Dark matter, or a new law of gravitation?

Tejinder P. Singh
IUCAA, Pune

Mock Solv y Conference

SVNIT Sur t
October 8, 2023
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 Plan of the talk

1. What are at galaxy rotation curves?

2. Are they caused by dark matter?
3. Do we need a new law of gravitation? : MOND
4. A possible theoretical origin for MOND
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The Wanderers
Newton’s law of gravitation

mPmS
F = G 2 = mP a
R
GmS v 2
a= 2 =
R R
GmS
v=
R

• The case of Uranus

• The case of Mercury

Galactic Dynamics
1. What are lat galaxy rotation curves?
2 2GM
v = ⟹
R
1
v∝
R
Observed: v ~ constant

Propose: dark matter

or
Propose: new law
of gravitation
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 Universal properties of rotation curves

2
v
• Observed centripetal acceleration: a=
R
• The rotation curve begins to depart from the Newtonian prediction whenever the
observed acceleration goes below the value a0

a0 ≈ (1.2 ± 0.2) × 10 −8 −2
cms

• The limiting velocity of the rotation curve obeys the Tully-Fisher relation: v ∝ M
l
1/4

• Radial acceleration relation: acceleration correlates with mass.

 Universal properties of rotation curves

• External eld e ect is observed: violation of strong equivalence principle.

• The critical acceleration a0 is close in value to the observed cosmic
acceleration aH of the universe :
1 1 1 2 1/2
a0 ≈ aH = cH0 ≈ c (Λ/3)
6 6 6

• Elliptical galaxies: Velocity dispersion estimates do not match the

predicted velocity dispersion from the observed mass distribution.
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 Galaxy Clusters

Mass of a galaxy cluster can be estimated in di erent ways:

• Velocity dispersion of galaxies within the cluster

• X-rays emitted by hot gas within the cluster: energy spectrum and ux imply
temperature and density, and hence pressure and cluster mass.
• Gravitational lensing of background distant galaxies gives estimate of cluster mass.

Inference: The inferred mass is about six times the observed mass.
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Gravitational Lensing
• Strong gravitational lensing

• Weak gravitational lensing

• Extent of observed lensing

is more than what general
relativity predicts.

• Implying that: either there is

unseen mass or gravity is stronger
than calculated using GR
 Cosmic microwave background &
Structure Form tion

ΔT
• The CMB exhibits temperature anisotropies:
T
∼ 10 −5

• This implies that at the time of matter radiation decoupling there were
δρ −5
density inhomogeneities in matter, of the same order: ∼ 10
ρ
• This amount of inhomogeneity is too small to allow formation of galaxies, according to
the laws of general relativity.

(ρ)
δρ −3
• One possible way out is to assume there exists dark matter with: ∼ 10
DM
• Another is to modify general relativity.
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 The universe is accelerating

• This requires the universe to be dominated by an exotic uid, referred to as dark

energy, and having negative pressure.

• One possibility is that the dark energy is the cosmological constant Λ : p = − ρ

• The `standard’ cosmological model consists of the cosmological constant, cold
dark matter, and ordinary baryonic matter. The ΛCDM model.

• Λ ∼ 70 % , CDM ∼ 25 % , Baryonic Matter ∼ 5 % of total energy density.

• But, why is the cosmological constant so small and yet non-zero?
• And what is the cold dark matter made of?

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 2. Do all these phenomena imply dark matter?

• Galaxy rotation curves.

• Clusters of galaxies.
• Gravitational lensing.
• CMB anisotropies and structure formation.
Assuming that the universe has dark matter seems to account for the above anomalies.
Five times more dark matter than ordinary matter.
• Dark matter: a collisionless (i.e. pressureless) uid which gravitates but does not shine.
• However, dark matter has di culty explaining universal properties of galactic rotation
curves.
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 What might dark matter be made o ?

• Massive Compact Halo Objects (MACHOs): strongly constrained by gravitational

lensing observations.
• Baryonic Dark Matter: Ruled out by Big Bang Nucleosynthesis constraints.
• Neutrino: too light to be dark matter. Wrong for structure formation (Hot DM).
• Dark matter if it exists must be non-baryonic. A new yet undiscovered elementary
particle which is not part of the current standard model of particle physics.
• WIMPs : Weakly interacting massive particles
• Ultra-light dark matter: e.g. the axion (solves the strong CP problem) (ADMX)
• Primordial black holes remain a possibility.

