozen foods, 650 genetic modification, 229±238
frozen storage, 674, 678, 711 genetically modified micro-organisms, 236,
frozen storage life ± indicators, 675 870±872
fruit GM food crops, 231, 704
chilling, 623, 636, 640 legislation and safety testing, 235, 237±239
chilling injury, 638±640 public perceptions of GM foods, 234
 Index 903

glass energy use and methods to reduce energy

containers, 408±410, 729±732, 786±787 consumption, 356, 564
glassy state of foods, 81, 461, 473, 653, 655, 674, equipment, heat exchangers, 350±352, 371±375,
689 388, 399±401, 404, 441±446
polishing pans ± food coating, 708 heating curve, 399±401, 404, 414
thermal shock ± packaging, 387, 410, 717, 732 indirect heating methods, 355, 557
transitions, 81, 653, 655, 729, 882 radiation, 484, 691
global value chains, 5, 838 sources of heat, 354
global warming potential, refrigerants, 625 steady-state heat transfer, 346, 434, 462, 885
glossary, 878±886 theory, 339
glucose syrup, 237, 248, 257, 709 unsteady state heat transfer, 353
good manufacturing practice, 84, 273, 534, 614, HFCs and HCFCs, refrigerants, 626
644, 808 helical blade mixers, 171
grading, foods, 110±120, 882 high-care areas, 638
grain cleaner, 107 high pressure frying, 563
grain drying, 488 high pressure processing, 290±312, 323±324, 376,
Grashof number, 349 393
grey body, infrared heating, 604, 882 assisted freezing, 300
grinding see size reduction combinations with other minimal processing
gums see hydrocolloids techniques, 306
commercially produced foods, 291
HACCP, 56, 71, 85, 104, 106, 153, 178, 273, 402, effects on enzymes, 304
535, 614, 644, 661, 752, 808, 837, 882 effects on foods, 294, 305
half-life ± irradiation source, 274 effects on parasites and micro-organisms, 301
hammer mills, 134±136, 140 equipment, 296±300
hard coatings for foods, 709 freezing and thawing, 300, 670±672
headspace ± containers, 408±411, 786, 822, 882 mechanism of inactivation of microbial cells, 295
heat packaging, 298
balance, 345, 434 process developments, 300
exchangers, 350±352, 371±375, 388, 399±401, pulsed HPP systems, 293
404, 441±446 semi-continuous operation, 298
penetration into containers, 399±405 theory, 292
processing, 339±367 high speed mixers, 147
recovery, 358, 375, 390, 437, 497, 565 high speed slicers, 131
resistance of enzymes, 359±364 history of food processing, 1
resistance of micro±organisms, 359±363, 398 HLB value ± emulsifying agents, 145
resistance of vitamins, 364 holding time
respiration, fruits and vegetables, 619, 621 pasteurisation, 385
sealing equipment, packaging,794 UHT processing, 417±423, 600±602
sterilisation, 396±429, 882 homogenisation, 125, 882
calculation of process time, 402±408, 415±417 homogenisers, 147±152
canning, in-container sterilisation, 397±413 honey, 196, 219, 292
effect on foods, 423±426 horizontal form-fill-seal equipment, 795
equipment, 411±413 hot smoking, 525±537
microwave, 593 hot water heating, 356, 387, 410
process validation, 401 hot water blanchers, 375,
processing, 417 hot water pasteurisers, 387
rate of heat penetration, 399 HTST, 337
retorting, 408 extrusion cooking, 457, 473±474
theory, 360, 397±408, 414±417 pasteurisation, 383
ultra high-temperature (UHT)/aseptic processes, human machine interface, 140, 807, 828, 834
414±423 humidity, air, 482±486, 632, 822, 882
heat transfer, 72, 345±354, 432, 435, 441, 443, 459, hurdle concepts, 69±71, 255, 637
462±463, 466, 484, 488±489, 512, 514, 539, hydrocolloids, 13±15, 182, 671, 846
545, 557±559, 582, 591±592, 596, 602±603, hydrocooling, 100±102, 628, 882
618, 652, 656±660, 662, 668, 672, 690 hydrocutter, 131
coefficients, 346±352, 390, 435±437, 441, 485, hydrofluidisation, 672
489±490, 557, 662, 672 hydrogen peroxide, 274, 328, 418, 783, 764, 796
conduction, 346, 399±401, 431, 484, 539, hydrogenisation, fats, 21, 566, 882
557±559, 690 hydrophile/lipophile balance, emulsifyers, 145, 882
convection, 399±401, 484, 489, 539, 557±559, hydroshear homogeniser, 148
690 hydrostatic head, 76, 432, 444,
cooling, 100 hydrostatic pressure, membrance concentration, 213
dehydration, 484±493 hydrostatic steriliser, 412±413
direct heating methods, 355, 539 hygienic design, processing equipment, 806±808
904 Index

