LESSON I

THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS

TOPICS
1. Definition of childhood and adolescence
2. The rights of children

TOPIC 1: DEFINITION OF CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE

Childhood
 Defined as the state of being a child; especially the period from infancy to puberty.
 It is the time for children to be in school and at play, to grow strong and confident with the love and
encouragement of their family and an extended community of caring adults.
 It is a precious time in which children should live free from fear, safe from violence and protected
from abuse and exploitation.
 Connotes a time of innocence, where one is free from responsibility but vulnerable to forces in his
environment. It suggests a period where one enjoys closeness with parents and shared expectations.
 The Convention on the Rights of the Child defines “child” as everyone under the age of 18 unless,
under applicable law, majority is attained earlier.

1
Definition of Adolescent/Adolescence
Adolescence
 The term is derived from the Latin word adolescere which means “to grow up”.
 The period following the onset of puberty during which a young person develops from a child into
an adult (ages 13-19 years old).
 It is the transitional age of physical and psychological human development generally occurring from
the period of puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority).

Adolescence is most closely associated with the teenage years, through its physical, psychological and
cultural expressions can begin and end later. This period is divided into three main stages:

1. Early adolescence (9-13 years) – characterized by a spurt of growth and development of secondary
sexual characteristics.

2
 2. Middle adolescence (14-15 years) – this stage is distinguished by the development of a separate
identity from parents, of new relationships with peer groups and the opposite sex, and of
experimentation.
3. Late adolescence (16-19 years) - at this stage, adolescents have fully developed physical
characteristics (similar to adults) and have formed a distinct identity and have self-formed opinions
and ideas.

Task/Activity: Interview

You are going to conduct an interview with a child. Your respondents can be your sister or brother or a
neighbour. The following will be your guide questions:

1. As a child, what are the things that you enjoy doing at home? In school?
2. Do you have a share of responsibility at home? If so, what are the tasks assigned to you?
3. Do you have peer groups? What are the things you learn from them?
4. How about gadgets? Do you have your own cellphone/tablet/computer set?
5. How much time do you devote in playing online games?
6. Do you think this can help to develop you as a better person?

TOPIC 2: THE RIGHTS OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PERSONS

Presidential Decree No. 603, under Article 3 (The Rights of a Child).

“All children shall be entitled to the rights herein set forth without distinction as to legitimacy and
illegitimacy, sex, social status, religion, political antecedents and other factors.”

1. Every child is endowed with the dignity and worth of a human being from the moment of his
conception, as generally accepted in the medical parlance, and has therefore the right to be born
well.
2. Every child has the right to a wholesome family life that will provide him/her with love, care and
understanding, guidance and counseling, and moral and material security.
3. Every child has the right to a well-rounded development of his personality to the end that he may
become a happy, useful, and active member of society
4. Every child has the right to a balanced diet, adequate clothing, sufficient shelter, proper medical
attention, and all the basic physical requirements of a healthy and vigorous life.
5. Every child has the right to be brought up in an atmosphere of morality and rectitude for the
enrichment and the strengthening of his character.
6. Every child has the right to an education commensurate with his abilities and to the development of
his skills for the development of his skills for the improvement of his capacity for service to himself
and his fellowmen.

3
7. Every child has the right to full opportunities for safe and wholesome recreation and activities,
individual as well as social, for the wholesome use of his leisure hours.
8. Every child has the right to protection against exploitation improper influences, hazards, and other
conditions or circumstances prejudicial to his physical, mental, emotional, social and moral
development.
9. Every child has the right to live in a community and a society that can offer him an environment free
from pernicious influences and conducive to the promotion of his health and the cultivation of his
desirable traits and attributes.
10. Every child has the right to the care, assistance and protection of the state, particularly when his
parents or guardians fail or unable to provide him with his fundamental needs for growth,
development and improvement.
11. Every child has the right to an efficient and honest government that will deepen his faith in
democracy and inspire him with the morality of the constitute authorities both in their public and
private lives.
12. Every child has the right to grow up as a free individual, in an atmosphere of peace, understanding,
tolerance, and universal brotherhood and with the determination to contribute his share in the
building of a better world.

