The ecosystem of deep – sea hydrothemal vents

The ecological microcosm of deep-sea hydrothermal vents . with their unique environmental conditions
and rich biodiversity has long fascinated biologists . creatures inhabilitating these vent fields not only
have adapted to withstand the adverse conditions common to all deep-sea habitats-extremes of
pressure and temperature, low oxygen levels and lack of sunlight to name a few – but are also under
assault from the high levels of toxic chemical elements and heavy metals released from the vents into
the water .

The most common type of vent field is volcanic, in active vent regions , cold seawater seeps into cracks
in the ocean floor caused by recent volcanic activity. Beneath the earth’s crust , the water is heated to a
high temperature by geothermic energy . it becomes less dense and is eventually expelled back into the
levels of water above ground , infused with minerals and chemicals from its contact with sub-surface
rock. When this super-heated seawater comes into contact with the mid colder surrounding water of
the deep sea . these minerals often precipitate mi-stream , forming large underwater chimneys of iron
Sulphide , around which a biological community evolves.

Prior to the discovery of these vent communities It was thought that life could not survive without
access to sunlight – be that directly or indirectly , as in the example of many creatures of the deep sea ,
eho feed off the biologicals matter from photosynthetic processes which sinks down from the sunlit
water levels closer to the surface . the existence of thriving ecosystems around hydrothermal vents
indicated that , far from being a dead zone . such areas of the ocean floor are hotspots of biodiversity
and activity . Without access to solar energy and photosynthesis , vent communities are rare examples
of ecosystems sustained by chemosynthesis – a process carried out by bacteria which , feeding off the
mineral – infused water from the vent to produce organic matter , from the basis of the rest of the
ecosystem . it is vent to produce organ matter from the chimneys that makes the environment around
vents both hostile and cultivating .While high concentrations of chemicals , particularly Sulphide , are
toxic to most biological processes , they do however nourish the thousands of tiny bacteria that reside
here . These bacteria chemosynthesis the hydrogen Sulphide which flows from the vents creating
carbohydrates -Which , together with the bacteria themselves , serve as nutrients for larger creatures
such as worms and clams .

With over 300 species flourishing within such ecosystems , vents fields hold many remarkable examples
of how creatures have adapted to survive in extreme environments .One of the best illustrations of the
adaptive nature of live is alvinella pompejana .The pompeii worm .Which lives in self-constructed tube
colonies attached to the chimneys themselves . the pompeii worm has adapted to create an effective
blanket of chemosynthetic bacteria around its outer body . which protects it from extremes
temperature fluctuations (hydrothermal fluid from the vents may reach peacks of 350 ) and blasts of
hyper – concentrated chemicals . This is a symbiotic a mutually advantages relationship . the bacteria
are nourished by fluids from glands along the worm’s back and they , in turn , provide nutrients and
protection , giving the worm the highest heat tolerance of any know creature on the planet. Also
notable is the the fact that water composition inside the worms tube colonies is regulated and
detoxified by these bacterial coats , effectively creating a micro-ecosystem on the wall of each chimney .

Aside for these symbiotic bacteria -which can also be found living on other life forms ,such as tube
worms and mussels -other chemosynthetic bacteria combine to form a structure known as a microbial
mat which attracts ‘grazers ‘ who feed on them – for example shrimp and zooplankton.As the number of
grazers increases , scavengers such as crabs , jellyfish and some fish move towards vent sites , attracted
by this plentiful food source .At the top of the shallow water octopus with several adaptations to the
deep . the most notable of these I the absence of any ink sac ; in the dark environment of the deep sea ,
such camouflage would be redundant .

One of the most unique examples of a hydrothermal vent ecosystem can be found at an underwater site
dubbed lost city , located near the Mid-Atlantic ridge .Unlike volcanic Hydrothermal fields , the vents in
the lost city field are ridge . unlike volcanic hydrothermal fields . the vents in the lost city field are
created by expulsions of heat caused by chemical reactions between seawater and the minerals
contained within peridotites -Rock formed deep beneath the earth 'Surface .Because of this distinctive
chemicals are also able to provide the fuel for chemosynthesis , although signs of live were harder to
identify of lost city -And at first seemed absent altogether -Closer investigation revealed that microbial
life and minuscule shrimp and crab species were able to thrive .