hyperfiltration see reverse osmosis measurement of radiation dose, 278

hysteresis loop ± water sorption isotherm, 44 microbial destruction, 282
prolonging shelf-life (or `radurisation'), 280
ice, 35, 585, 652±654, 670 radiolytic products, 281
dielectric properties, 585 reduction of pathogens (or `radicidation'), 280
ice cream, 40, 152, 382, 482, 651, 654, 661, 666 sterilisation (or `radappertisation'), 279
ice crystal formation, 295, 651±656, 671, 846 theory, 274
identity-preserved (GM-free) ingredients, 238 ISO 22 000, quality management, 87
image processing, sorting, 108, 118 isoelectric point, proteins, 23
immersion chilling and freezing (ICF), 664, 669 isostatic pressure, high pressure processing, 292
immobilised enzymes, 260 isotherms, 44, 718
impact force isotopes, 271±278, 883
packaging, 722
size reduction, 127 jacketed boiling pan, 388, 431, 441
impeller agitators, 170 jam, 224, 290, 431, 495, 847
impingement jet pulverising mill, 137
drying, 502 juice extraction, 203
freezing, 664, 669 Jupiter, UHT process, 422
ovens, 540, 545 just-in-time processing, 823, 883
impulse sealers, packaging, 794
in-container heat sterilisation see canning kettle, frying, 559
indirect compression ± high pressure processing, 297 Kick's law ± size reduction, 128
indirect heating methods, 355, 419, 542, 560 kiln dryer, 496, 503
indirect heating ovens, 542, 882 kinematic viscosity ± fluids, 38
individual quick blanching (IQB), 373 kneading, dough, 456
individually quick freezing (IQF), 662, 664, knife peeling, 121
668±669, 681
infrared cameras, sorting, 118 labelling of foods, 54, 798±800
infrared energy, 581±603 labour costs, 4
infrared heating, 581, 603±609 lacquers for cans, 724±725
effects on foods and micro±organisms, 605 lactic acid bacteria, 13, 59, 69, 237, 241, 253±254,
electromagnetic spectrum, 582 262, 383, 546, 751, 873
equipment, 605 LAL/GNB test ± irradiated foods, 284
theory, 603 laminated films, 737, 745±746
ingredients from GM crops, 232 laser coders, packaging, 800
inhibition of sprouting ± irradiation, 281 latent heat, 343, 883
injury absorbed by cryogens, 653, 667
due to carbon dioxide, 622 crystallisation of fats, 651, 653
due to irradiation, 277 crystallisation of ice, 343, 651, 653, 656±659
due to microwaves, 588 energy removed in freezing, 653
ink-jet labeller, 800 evaporation ± mechanical refrigeration, 614±615
instantised powders, 147, 509 freeze drying, 689
integrated control systems, 832 freezing, 651
intelligent conveyors, 815 from condensing steam ± canning, 409
intelligent packaging, 761±767, 882 from condensing steam ± evaporation, 432
intelligent pipe, 826 moisture evaporation ± dehydration, 484
intermediate bulk containers (IBCs), 714, 747, 812 leaching, 31, 207, 372, 377, 425, 516
intermediate moisture foods, 495 lethal rate ± heat sterilisation, 360, 402±409
inventory, control, 836±839, 882 lethal rate curve ± canning, 409
ion exchange, 212, 222 lethality ± heat sterilisation, 402±409, 883
ionising radiation, 271 light
ionisation of water, 275, 882 colour sorting, 117
irradiation, 271±289 processing using pulsed, 325
applications, 272, 279, 531 thermoluminescence, irradiation, 284
control of ripening, 280 transmission ± packaging, 716
detection of irradiated foods, 284±286 ultraviolet, 100, 325
disinfestation, 280 lipids, 17, 20, 43, 57, 84, 305, 474, 518, 567, 641,
dose, 273, 275 680, 695, 711
effect on foods, 281 crystallisation, 19, 19, 331
effect on micro±organisms, 282 nutrition and health, 17, 571
effect on packaging, 283 liposomes, 261, 710
equipment, 276±278 liquid egg, 217, 382, 414, 444
high pressure processing, 306 liquid fillers, 783
induced radioactivity, 281 liquid handling, 815±817
inhibition of sprouting, 281 liquid-liquid centrifuges, 191±194
 Index 905