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 Direct Detection Experiments

• These search for low energy recoils of nuclei (few keV) from interaction with DM
particles. Underground laboratories: Stawell mine, Soudan mine, SNOLAB@Sudbury,
Gran Sasso National Laboratory, Canfranc underground laboratory, Boulby underground
laboratory, DUSE Laboratory, China Jinping Underground Laboratory.
• Cryogenics and Noble Liquid Detectors.
• Cryogenic detectors operate below 100 mK and detect heat produced when a particle hits
an atom in a crystal absorber e.g. Germanium. CDMS, CRESST, EDELWEISS, EURECA.
• Noble liquid detectors: Xenon or Argon.
LZ, XENON, DEAP, ArDM, WARP, DarkSide, PandaX, and LUX, the Large Underground
Xenon experiment.
 No DM particle found in 40 years!

“For decades, scientists have been searching for traces of the dark matter that seem to explain the otherwise
unexplainable in our universe. But big experiment, after big experiment (such as the Large Underground Xenon
experiment, pictured here, which was built 4,850 feet underground at an abandoned mine in South Dakota)
have failed to turn up traces of proposed particles known as WIMPs. So cosmologists are expanding their ideas of
what dark matter might be.” [Paul Sutler, Have we got dark matter all wrong? Nautilus (July, 2023)]
 Indirect Detection: Astronomy
• Search for products of DM self-annihilation or decay, in outer space: gamma rays or
particle-antiparticle pairs.
• Look for an excess of gamma rays, antiprotons or positrons in dense regions in our galaxy
or other galaxies.
• Could produce signal in the form of high energy neutrinos: AMANDA, IceCube, ANTARES
• LIGO and primordial black holes.
• Fermi Large Area Telescope, PAMELA, Ground based Gamma ray Observatories, Alpha
Magnetic Spectrometer on the ISS.
• Collider searches for dark matter.
 3. Do we need a new law of gravitation?
Modi ied Newtoni n Dyn mics (MOND) (Milgrom, 1983)

• Far below the critical acceleration a0 Newtonian dynamics is modi ed to

a 2
GMm Ga0M
1/4
m = ⟹ a = ⟹ v = (Ga0M)
a0 R2 R
• Alternatively, modify the law of gravitation instead:
Ga0M
1/4 ⟹ a= aN a0
a= ⟹ v = (Ga0M)
R

•
( a0 )
a
Interpolation: FN = mμ a ; μ(x) = 1 for a ≫ a0 ; μ(x) = x for a ≪ a0
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 A Lagrangian for MOND

• MOND can be derived from the Lagrangian

1
(( ∇φ) ) + φρb
2 3/2
ℒ=−
12πGa0
• Equation of motion:

( a0 )
| ∇ϕ |
∇. ∇ϕ = 4πGρb

• Solution: aϕ = | ∇ϕ | = aN a0

( aN )
a0
Total acceleration: a = aN + aϕ = aN + aN a0 = aN × 1+
•
 MOND works where DM cannot
The c se of wide bin ry st rs
• Gaia data: 26,500 wide binaries within 650 LY

• Analyse acceleration as a function of orbital

period.

• For separations less than about 1,000 AU the

observed acceleration agrees with the
Newton-Einstein prediction.

• For separations greater than about 2,000 AU

• Data also con rms the observed acceleration approaches a_0,
External eld e ect disagrees with Newton-Einstein, but agrees
with MOND ! (2023 result).
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Wide binary stars and MOND
DM cannot explain wide binary dynamics
 The external ield effect in MOND
Not present in Newtoni n gr vit tion / GR

• Given a subsystem (e.g. a star cluster) in an external eld (e.g. that of the galaxy), the
subsystem dynamics is a ected by the external eld, in MOND.