Lost city was the first of these peridotite-hosted ecosystems to be discovered ; the implications of the
existence of biological life in a hostile environment of any kind -But particularly ink situations where
volcanic activity is not present -Could be of vital importance in understanding both the tolerance limits
for the development and survival of pre-evolved biological life and the minimum requirements for
introducing and supporting organisms in alliin environment .

Inhabilitating ‫تأهيل‬

Adverse (sayi2)

Assault ( i3tida2at)

Seeps( yatasarab)

Beneath ( asfal)

Expelled ( matroud)

Infused ( mamlou2)

Precipitate ( tarasub)

sinks down (tagrak)

thriving ( muzdahera )

carried out ( tama tanfizuha )

hostile ( eida2i)

cultivating(zira3i)

reside ( yukim)

nutrients ( anaser gize2iyi)

worms and clams ‫الديدان والمحار‬

flourishing ( yazdaher )

fluctuations ( takalubet)

mutually( mutabadal) -

, scavengers (zabaloun)

redundant . ( mutakarer )

dubbed(mutarjam)

expulsions(tared)

revealed(azharat)

19- chemosynthesis

20- grazers

21-mat/life

22- smaller crreatures

23-

24- shallow water

High-speed rail

The new generation of trains.

In recent years, advancements in train technology have seen the emergence of high-speed rail (HSR),
enabling trains to travel faster than ever before. first introduced in japan in the 1960s, HSR promises to
increase passenger capacity, reduce journey time and, perhaps most importantly, boost local
economies. As current transport infrastructure in many countries continues to struggle with the issue of
overpopulation, HSR is viewed as increasingly necessary.

The current HSR technology can be organized under two overarching categories -Magley and wheel-
based technology -both of which are set to revolutionize 21 st -century rail networks. the latter boats
more sophisticated tracks which aim to reduce the number of curves and minimize the frequency of
stops, all of which have allowed for greater speeds to be attained. Tilting technology, where the track
tilts around the bends, is a further technique that allows some HSR trains to maintaining their speed
when approaching curves.In contrast to wheel-based HSR Systems, maglev trains are ingeniously
operated via an electromagnetic system where the carriages of the train are suspended above the track
on a vacuum of Air and move by a magnetic force, allowing it to reach extraordinarily high speeds. A
commercial application of this can be seen in China, where its shanghai maglev train can reach a top
speed of around 430 KM per hour. To date, most HSR introduced worldwide fall under the wheel-based
track model, which has the advantage of being more easily intergraded into existing railway systems,
which clearly has a dramatic cost implication, questioning its feasibility in some countries. In spite of
this, advocates of maglev trains argue that the high set-up costs associated with this technology may be
negated by that the high set-up cost – due to the magnetic field created, this cutting-edge technology
eliminates friction, meaning that less damage is caused to the track and carriage in the long term.

High-speed rail is thought to have a very positive effect on local economies. For instance, the fact that it
saves time on travel has a far greater impact than simply providing passengers with an enhanced
service. By connecting major cities, it encourages more business interactions, as commuting is made
more feasible. likewise, an increasing number of people are able to travel between metropolitan areas
for the purpose of tourism – an influx of tourists invariably boosts economies as more money circulates
and local businesses prosper. This was the case in Japan; its famous “ bullet train ‘ made it possible to
reduce the seven-hour journey time between Tokyo and Osaka to four – IN turn, both cities benefited
from increasing numbers of tourists. Nonetheless, it could be argued that the influence is likely to be
greater in larger countries where the major cities are more widely dispersed and travel is traditionally
problematic.