liquids mixing, 162, 170±177 grading, 110

liquid nitrogen, 619, 667 high pressure processing, 305
cryogenic chilling, 619, 629 modified atmosphere packaging, 749
cryogenic grinding, 629 pulsed light processing, 325
freezing, 667±670 rigor mortis, 641
refrigerant, 619, 667 robotic cutting, 831
liquid smoke, 525, 529 size reduction, 133
Listeria monocytogenes, 64, 262, 303, 328, 526, smoking, 525±537
534, 548, 596, 643, 751, 866 tempering, 592
logarithmic order of death, 359, 398±400 mechanical refrigeration, 614, 625, 661
logistics, storage and distribution control, 4, mechanical evaporators, 444
836±839, 883 mechanical refrigerators, 614, 625, 661, 883
distribution logistics, 838 mechanical vapour recompression, evaporation, 439
warehousing operation, 837 membrane concentration, 211±224, 696
loss factor ± radio frequency heating, 584, 883 effects on foods and micro-organisms, 224
loss tangent, dielectric heating, 584 equipment and applications, 217
low-acid foods, 381, 398, 538, 883 size separation of molecules, 216
low-fat spreads, 144, 149, 152 theory, 212±217
lye peeling, 122 types of membrane systems, 220
lyophilisation see freeze drying membrane emulsification, 148±150
membranes, RO and UF, 220±222
machine vision systems, 108, 112, 116±120 mesh sizes, 877
macronutrients, 52±53 mesophilic bacteria, 59, 296
magnetic metal cans, 725±728, 790
cleaning, foods, 106 metal detectors, 106, 801
conveyors, 815 metals, thermal conductivity, 342
fields ± processing, 324 metallised films, 729, 736, 883
freezing, 673 microbial changes to foods, 57
separators, 106 microbial enzymes, 15, 57±59, 243, 257, 870±872
magnetron, microwave oven, 586±587, 883 microencapsulation and controlled release
Maillard reactions, 12, 42±43, 56±57, 306, 423, 447, technologies, 241, 261, 709
462, 473, 519, 532, 546±547, 570, 883 microfiltration, 211, 217±219, 883
maize, GM crop, 233 micronutrients, 52
maltodextrins, 14, 482, 510, 655, micro-organisms, 57±69, 359±363, 865±868
management of quality and food safety, 85 bacteria, 59, 359±363, 865±868
management software, 833±835 changes to foods, 56±57
manothermosonication, 330 decimal reduction time, 359±363
margarine, 3, 152, 614 effect of
marmalade, 431 baking, 548
marker assisted selection, biotechnology, 236 blanching, 378
mass balances, 72±75, 434, 493 chilling, 643
mass fraction, 74, 448±451 dehydration, 520
mass transfer, 72, 432, 448, 485, 539, 557±559, 665, electromagnetic radiation, 595
691 evaporation, 447
material resource/requirement planning, 823, 835 extrusion, 474
materials handling, 299, 804±820 freeze drying, 695
hygienic design and cleaning, equipment, 806 freezing, 681
irradiation, 276 frying, 568, 573
liquid handling methods, 815±817 heat sterilisation, 396±408
solids handling methods, 812±815 high pressure processing, 301±305
water and waste management, 818 irradiation, 282
meat modified atmospheres, 750
analogues, 456 pasteurisation, 382
chill storage, 641, 644 pulsed electric fields, 321
chilling, 614, 630, 641 pulsed light processing, 328
cold shortening, 641 smoking, 534
dried, 517 survival curves, 361±362
effect of canning, 423±425 ultrasound, 331
effect of roasting, 546±548 enzyme production, 15, 57±59, 243, 257, 870±872
effluent production, 819 GM micro-organisms, 870±872
emulsions, 152 fermentations, 1, 2, 13, 15, 35, 47, 67,69, 80, 83,
extrusion, meat products, 472 199, 217, 225, 229, 238, 243±261, 313, 331,
fermented, 874 448, 545, 548, 573, 750, 754, 755, 829, 847,
frozen, 650, 654, 661, 675, 678 848, 873±875
glass transition temperature, 655 fungi see moulds
906 Index

growth of, 56±60, 243±247 solids, 158

heat resistance, 359±363, 397±399 theory, 158±164
hurdle effect, 67±71 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 748±753
lethality, 359±363, 398, 409 effect on micro-organisms, 750±752
moulds, 60 gas mixtures, 749±752
packaging, 719 packaging materials, 752
TDT curve, 361 modified atmospheres, 623, 748
temperature sensitivity, 56, 359±363 modified and controlled atmosphere storage, 613,
yeasts, 59±60, 245±246, 482 623, 635±638
viruses, 67, 304, 869 Mogden formula ± effluent treatment, 820
z-value, 359±363, 382, 397±408, 865±868, 886 moisture
microwave absorption, 55
baking, 590±591 content
blanching, 375, 590 changes during dehydration, 482, 508
dryer, 496, 591 control, packaging, 761
effect on foods, 595 effect on extrusion, 459±462
effect on micro-organisms, 595 foods ± wet/dry weight basis, 40, 489, 508
freeze drying, 592, 689 water activity of foods, 40±41, 55
magnetron, 586 diffusion, 55, 488, 539, 549, 643, 717
ovens, 587, 591, 651, 728, 741 loss during freezing, 56, 680
pasteurisation, 590, 593 loss or uptake ± packaging, 717±718
process factors, 586 management 72
processing, 581±596, 883 movement during baking, 55, 539, 549
sterilisation, 590, 593±594 movement during drying, 485±489
tempering, 592 movement during frying, 55, 557±559
thawing, 592 pickup ± stored ingredients, 55
theory, 582±586 vapour permeability ± packaging, 717±718
milk monosaccharides, 12
effluent production, 819 Monod's equation, 244
evaporation, 430, 436, 443±444, 447 monosodium glutamate, 3
fermentations, 253±254 motionless mixers, 176±177
fractionation of proteins by ultrafiltration, 220 moulders, 833
homogenisation, 144, 147±152 bread, 178
pasteurisation, 382±387, 391 confectionery, 182±185
powder, 509, 518 moulding, 178, 182±184
separation of components, 224 moulds
spray drying, 482 confectionery, 182±184
UHT processing, 414±426 micro-organisms, 59±60
ultrafiltration, 218±224 multi-deck oven, 543
milling see size reduction multi-head weighers, 785
minerals in foods, 31, 852 multi-stage distillation, 450
minimal processing methods, 4, 97, 313±335, 713 multiple effect ± evaporation, 437±439, 883
electric arc discharge, 324 mycoprotein, 254
gamma radiation, 313±316 mycotoxins, 66, 520, 548
high pressure processing, 290±312, 313
oscillating magnetic fields, 313±324 nanocomposites, packaging, 757, 883
photodynamic systems, 313±316 nanofiltration, 211, 218, 883
pulsed electric fields, 313, 317±323 natural convection, 348±349, 441±442, 542, 545,
pulsed light/UV light, 313, 325±329 557, 665
pulsed X-rays, 329 neural networks, 119, 250, 293, 413, 470, 515, 829,
ultrasound, 313, 329±332 883
minimum growth temperature, micro-organisms, 643 neutraceuticals, 217, 240, 548, 883
mixers, 3, 168±177, 812 neutral zone, centrifugation, 192
for dry powders and particulate solids, 168 Newtonian fluids, 37, 147, 883
for emulsion formation, 147 nicin, 262, 307
for high-viscosity liquids and pastes, 147, 171 nitrogen
for low- or medium-viscosity liquids, 170 cryogen, 619, 667
motionless, 177 modified atmospheres, 749±753
mixing, 75, 157±178, 456, 829 oxides, 497, 528, 532
effects on foods and micro-organisms, 177 properties, 619
efficiency, 158 transmission, flexible films, 720
equipment, 164±177 nitrosamines, 533
indices, 159 non-climacteric fruits, 638
liquids, 162 non-Newtonian fluids, 37, 147, 162, 388, 464, 884
motionless, 176±177 non-thermal processing see minimal processing
 Index 907