• Compare three acceleration scales: ain, aex, a0 Then, depending on their relative values:

• ain > a0 : Newtonian regime

• aex < ain < a0 : Deep MOND regime
• ain < a0 < aex : External eld dominates, dynamics is Newtonian.
• ain < aex < a0 : Newtonian dynamics but with e ective G enhanced by a0 /aex
• Given the coincidence between a0 and cosmic acceleration, is Mach’s principle in play?
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 MOND, de Sitter and Thermodynamics

• MOND can be derived from

2
M
∇ ϕ∼ Ga0
R2
Suggests that the source is surface density of square-root mass.

• −1
de Sitter horizon has size of the order cH0 and temperature ∝ ℏ(cH0)
• 2
Every acceleration has an associated length. MOND length : c /a0 ∼ −1
cH0
• In deep MOND regime, associated temperature is less than ℏa0
 MOND vs. Dark Matter
• MOND does not do too well on cluster scales, but missing baryons could su ce.
• MOND does not succeed on CMB data and structure formation and lensing. Relativistic
MOND proposed, but is ad hoc.
• Cold dark matter does very well for CMB data, structure formation, lensing, but has
di culty explaining galactic dynamics: baryonic astrophysics.
• Biggest problem for dark matter: no dark matter candidate detected so far.
• Biggest problem for MOND: what is its fundamental theoretical origin, and what is
relativistic MOND?
• Towards a theoretical understanding of MOND: it is a new fth force, but how does
it relate to the four know fundamental forces? : Gravitation, strong, weak, electromagnetic.
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 4. A possible theoretical origin for MOND
Qu ntum Found tions & Uni ic tion of Forces

• A problem in quantum theory: time is classical and external, and exists only when the
universe is dominated by macroscopic classical bodies (stars, galaxies…).
• However, these classical objects are a limiting case of quantum theory.
• Hence, there must exist a reformulation of quantum theory which does not depend
on classical space-time, even at low energies.
• That is, space-time manifold in this reformulation cannot be described by real
numbers.
• Which other number systems are possible as coordinates? : Complex numbers,
quaternions, octonions : these are the only ones to have division property.
a
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 There are only four
kinds of number
systems

Which permit

Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication, Division
 Real Numbers
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p
p
p 222
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Natural Numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Integers …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Rational numbers .., -1, .., -1/2,.. 0, ..,1/2,.., 1,..

Real numbers = rationals + irrationals (e.g. p

2)
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 Complex Numbers
Which is the number whose square is -1?

Define the imaginary number (i) such that

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2
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p
i = 1 i⌘ 1

• Complex Numbers: a + ib e.g. 3 + 8i

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• Rotation of a vector in a plane

The vector can be expressed as a complex numbe

 Complex numbers
and vectors in a plane

a = a1 + a2 i
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i Rotate a clockwise by
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thirty degrees:

Real part
o o o o
b = (cos 30 + i sin 30 )a = (cos 30 + i sin 30 ) ⇥ (a1 + a2 i)
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How to describe rotations in

three dimensions?
 Quaternions
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q = a0 + a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ 2 2 2
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i =j =k = 1
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<latexit sha1_base64="Iqx8+mlSWzDnenw8drIyHKYz1Cw=">AAACEXicbZDLSgMxFIYz9VbrbdSlm2ARunGYSlE3haIblxXsBdqhZNJMG5u5kJwRytBXcOOruHGhiFt37nwb0+koVnsg5OP/z+EkvxsJrsC2P43c0vLK6lp+vbCxubW9Y+7uNVUYS8oaNBShbLtEMcED1gAOgrUjyYjvCtZyR5dTv3XHpOJhcAPjiDk+GQTc45SAlnpmqTskgEc4vTiu4uNvzIzqDG57ZrFs2WnhH7CtyrxSRFnVe+ZHtx/S2GcBUEGU6pTtCJyESOBUsEmhGysWEToiA9bRGBCfKSdJfzTBR1rpYy+U+gSAU/X3REJ8pca+qzt9AkP115uKi7xODN65k/AgioEFdLbIiwWGEE/jwX0uGQUx1kCo5PqtmA6JJBR0iIWFIfyD5olVPrUq15Vi7SKLI48O0CEqoTI6QzV0heqogSi6R4/oGb0YD8aT8Wq8zVpzRjazj+bKeP8Czp+agA==</latexit>