For more densely populated countries, such as the united kingdom, plans to introduce an improved and
more extensive HSR network are also predicted to have huge economic implications. The gap between
the north and south of the country, concerning affluence, continues to persist, with supporters of HSR
remaining optimistic that it could help to reduce this disparity by creating more business opportunities
across the country. A further advantage results from the creation of the stations themselves – the
redevelopment of the surrounding area, often with shopping centers and restaurants, means that more
jobs are made available to local people, and increase revenue for both the retail and food and beverage
industries.
On the other hand, a negative implication of HSR revolves around the noise and vibrations generated – a
particular concern voiced by many residents living in close proximity to possible train lines. General
mechanical noise, together with the aerodynamic effect caused by the sheer speed at which the train is
traveling all mean that noise pollution is greater compared to traditional trains, this has led engineers to
develop improved noise mitigation technology. Sound barriers (large fence-like structures which
surround the line ) have been shown to be effective in absorbing some of the sound waves created.
moreover, for residential homes located close to the truck, soundproofing these with insulation
materials is also very useful. Despite this, the potential impact on homeowners is thought to be great –
given the very real issue of noise, the value of a house located close to the track may decrease
substantially, and even result in homeowners being unable to sell their properties in the future. of even
greater concern is the reality that some houses will inevitably be located on the proposed line itself,
forcing some residents to relocate in areas where HSR is planned .

While much of the literature around HSR is focused on its profitability , some critics argue that actual
benefits on a national level is negligible , suggesting that a simple reshuffling of funds across the
different sectors is all that takes place as opposed to any additional welth being created – for instance ,
a shift in the ditrution of passengers from flight to rail . yet , even if no tangible economic benefit is
created , the environmnrt implication speak volumes . the transport sector is often at the center of the
global warming debate , accused of significantly contributing to greenhouse gas emissions , This new
technology provides an alternative to fossil fuel , with many HSR systems powered by electricity , which
in turn helps passengers to reduce their own carbon footprint given the market potential of HSR , many
working in transport planning view it as an essential investement which cannot be avoided .

the emergence = ‫الظهور‬

promosises : ‫وعود‬

Transport : ‫ينتقل‬

increasingly “‫بشكل متزايد‬

overarching ‫شامل‬

wheel- ‫عجلة‬

‫ عقد‬century

revolutionize ‫ثورة‬

‫ إمالة‬Tilting

‫ ببراعة‬Ingeniously

Carriages - ajalet el kitar

in spite of this
‫بالرغم من هذا‬

‫ دعاة‬advocates
commuting ‫التنقل‬

feasible. ‫قابليه‬

Influx ‫تدفق‬

Invariably ( bisabet )

Prosper ‫تزدهر‬

Nonetheless ‫ومع ذلك‬

Widely ‫على نطاق واسع‬

Dispersed ‫مشتت‬

Densely ‫بكثافة‬

Affluence ‫ترف‬

persist ( musur)

industries. (sina3at)

proximity ( bil kurub )

mitigation ( ta5fif )

substantially ( jawhariyan )

inevitably ( le mahala )

profitability ( al ribhiya )

tangible ( malmous)