non-volatile decomposition products ± frying, 567 can lacquers, 725

novel enzyme technologies, 260 cans, 408, 790
novel food processes, 375, 393, 713 cartons, 792
nozzle atomiser, spray dryer, 504 checkweighing, 801
nozzle centrifuge, 194 chub packs, 796
nucleation ± ice crystal formation, 651, 696, 884 coated films, 736
Nusselt number, 348, 350 coextruded films, 738
nutritional changes, effect of collapsible tubes, 729
baking, 547 combined packaging systems, 747
blanching, 374, 377 costs, 714, 771
chilling, 638, 642 date marking, 54
dehydration, 519 developments, 754±767
extrusion, 473 dielectric constant, 538
fermentation, 257 edible and biodegradable packaging, 754
freezing, 678 effect of ionising radiation, 283
frying, 571 effects on micro-organisms, 750
heat sterilisation, 416, 424±426 energy in manufacture, 771
irradiation, 281 environmental considerations, 770
pasteurisation, 394 equipment, 782±798
nutritional genomics, 239 factors affecting selection, 716
nutritional properties of foods, 52±53, 83, 141, filling, 782
861±864 flexible containers, 408, 739±741, 794
flexible films, 732±738
ohmic heating, 376, 581, 528, 596±603, 884 form-fill-sealing, 794±797
effects on foods and micro-organisms, 603 functions, 713
equipment and applications, 600±603 gas transmission, 717±719
sterilisation, 600±602 glass, 408, 729±732
theory, 596±600 interactions with foods, 283, 724
oils, 17, 20, 43, 57, 84, 203, 206, 305, 474, 518, labelling, 54, 798±800
555±568, 641, 680, 695, 711 lacquers, 724
absorption, frying, 558, 563, 569 laminated films, 737, 745
changes due to frying, 567±568 light transmission, 716
content of foods, 569 mechanical strength, 722±723
expeller, 205±206 metal, 725±728
extraction, 139, 188, 202, 204±211, 466, 556 metal detection, 801
recovery, frying, 565 metallised films, 736
smoke points, 565 modified atmosphere packaging, 748±753, 797
turnover, frying, 560 moisture transmission, 720
used for frying, 566 moulded paperpulp containers, 747
oligosaccharides, 12, 242, 473 moulding and blow-moulding, 730, 740
optical properties, flexible films, 720 nanotechnology, 757
orange juice, ultrafiltration, 224 oriented molecules, films, 723
oscillating magnetic field processing, 314±324 oxygen permeability, 36, 720
osmotic dehydration, 495, 673 paper and board, 741±747, 792
osmotic pressure, 212±214 permeability, 717±718, 720±722
Ostwald ripening, 149, 680, 884 plasticisers, films, 718
ovens, bakery, 539, 541±545, 605 printing, 726, 728, 767±769
overall heat transfer coefficient, 350±351, 386, properties of films, 720
391±392, 435±437, 441, 669, 884 protection against
overrun, 37, 152±153 grease, 719
oxidation, lipids, 43, 57, 84, 474, 518, 567, insects, 719
641±642, 680, 695, 711 light, 716
oxygen micro-organisms, 719
modified atmosphere packaging, 749±753 moisture and gases, 717
modified/controlled atmosphere storage, 623 soils, 719
scavengers, 519, 764 temperature changes, 717
transmission, flexible films, 36, 720 recycling, 772±774
ozone rigid and semi-rigid containers, 408, 739, 783
depletion potential, refrigerants, 625±626 sachets, 796
water teatment, 100, 529 sealing, 787
shipping containers, 714
packaging, 713±781 shrink-wrapping and stretch-wrapping, 797
active and intelligent packaging, 761±767 sterilisable pouches, 396
barcodes and other markings, 769 sterilisation by pulsed light, 328
blow moulding, 730, 739±740 tamper evident/resistant, 723, 798±799
908 Index