îĵ = ĵ î = k̂ ĵ k̂ = k̂ ĵ = î k̂ î = îk̂ = ĵ

Rotation in three dimensions

<latexit sha1_base64="m8l5ZX4NWJwaGoa8FnW8h/9joZI=">AAACCXicbZBLSwMxFIXv1Fetr1GXboJFEIRhptbHRii6cVnBPqAdSibNtLGZB0lGKEO3bvwrblwo4tZ/4M5/YzotYrUHAh/n3EuS48WcSWXbX0ZuYXFpeSW/Wlhb39jcMrd36jJKBKE1EvFIND0sKWchrSmmOG3GguLA47ThDa7GeeOeCsmi8FYNY+oGuBcynxGstNUxURVdoFK7jxVi6AgdZ3Sn6QRlOOiYRceyM6EfsK3yrFOEqaod87PdjUgS0FARjqVsOXas3BQLxQino0I7kTTGZIB7tKUxxAGVbpr9ZIQOtNNFfiT0CRXK3N8bKQ6kHAaengyw6su/2dicl7US5Z+7KQvjRNGQTC7yE45UhMa1oC4TlCg+1ICJYPqtiPSxwETp8gpzS/gH9ZLlnFrlm3KxcjmtIw97sA+H4MAZVOAaqlADAg/wBC/wajwaz8ab8T4ZzRnTnV2YkfHxDQGelsA=</latexit>

P = 2î + 3ĵ + 5k̂

Rotate by thirty degrees
around q̃ = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂
<latexit sha1_base64="bPkY30WnFcEHgRyqyDbScerpXHY=">AAACF3icbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vUZdugkUQhGGmFnUjFN24rGAf0JbhTpq2sZmHyR2hDP0LN/6KGxeKuNWdf+P0gVjtgcB53EuS40VSaLTtLyOzsLi0vJJdza2tb2xumds7VR3GivEKC2Wo6h5oLkXAKyhQ8nqkOPie5DWvfznKa/dcaREGNziIeMuHbiA6ggGmlmtaTRSyzZO74Tm4Dm32AKmgRxTcwkTcjsXxRPRdM+9Y9hj0h9hWcdbJkynKrvnZbIcs9nmATILWDceOsJWAQsEkH+aaseYRsD50eSOlAfhct5Lxv4b0IHXatBOq9ARIx+7vjQR8rQe+l076gD39NxuZ87JGjJ2zViKCKEYesMlFnVhSDOmoJNoWijOUg5QAUyJ9K2U9UMAwrTI3t4R/pFqwnBOreF3Mly6mdWTJHtknh8Qhp6RErkiZVAgjD+SJvJBX49F4Nt6M98loxpju7JIZGB/fn8edDw==</latexit>

o o
Q = cos 30 + q̃ sin 30
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0 1
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P = QP Q
Quaternionic multiplication and 3-vectors
 Octonions
O = a0 + a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 + a4 e4 + a5 e5 + a6 e6 + a7 e7
<latexit sha1_base64="eROzeHQ2qBP1GSM4u9XU08X8s18=">AAACM3icbdBNS8MwGAfwdL7N+Vb16CU4BEEo7dZtXoShF/HiBPcCWylplm1h6QtJKoyy7+TFL+JBEA+KePU7mHZDnPpA4Mf/SUjyeBGjQprms5ZbWl5ZXcuvFzY2t7Z39N29lghjjkkThyzkHQ8JwmhAmpJKRjoRJ8j3GGl744u0374jXNAwuJWTiDg+GgZ0QDGSKnL1q+sz5JonELkWJGqlKimVMpWVyplsJTtTRamSqapUzVRTqrl60TLMrOA3TMNeTIpgXg1Xf+z1Qxz7JJCYISG6lhlJJ0FcUszItNCLBYkQHqMh6SoGyCfCSbI/T+GRSvpwEHK1Agmz9OeJBPlCTHxP7fSRHInfvTT8r9eN5eDUSWgQxZIEeHbRIGZQhjAdIOxTTrBkEwWEOVVvhXiEOMJSjbnw7xD+oFUyrKph39jF+vl8HHlwAA7BMbBADdTBJWiAJsDgHjyBV/CmPWgv2rv2Mdua0+Zn9sFCaZ9fNcqiOw==</latexit>