4
 LESSON II
THE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

TOPICS
1. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
2. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
3. Erikson’s Psycho-social Theory
4. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
5. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
6. Bronfrenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

TOPIC 1: FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Sigmund Freud
 famous psychoanalyst
 children go through a series of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of the adult personality. His
theory described how personality developed over the course of childhood.

Freud's theory of personality development

 well-known in psychology, it has always been quite controversial, both during Freud's time and in modern
psychology.
 believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-
seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is
characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation.

Psychosexual energy, or Libido

 described as the driving force behind behavior.

Five psychosexual stages

 Oral stages
 Anal stage
 Phallic stage
 Latent stage
 Genital stage
5
  Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle development,
depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a
healthy personality is the result.

Erogenous zone

 associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure

Psychoanalytic theory

 suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role
in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life.

Fixation

 a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage.

 If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur.
 Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage.
 A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may
seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

The Five Psychosexual Stages of Freud’s Theory

1. The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth

 During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the
rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives
pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the
infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the
child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
 The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon
caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with
dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-
biting.

2. The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

6
  During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder
and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to
control their bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and
independence.
 According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet
training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage
positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive
experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for people to become competent,
productive, and creative adults.
 However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this
stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents. According to Freud,
inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that
is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the
individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.

If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive
personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

3. The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals

 Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At
this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
 Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The
Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace
the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a
fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
 The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young
girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy. Eventually, the child begins
to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls,
however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain
somewhat fixated on this stage.
 Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to
women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot
give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.

4. The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

 During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children
develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family.
7
  The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around
the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships,
hobbies, and other interests.
 The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This
energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social
interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence.
 As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to become
fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form
fulfilling relationships as an adult.

5. The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

 The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This
stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life. Where in earlier stages
the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage.
The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas. If the other stages have
been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring. Unlike
the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully
formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate
satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants. Teens in the genital stage of development are able
to balance their most basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social
norms.

TOPIC 2: PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development

 suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses
not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of
intelligence.1 Piaget's stages are:

1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

2. Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
3. Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
4. Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

8
Piaget
 one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different from the way adults think.
 believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as
they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the
world around them, they continually add new knowledge, and build upon existing knowledge.
 interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his observations of his own
nephew and daughter.
 These observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely
smaller versions of adult minds.
 children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of adults.Piaget
 he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of stages
 Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he suggested. Instead, there
are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus
older children.
 he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. Albert
Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it." Piaget's stage
theory describes the cognitive development of children.
 Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early
cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in
mental operations.

The Stages

Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that
included four distinct stages:

1.The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
• Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
• They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
• They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this
stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

9
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As
kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world
works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of time
and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling
and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget
also broke this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor
stage that early representational thought emerges. Piaget believed that developing object permanence or
object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an
important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own
outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

2. The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of
others.
• While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in
very concrete terms.

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the
emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.3

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think
very concretely about the world around them. At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle
with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea
of constancy. For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then
give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball
while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational
child will likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

3. The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events

10
 • They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide
cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
• Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
• Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become
much more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become
better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid.
Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might
think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique
to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

4. The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems
• Abstract thought emerges
• Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an
understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions
to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them. The ability to thinking about
abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development.
The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical
abilities that emerge during this stage.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process;
that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.
Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process
through these four stages.4 A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did
at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

11
The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:

Schemas

 A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.
 In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge.3 As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change
previously existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience
has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose
then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the
previously existing schema to include these new observations.

Assimilation

 The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as
assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences
and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog
and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation

 Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new
information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing
schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences.5 New schemas may also be
developed during this process.

Equilibration

 Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation,
which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through
the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying
previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought to
the next.