tensile strength, 720, 722±723, 743 planetary mixers, 171

textiles and wood, 724 Plank's equation ± freezing, 656±659
theory, 716±724 plate
thermoforming, 739±741 and-frame filter press, 198±200
types of materials, 724±748 and-frame membrane systems, 221
types of sealer, 794±797 evaporators, 441, 443
vapour and gas permeability, 717±721 freezers, 665
paddle agitators, 170 heat exchangers, 388±392, 420, 704
pan coating of foods, 703, 708, 884 mills, 134
pan loader, baking ovens, 543 pneumatic
papain, 188 conveyors, 814
papers, packaging, 741±743 dryers, 496, 503±504
paperboard, 744, 792 polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs), 529
parasites in foods, 68, 530 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 528, 533
particle size polyhyroxyalkanoates, biodegradable packaging, 755
size reduction, 126, 137 polylactic acid, biodegradable packaging, 755
powders, 508, 822 polymorphic fats, 19, 147, 704, 884
pasta, 456, 482 polypeptides, proteins, 23
pasteurisation, 3, 324, 381±395, 637, 884 polysaccharides, 13±14
effect on foods, 393 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), 18, 566, 861
equipment, 387 porosity
microwave, 593 bulk density, 25, 34, 508±510
of packaged foods, 387 ultrafiltration membranes, 215±217
of unpackaged liquids, 388 potatoes, 2, 84, 111, 116, 119±120, 126, 131, 263,
purposes, 382 281, 377, 566, 570±573, 673
theory, 381±387 crisps/chips, 556, 719
pathogenic bacteria, 54, 61±66, 360, 381, 526, 643, powders ± properties, 34, 125, 508±510
865±868 Power number ± fluid flow, 78±80, 163±164
peas, blanching, 370 power ultrasound, 329, 672
peas, drying, 80, 491 practical storage life ± frozen foods, 675
Pearson Square, 75±76 Prandtl number, 349
pectin, 13, 16, 182, 188, 431, 444, 848 prebiotic foods, 242, 863, 884
peeler, shrimp, 122 preservation by modifying environmental conditons,
peeling, 3, 120±122 81
caustic, 122 preservatives, in foods, 33, 80, 549, 857
flame, 122 pressure
flash steam, 121 assisted freezing/thawing, 300, 670, 672, 676
knife, 121 -enthalpy diagram
lye, 122 water, 344
penetration refrigerant, 616±617
heat, 399±405 filtration, 199±201
irradiation, 275 fryers, 564
light, 325 homogenisers, 150
microwaves, 583 seals, packaging, 787
permeability -temperature diagram, carbon dioxide, 208
membranes, 213 printing, packaging materials, 726, 767±770,
packaging, 717, 720±722. 758 798±800
permeate ± membrane concentration, 213±218 probiotic foods, 4, 241, 415, 710, 863, 884
peroxidase, 363±364, 371 process control, 821±835
pervaporation, 211, 219 controllers, 826±835
pH, foods, 44±47 fuzzy logic, 119, 250, 470, 829
Pham's equation, freezing, 658 neural networks, 119, 250, 293, 413, 470, 829
phase diagram, 343, 431, 654, 670, 689 production control, 832
phase transitions, 81, 343, 651±655, 670 robotics, 829
physical changes to foods, 54 sensors, 823
phospholipids, 21, 28, 39, 146, 261, 642 systems, 832
photodynamic systems, 315 production control systems, 832±836
photothermal destruction of micro-organisms, 328 productivity, fermentation, 245
physical properties of foods, 28, 34, 54, 294, 459 programmable logic controllers (PLCs), 106, 116,
pickles, 255, 813 131, 140, 184, 201, 248, 278, 297, 375, 412,
pie manufacture, 179 446, 470, 515, 545, 564, 661, 693, 784±785,
pigments, in foods, 31±32, 47, 59, 83, 256, 274, 811, 826±835, 884
377, 393, 423±424, 519, 674, 678, 696, 716 propeller agitators, 170
pin mills, 130, 134±135 properties of foods
piston filler, 783 biochemical properties, 44
 Index 909