2
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ei = 1 ei ej =
<latexit sha1_base64="vCWck/tOoWn+e/MhC378BXahFDk=">AAAB/HicbVDLSsNAFJ34rPUV7dLNYBHcGBIp6kYounFZwT6gDWEyvWnHTh7MTIQQ6q+4caGIWz/EnX/jNC1itQeGOfece7mX4yecSWXbX8bS8srq2nppo7y5tb2za+7tt2ScCgpNGvNYdHwigbMImoopDp1EAAl9Dm1/dD3x2w8gJIujO5Ul4IZkELGAUaK05JkV8BgG7x5f4pPi17VnVh3LLoB/iG3V5pUqmqHhmZ+9fkzTECJFOZGy69iJcnMiFKMcxuVeKiEhdEQG0NU0IiFINy+OH+MjrfRxEAv9IoUL9fdETkIps9DXnSFRQ/nXm4iLvG6qggs3Z1GSKojodFGQcqxiPEkC95kAqnimCaGC6VsxHRJBqNJ5lReG8I+0Ti3nzKrd1qr1q1kcJXSADtExctA5qqMb1EBNRFGGntALejUejWfjzXifti4Zs5kKmoPx8Q04y5M4</latexit>

ej ei

Multiplication: Fano Plane

Multiplication
Is
Non-commutative
And
Non-associative
O1 O2 6= O2 O1
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O1 (O2 O3 ) 6= (O1 O2 )O3

<latexit sha1_base64="am+GHhZ3/nql/MxaEOKBqZPe0L8=">AAACCHicbZBNS8MwGMdTX+d8q3r0YHAI26W0c6jHoRdvm+BeYCslzdItLE1rkgqj7OjFr+LFgyJe/Qje/Dam2xCn+0Pg//ye5yHJ348Zlcq2v4yl5ZXVtfXcRn5za3tn19zbb8ooEZg0cMQi0faRJIxy0lBUMdKOBUGhz0jLH15l/dY9EZJG/FaNYuKGqM9pQDFSGnnmUc1zYLHmlWHNOy3BLid3WenoslzSyDMLjmVPBH+MbVXmSQHMVPfMz24vwklIuMIMSdlx7Fi5KRKKYkbG+W4iSYzwEPVJR1uOQiLddPKRMTzRpAeDSOjDFZzQ3xspCqUchb6eDJEayL+9DC7qdRIVXLgp5XGiCMfTi4KEQRXBLBXYo4JgxUbaICyofivEAyQQVjq7/MIQ/plm2XLOrMpNpVC9nMWRA4fgGBSBA85BFVyDOmgADB7AE3gBr8aj8Wy8Ge/T0SVjtnMA5mR8fAPZD5YS</latexit>
Numbers describe
Physical Space
Real Line

• Three-dimensional
space

• Particles move in
this space.
Quaternions describe
4-D spacetime
• The space-time of
Special Relativity
Is
Quaternionic

• But no restriction
On properties such
As charge and mass.
 The symmetry groups of the
octonions

The ve exceptional Lie groups denoted:

G2 , F4 , E6 , E7 , E8
<latexit sha1_base64="fj5VnyabMfLSnMwcnkoPGOVJaLI=">AAACAHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqAsXbgaL4KKEtIS2y6L4WFawD2hDmEwn7dDJJMxMhBK68VfcuFDErZ/hzr9x0hax6oF7OZxzLzP3+DGjUtn2p5FbWV1b38hvFra2d3b3zP2DtowSgUkLRywSXR9JwignLUUVI91YEBT6jHT88UXmd+6JkDTid2oSEzdEQ04DipHSkmceXXuVErzynBK89KpZq2Wt7pnFsmXPAL+JbTnLShEs0PTMj/4gwklIuMIMSdkr27FyUyQUxYxMC/1EkhjhMRqSnqYchUS66eyAKTzVygAGkdDFFZypPzdSFEo5CX09GSI1kr+9TPzP6yUqqLsp5XGiCMfzh4KEQRXBLA04oIJgxSaaICyo/ivEIyQQVjqzwr8h/CHtilWuWs6tU2ycL+LIg2NwAs5AGdRAA9yAJmgBDKbgETyDF+PBeDJejbf5aM5Y7ByCJRjvX1+akxI=</latexit>

• G2 is a 14-dim group de ned

by the seven imaginary
directions of an octonion.