accused ( el mutaham)
‫الترجمة بالصوت‬

emissions ‫االنبعاثات‬
Questions : 1- Not given

2-
The gold standard

The rise and fall of the first modern global monetary system

A- Before it became associated with monetary value , gold was valued for its natural lustre . its
malleable qualities and its resistance to tarnish , Because of these inherent values . it quickly
became recognazied as a tradable commodity . The first gold coins appeared in Lydia
somewhere between 750-550 BCE although they were actually made of naturally occuring
electrum an alloy of silver and gold . they did , however set the trend for weight standardised
monetry units . each coin was stamped with its weight and subsenquent value , which served to
guarantee that worth . Due to the immense trading onwer of Lydia . the use of commodity
money – that is , such coins made from power that had worth in their own right-spread . this
system of stabilising nominal worth based on the coin’s gold composition is khnown as the gold
specie standard; revolving around the metalic value in standarised weights and levels of
refinement , gold – and later , silver and other metal – specie standars became the basis of
econimies the world over .
B- For hundreds of years , due to the plentiful nature of silver , silver standars were prevalant , in
the mid-1800s , due to silver devaluaton – and helped , no doubt , by the gold Rush of 1848
when the excavation of newly discovered gold deposits countributed significantly to world gold
reserves – this began to change , by the beginning of the 20th centry , the majority of major
trading nations had attached their currencies to an evaluation of gold at a fixed price or ounce .
Although it was adopted at a varying rate by different countries , general consensus marks the
period of 1870 to 1914 as the : golden years “ of a widespread international gold standard .
C- The international gold standard , while still based on specie , varied from the ancient gold specie
standard in that , although weighted coins were still in circulation , the populace traded
primarily in paper money which was freely convertible into gold . without the need to keep a
gold stock from which to mint their currency , many countries were to keep a gold stock from
which to mint their currency , many countries were able to dispense with the need fo a physical
gold reserve altogether , Instead , they operated on a gold – exchange standard whereby their
currency could be converted into exchange bills from a country with gold reserve , the british
pund sterling and the US dollar became the most widely acknolodged of these reserve
currencies .
D- While this system enjoyed many years of success , it was ultimatly unable to survive periods of
upheaval or economic difficulty . In times of unrest when greater cash suppliers were needed
most countries were forced to suspend the conversation of notes to gold specie . This is What
happenned in 1914 , and marked the beginning of the end of the gold standard 1925 saw an
attempted revival of the gold standard in many countries – this time as a gold bullion standard ,
where reprensentitive notes were exchangeable for weighted gold bars, not coins as legal
tender ,Under this system , as with the previous eonomies struggled to adjsut individually to
economic pressures and in 1931 . Britain became the first country to detach entirely from the
standard , the USA effectively followed suit shortly after in 1933 – although it continued to
purchase gold in the global market until 1971 when dollar to gold conversion was officially
ended . although some countries retained the gold standard a while longer , gold ceased to be
relevant as a major trading commodity when the usa officially withdrew from the system .
 E- The principle behind the international gold standard was that it would serve as a mechanism for
balancing supply and demand between individual economies , thus regulating the quantity and
growth of global monetary suppliers , since global gold reserves fluctuated minutely at this
time . they formed a base for international exchange rates that was as close to stable as could
realistically be achieved . In a model situation ,gold would flow across the market , stabilising
prices and regulating competitiveness in international trade . thus ,a country with a trade deficit
( importing more goods than it is able to export ) would create an outflow of money which
would reduce the gold reserves within that country . contracting its natinal economy and
causing prices to all . this would then boost its compettitiveness in the gold market .
theoretically increasing its trading power and export figures . the gold reserves would return .
the economy would expand ; prices would rise . likewise , for a trade surplus ( where exports
exceed imports) the influx of gold would lead to inflation and rising prices within the country ,
balancing their trade power with that of other nations and casing exportation to decrease .
F- Of course , in the real world , the market did not function quite so flawlessly . the different
economic models of each country were not to taken into account under a single standard , and
the system gave individual nations very little influence over monetary policy , making it almost
impossibe to adapt to eonomic change . many experts believe that the desire to return to a
facsimile of the pre – 1914 gold standard greatly hindered world economic growth in the early
of the 20th century and worsened the great depression that followed . to see the flaws inherent
in the system , one only has to look at the way in which britain dealt with the economic crisis in
1931 . by detaching its econonomy from the value of gold ,britian was able to lift itself out of the
crisiss by cutting interst rates and devaluing the pound in order to boost exports and stimulate
the economy . britain’s departure was the trigger wchich eventually led to all currencies leaving
the gold standard and becoming free—floating .

27-the gold rush

28- widespread

29- gold bullion

30- the global market

31- surplus

32- trading

33- compettitiveness

34- export

35- expand

36- F

37- A

38-D

39- E=40- E