composition, 11 Rayleigh number, 349

nutritional quality, 52 ready-to-eat products, 54, 292, 471, 637, 650, 717
physical properties, 34 recrystallisation, 674, 696, 884
sensory characteristics, 47 cocoa butter, 704
proteins, 3, 22±26, 294, 305, 459, 474 ice crystals, 680, 696±697
pseudoplastic foods, 37, 162, 848, 884 recycling
psychrometric chart, 483 heating air, 507,
psychrometrics, 482±485, 884 packaging, 713, 772±774
psychrophilic/psychrotrophic bacteria, 59, 296, 643, water, 100, 372, 375,
681 redox potential, foods, 45±47
puff drying, 501 reducing sugars, 12
pulping equpment, 137, 206 reduction ratio, size reduction, 128
pulsed electric field (PEF) processing, 314, reel oven, 544
317±324, 393 reflectivity, infrared, 604
combinations of PEF and other treatments, 323 refrigerants, 614, 625±628, 664, 884
effects on micro-organisms, enzymes and food properties, 625, 627
components, 321±323 refrigerated transport, 628
electric field waveforms, 318 refrigeration, 614±623, 625
equipment, 319±320 components, 614±618, 626
theory, 317 compressor, 614±623
pulsed light processing, 314, 325±329 cycle, 615±618
effect on micro-organisms, enzymes and food performance coefficient, 618
components, 328 pressure/enthalpy chart, 616, 618
equipment. 327 rehydration ± dried foods, 516, 687, 695
theory, 326 relative humidity, 482, 884
pulsed x-ray processing, 329 relative vapour pressure, 40
pumpable ice slurries, 672 relays, 828
pumps, 76, 171, 815±817 rendering ± fats, 593
rennet, 188, 237
Q10 concept, shelf-life, 81 respiration
quality assurance, 85±88 fruits, ripening, 56, 618±621, 623, 635±636, 717,
quality management systems, 84±88 884
quantitative descriptive analysis, food texture, 51 meats, post-slaughter, 641
resistance, electrical, 355, 598±600
radappertisation, 279 retail containers, 714
radiant retail display cabinet, refrigeration, 631
dryers, 496 retorts, 408±413, 884
energy, 604 reverse osmosis, 211±218, 884
heaters, 694 Reynolds number ± fluid flow, 78±80, 163, 349
radiation rheology, 37, 50
dose, irradiation, 275±278 rheopectic food, 37, 884
electromagnetic, 582, 603, 884 ribbon mixers, 169
emmissivity, 604 rigid containers, 739, 783±793
heat transfer, 603, 694 rigor mortis ± meats, 99, 641
ionising, 271 ring dryer, 503±504
microwaves, 581 ripening ± fruits, 280, 618, 638±640
radicidation, 280 Rittinger's law ± size reduction, 128
radio frequency heating, 581±582, 588, 884 roasting, 537±551
applications, 589 robotics, 630, 830±832
baking, 591 roller
dehydration, 591, 689 conveyor, 813
equipment, 588±590 dryer, 512
generators, 590 grader, 115
thawing, 592 mills, 137
tempering, 592 sorter, 114
radiolytic products ± irradiation, 274 rotary
radio frequency idnetification (RFID), 634, 766, band sealers, packaging, 794
800, 835, 837 blancher, 374
radura logo, irradiation, 273 disc filter, 202
radurisation, 280 drum filter, 201
Raoult's law, 448, 656 dryer, 496, 503
rapeseed, GM crop, 233 filler, 784
RAST test, GM foods, 238 filter press, 201±202
rate heat penetration, canning, 399±400 hearth oven, 544
raw material preparation, 99±124 heat steriliser, 412
910 Index

packing table, 787 shredding, 126, 129, 133

sealers, packaging, 794 shrinkage
screen, sorting, 113 dehydration, 516
valve, 816 freezing, 676
rotor-stator homogenisers, 151 packaging, 797
rotor-stator mixers, 174±176 shrink-wrapping, 714, 735, 783, 797
shrimp peeling, 121
sachet packing machines, 796 sieving, 112±113
safety of foods, 53, 60 single screw extruder, 465
safety of operators, 168, 277, 325, 588, 622 size reduction, 2, 125±156
salt, 431, 526, 533 developments in technology, 139
Salmonella spp, 64, 242, 263, 280, 283, 303, 382, effects on foods, 141, 152
521, 548, 644, 682, 751, 867 effects on micro-organisms, 143, 153
sanitary cans, 725 equipment, 126, 129±130, 133±141, 144, 147±152
sanitisers see disinfection of equipment theory, 126, 144
saturated air, dew point, 484, 880 size sorting, 111
saturated fatty acids, 18, 566 skimmed milk, 188
saturated steam, 344±345, 350, 409 slicing, 126, 129, 131±132
saturated water vapour pressure, 343, 431, 488 slow freezing, 652, 660, 676, 689
sauerkraut, 255, 873 slowest heating point
sausage, 224, 255, 614, 629, 832 canning, 399±402
SCADA software, control systems, 185, 470, dielectric heating, 585
833±834 ohmic heating, 600±602
scraped surface freezers, 666 smart cameras, sorting, 109, 117
scraped surface heat exchangers, 419±420, 444, 697 smart labels, 635
scraped-film evaporators, 444±446 smoke point, oils, 565
screens, cleaning foods, 107, 113 smoked foods, 54, 69, 525±537, 614
screw smoking, 525±537
centrifuge, 195 constituents in smoke, 528
conveyors, 630, 814 effects on foods, 532
expellers, oil extraction, 205 effects on micro-organisms, 534
extruders, 456±477 equipment, 531
mixers, 169 kilns, 531
presses, 203 liquid smoke, 529
sealing containers, 782, 787±803 tasteless smoke, 529
seaming machine, canning, 790±792 theory, 526
self-heating/cooling containers, 766 snackfoods, 3, 4, 456, 471
sensible heat, 343, 383, 432, 434, 618, 651, 885 snow horn, refrigeration, 629
sensors, 469, 812, 822±826 soaking tanks, 105
sensory properties of foods, 47 soft coatings for foods, 709
separation and concentration of food components, software for process control, 833±836
188±228, 431 solar drying, 496, 510
centrifugation, 189±196 solid substrate fermentation, 251, 260
cleaning, 106 solids filling, 785
distillation, 447±455 solids handling, 812
evaporation, 430±447 solids mixing, 158
expression, 202±205 solutes, 207, 518, 651±654, 676, 696, 822
extraction, solvent, 206±210 solvent extraction, 206±211
filtration, 196±201 sorption isotherm, 44, 719, 885
membrane, 211±225 sorting and grading, 110±119, 885
shallow frying, 555±558 colour sorting, 116
shape sorting, 111±114 machine vision sorting, 116
shaping, foods, 178±182, 456 shape and size sorting, 111
shear rate, 37 weight sorting, 114
shear stress, 37 sources of heat and methods of application to foods,
shearing forces 354
extrusion, 456±462 sous-vide products, 637, 642
size reduction, 127 soybean, GM crop, 232, 704
shelf-life of foods, 53, 56, 81, 100, 126, 153, 231, soy sauce, 256
257, 263, 271, 280, 290, 323, 328, 381, 393, specific
408, 414, 447, 472, 482, 517, 525, 538, 541, electrical resistance, 599±600, 885
555, 637, 640±641, 711, 716, 718, 750 gravity, 34
shelf-life, calculation, 81, 718 growth rate ± micro-organisms, 56, 245, 885
shell and tube heat exchangers, 388 heat, 36, 339±341, 434, 651±658, 885
shipping containers, 714, 744, 747 resistance, filter cake, 196±198
 Index 911