• Cli ord algebras made from

complex octonions are used to
construct spinors.
ff
fi
fi
 A new proposal for uni ication
B sed on the symmetry group E8 × E8

• Symmetry breaking reveals a total of six forces

• Three for the standard model:
SU(3)c × SU(2)L × U(1)Y ⟶ SU(3)c × U(1)em & weak force
i.e. Strong force, Weak force, and Electromagnetic force
• And three additional forces, one of which is precursor of general relativity.

SU(3)g × SU(2)R × U(1)g ⟶ SU(3)c × U(1)grav & general relativity

• Therefore, two new forces, of which dark electromagnetism is a promising
candidate for theoretical origin of MOND. No evidence for dark matter!
a
f
Pre-gravitation as the right-handed counterpart
of the standard model
Down quark : up quark : Electron

Electric charge ratio is 1: 2: 3

Square-root mass ratio is 3 : 2 : 1

e m
 Mass ratios for charged fermions

These have the same fundamental status as electric charge ratios

Theory vs Experiment [assuming Majorana neutrino]
 Fine structure constant
<latexit sha1_base64="Ckyk6Q24zZlH21lry4brNos79Lw=">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</latexit>

r r !
4
<latexit sha1_base64="zeqV937PqRmmWgEOL73y5yvoj5s=">AAACA3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqDvdDBbBVUlKUZdFNy4r2Ac0sUymN+3QycOZSaGEgBt/xY0LRdz6E+78G6dtFtp64MLhnHu59x4v5kwqy/o2Ciura+sbxc3S1vbO7p65f9CSUSIoNGnEI9HxiATOQmgqpjh0YgEk8Di0vdH11G+PQUgWhXdqEoMbkEHIfEaJ0lLPPHJ8QWgK99UsdYYeEZhm2IGHhI17ZtmqWDPgZWLnpIxyNHrml9OPaBJAqCgnUnZtK1ZuSoRilENWchIJMaEjMoCupiEJQLrp7IcMn2qlj/1I6AoVnqm/J1ISSDkJPN0ZEDWUi95U/M/rJsq/dFMWxomCkM4X+QnHKsLTQHCfCaCKTzQhVDB9K6ZDokNROraSDsFefHmZtKoV+7xSu62V61d5HEV0jE7QGbLRBaqjG9RATUTRI3pGr+jNeDJejHfjY95aMPKZQ/QHxucP7cOXtw==</latexit>

2
e LP 2 LP 1 3 1 1 3
⌘ ↵f sc = ↵ ; = ; ln ↵ = ⇥
~c L4 L 2 8 3 3 8
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9 h p i 1
↵f sc = exp (1/3 3/8) ⇥ 2/3 ⇠ 0.00729714 =
1024 137.04006

Experiment

Spinor spacetime vs. Minkowski spacetime

The Karolyhazy correction

 General Relativity, and the ifth force U(1)grav
DARK ELECTROMAGNETISM

• Everything with energy-momentum takes part as source for gravitation.

• Only particles with non-zero mass take part in producing dark electromagnetism.
• All left-handed particles take part in weak force.
• Only electrically charged particles are source of electromagnetism.
• Weak force and electromagnetism result from electroweak symmetry breaking:

SU(2)L × U(1)Y ⟶ U(1)em

• Gravitation and dark electromagnetism result from symmetry breaking of:

SU(2)R × U(1)g ⟶ U(1)grav

f
 Dark electromagnetism as origin of MOND
A left-over of sc le-inv ri nt de Sitter ph se of e rly universe

• The universe expands out as a de Sitter universe after the big bang.
• Left-right symmetry breaking ends de Sitter phase, when the decreasing acceleration becomes
same as surface gravity of a black hole having same mass as observed universe (assuming universe
has 1080 particles.
• One can then show that the de Sitter phase ends when acceleration is order a0
• And that in the non-relativistic limit, dark electromagnetism reduces to MOND:

2
M
∇ ϕ∼ Ga0
R2
• We are trying to understand relativistic dark electromagnetism as RelMOND

• EFE, absolute inertial frame and low accelerations: a ≲ a0 : deSitter like zone as absolute?
a
a
a
a
a