resistance, ohmic heating, 597±600 surface heat transfer coefficient, 348, 353, 399, 489,
volume, 37, 344 557, 567, 620, 662, 885
spin-flash dryer, 496, 501±502 surface tension, 39
spinning cone distillation column, 453 surfactants see detergents
spiral conveyor, 814 surimi, 472
spiral freezer, 663 sweetened condensed milk, 447
spiral separator, crop cleaning, 108 sweeteners in foods, 858
spiral wound membranes, 222 swept surface heat exchangers, 444±446
spirits ± distillation, 447±453 symbols, list, 892±894
spoilage of foods, 53±57 syneresis, 643, 855
spouted bed dryer, 502
spray dryer, 490, 496, 502, 504±510, 710 tamper evident/resistant packaging, 723, 766, 789,
spray washer, 105 798
stabilisers, 15, 144±147, 858, 885 tank press, 203
stainless steel, 807 taste/flavour of foods, 49±50
starch, 3, 13, 182, 184, 305, 459, 643, 676, 705 tasteless smoke, 529
static mixers, 176 tempeh, 256, 875
steady-state heat transfer, 346, 434, 462, 885 temperature
steam, 344 canning, 399
blanchers, 372 -concentration diagram, distillation, 450
economy, evaporation, 437, 445 control, active packaging, 766
flow closing, 409 effect on food spoilage, 56
generation, 355 freezing, 675
infusion, UHT, 418±420 monitoring ± chill stores, 631±635, 822
injection, bakery ovens,543 tempering
injection, UHT, 419 chilled foods, 131, 592
peeling, 121 chocolate, 704
properties of saturated steam, 344±345 frozen foods, 592
quality, 344 microwave/dielectric, 590, 592
Stefan±Boltzmann law, 604 tempura, coating, 705, 885
sterilants, 885 tensile strength, packaging, 720, 722±723, 743, 885
sterilisation textile containers, 724
aseptic/UHT, 414±423, 602 texture of foods, 50±52
heat, 396±429 texture ± changes to foods due to
in-container, 397±413 baking, 545
ionising radiation, 279 blanching, 377
microwave, 593 canning, 423±426
sterilising-in-place (SIP), 176, 247 chilling, 640
sterols, 21 dehydration, 516
Stoke's Law, 144 extrusion, 459±462, 473
storage fermentation, 256
cold, 618, 620, 622, 630, 635, 661±662 freeze drying, 695
controlled atmosphere, 623 freezing, 676
life of chilled foods, 632 frying, 570
life of frozen foods, 695 high pressure processing, 294, 305
temperatures for fresh fruits, 632 irradiation, 281
streamline (or laminar) flow ± fluid flow, 78±80, smoking, 533
190, 215, 885 UHT processing, 425±426
stress±strain diagram texturised vegetable protein, 254, 468, 472
for foods, 127 thawing, 295, 590, 592, 659, 671, 676, 681
for packaging, 722 thermal
stretch-wrapping, 714, 797 centre of containers, 399±401
sublimation, 622, 667, 688±689, 885 centre of foods, 371, 399, 653, 885
submerged cultures, fermentation, 247±250 conductivity
sugar, confectonery, 12, 188, 202, 431, 435, 470, of containers, 342
708 of foods, 36, 341±342, 493, 512, 540, 592, 598,
sugar milling, 129 656, 659, 885
sugarless coatings, 709 of gases, 36, 342
sulphur dioxide, dried fruits, 519 of water and ice, 341±342, 592, 653±660
sun drying, 496, 510 death time ± micro-organisms, 360±363, 398, 402,
sunlight ± wavelength distribution, 326 885
supercooling ± freezing, 653±654, 696, 885 diffusivity, 341±343, 540, 656, 659, 886
supercritical carbon dioxide, 207, 885 efficiency, blanching, 372±375
superheated steam, 344±345, 503, 563 efficiency, evaporators, 439±446
surface activity, 38 history of cooking oil, 564, 567
912 Index

lag factor, canning, 401±408 with high pressure processing, 306

processing, 339, 397±429 ultraviolet light, 100, 325±328, 520, 715
properties of foods, 339 processing, 325±329
shock to containers, 387, 410, 717, 732, 886 umami, 49
thermocouples, 631 unfrozen water, 653±654, 689
thermoforming, packaging, 739±741, 789 unit loads ± materials handling, 837, 886
thermoluminescence ± irradiated foods, 284±285 units and conversions, 876
thermophilic bacteria, 59, 260 unmixing, 158
thermovapour recompression, evaporation, 438 unsteady-state heat transfer, 346, 347, 353, 369±370,
thixotropic fluid, 37, 162, 886 399, 618, 886
throttling factor, extruders, 463 UPC code see barcode
time/temperature indicators (TTIs) usage value ± materials handling, 836
canning, 401
chilling, 634±635 V-cone mixer, 168
freezing, 676 vacuum
tinplate, 725 band and shelf dryers, 496, 514
tomato pureÂe, 431, 444 boiling pan, 441
toroidal dryer, 501 cooler, fresh crops, 99, 628
total quality management (TQM), 86, 630 drying, 514, 603, 687
toxicants in foods, 34 evaporation, 432, 441±446
trace elements see micronutrients filtration, 199, 201, 697
transgenic crops, 231±232 flash coolers, 420
transitional flow, fluid flow, 78 fryers, 563
transnational corporations, 5, 838 headspace, 409, 786
tray dryer, 496±497 packing, 518±519, 531, 535, 748
triple point, carbon dioxide, 208 puff drying, 514
trough dryer, 496, 498 pumps, 693
tubular heat exchangers, 359, 384, 388, 419±423, seals, packaging, 789
442, 704 skin packaging, 748
tubular membranes, 220 thawing, 676
tumbling mixers, 168, 630 valves, 816±817, 822
tunnel vaned disc impeller, 171
blancher, 372 Van't Hoff equation, 212
chiller, 628 vapour pressure, 343, 430±431, 448±451, 485, 540,
cooker-cooler, heat sterilisation, 412 585, 676, 691
dryer, 496, 511 vapour recompression, evaporation, 438
freezer, 664, 668±669 variable-aperture screens, 114
microwave heater, 587, 594 vegetables
oven, 544 blanching, 367±380
pasteuriser, 387, 594 chilling, 632
turbulent flow, 78±80, 190, 421 effect of canning, 423±426
twin-screw extruder, 464, 466±469 effect of dehydration, 516±520
Twintherm ± UHT heat exchanger, 419, 422 effect of freezing, 676
types of food processing, 69 effluent production, 819
types of heat transfer, 346 fermentation, 255
frozen, 651
U-trough mixer, 169 frozen storage life, 675
ultrafiltration, 211, 215, 217±219, 224, 886 frying, 556
ultra high temperature (UHT) processing, 396, glass transition temperature, 655
414±423, 596, 602, 728, 783, 789, 792, modified atmosphere storage, 623
886 modified atmosphere packaging, 751
UHT ohmic heating, 596±603 sorting, 111±120
ultrasonic storage temperatures and humidities, 632
cleaning, equipment, 811 venting, retorts, 410
cutter, 132 vertical form-fill-seal equipment, 795
drying, 511 vertical screw mixer, 169
energy, 151 vertically agitated dryer, 514
freezing, 672 vibratory conveyors, 814
homogeniser, 151 video cameras, sorting, 116±120
nozzle atomiser ± spray drying, 505 vinegar, 2, 874
processing (ultrasonication), 329±332 viruses, 67, 304, 869
sealer, packaging, 794 viscoelastic foods, 38, 163, 459, 654, 705, 886
ultrasound processing 315, 329±332 viscosity, 36, 37, 152, 432, 459, 822
effect on micro-organisms and foods, 321 viscosity, cooking oils, 36, 557, 567
theory, 330 vision system ± sorting, 116±120, 830
 Index 913

vitamins cold stores, 662

D-values, 364 dehydration, 485±490
effect of processing, 30, 142, 364, 377, 394, freeze drying, 689
424±426, 447, 474, 520, 572, 640, 642, 678, freezing, 678
681, 695 frying, 557
in foods, 30, 849 packaging, 717
stability, 30 permeability of packaging materials, 717
voidage, fluidised beds, 80, 886 water-holding capacity, 152, 516
volatile waveguide, microwave heater, 586±587, 886
decomposition products, frying, 567 weight sorting, 114, 116
food components, 430, 440, 447±451 wet cleaning, foods, 104
loss wet bulb temperature, dehydration, 484, 886
evaporation, 447 whey concentration, 217, 220, 224, 444
dehydration, 518 wine, 202, 388, 874
recovery, 440, 447, 453 wiped film evaporator, 441,444
volume changes freezing, 678 wooden containers, 724
vortex, formation in fluids, 162, 170
X-rays, 329
warehouse control systems, 4, 837±839 irradiation, 274
warm smoking, 525 pulsed X-ray processing, 329
warmed-over flavour ± chilled foods, 642 sorting, 109, 120
wash column ± freeze concentration, 697
washing equipment, 104, 811 yeasts, 59±60, 245±246, 482
wastes and liquid effluents, 104, 2197, 819±821 yield
treatment, 217, 819±821 fermentation, 244±245
water, 26±30, 40, 818 oil extraction, 203
content of foods, 651, 822 packaging, 720
phase diagram, 343, 431, 654, 670, 689 stress, 723
properties, 26, 28, 585, 818 yoghurt, 254, 614, 873
purification, 189, 217, 327 Young's modulus, 722±723, 886
recycling, 100, 104, 372, 818±819
sorption isotherm, 44, 718 Z-blade mixer, 173±174
treatment, 100, 104, 372, 818±819 z-values ± enzymes, 363±364, 397
water activity, 40±44, 431, 457, 538, 549, 650, 886 z-values ± micro-organisms, 359±364, 382, 397±408,
water vapour 865±868, 886
movement in z-values, vitamins, 364
baking, 539 zwitterions, 22