12
 TOPIC 3: ERIKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson (1902–1994)

 was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual development and
modified it as a psychosocial theory.
 Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by
mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development.
 This mastery helps children grow into successful, contributing members of society.
 During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be successfully
overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.

Stages Of Psychosocial Development

 based on (and expand upon) Freud’s psychosexual theory.

 Erikson proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our
lives.
 According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from
infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve.
 Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a
healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development; certain cultures
may need to resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and survival needs.

Trust vs. Mistrust

 From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults
meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers
who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust;
their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet
their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world
as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will
likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

 As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their
actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain
elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the
issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the “me do it”
stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants
to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the
situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the
opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to
low self-esteem and feelings of shame.
13
Initiative vs. Guilt

 Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and
asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.
 According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By learning to
plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task.
 Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within
limits and then support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense
of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-
controlling parents—may develop feelings of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

 During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They
either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and
family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up. If
children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers,
an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

 In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion.
 According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle
with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most
adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and
ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves.
 Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain
true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. When
adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform
to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role
confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who
struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

 People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we
have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However,
if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and
maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of
self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a
positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

14
Generativity vs. Stagnation

 When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the
mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves
finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as
volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin
contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage
in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master
this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a
meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and
self-improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

 From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood.
Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect
on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of
their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets.
However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They
focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives
with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

15
 TOPIC 4: KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg

 expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of
children.
 Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages.
He used the idea of moral dilemmas—stories that present conflicting ideas about two moral values—
to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys about morality and values.
 The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which discusses the
idea of obeying the law versus saving a life.
 Kohlberg emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons about a dilemma that determines
positive moral development.
 According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality
(before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining
post-conventional morality (once Piaget’s idea of formal operational thought is attained), which only
a few fully achieve.
 Each level of morality contains two stages, which provide the basis for moral development in various
contexts.

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.
Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.

Level 1: Preconventional

Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept
and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional
morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but
instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an action is
perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is,
the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the
individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of
others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others
is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours”
mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in
it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.
16
Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships.
Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is
necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is
somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on
good behavior and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in maintaining a
functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is
“supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus
there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain at stage
four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional

Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract
principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that
individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—
and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed
without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation
over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those
at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level
of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be
mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather
than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet
the greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and
inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally, the
chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect.
Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an
obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate
17
those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not
because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is
previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify
individuals who consistently operated at that level.

TOPIC 5: VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

Lev Vygotsky (1934)

 His work has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past
several decades, particularly of what has become known as Social Development Theory.
 Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition
(Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of "making
meaning."
 Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued,
"learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically
human psychological function" (1978, p. 90). In other words, social learning tends to precede (i.e., come
before) development.
 developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development. He developed his theories at around the same
time as Jean Piaget was starting to develop his ideas (1920's and 30's), but he died at the age of 38, and so his
theories are incomplete - although some of his writings are still being translated from Russian.
 No single principle (such as Piaget's equilibration) can account for development. Individual development
cannot be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded. Higher
mental processes in the individual have their origin in social processes.

Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways:

1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development.

This contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development (Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the
way that Piaget does). Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures, whereas Piaget states
cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures.

2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development.

 Vygotsky states cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone
of proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge. In contrast, Piaget maintains
that cognitive development stems largely from independent explorations in which children construct
knowledge of their own.
 For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think
about.

18
3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development.

 According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e., thought comes before language).
For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at
around three years of age, producing verbal thought (inner speech).
 For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language.

4: According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive development.

 Adults transmit their culture's tools of intellectual adaptation that children internalize. In contrast, Piaget
emphasizes the importance of peers as peer interaction promotes social perspective taking.

Effects of Culture: - Tools of intellectual adaptation

Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic materials/abilities for intellectual development -
Piaget focuses on motor reflexes and sensory abilities.
Lev Vygotsky refers to 'elementary mental functions' –
o Attention
o Sensation
o Perception
o Memory
Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural environment, these are developed into more sophisticated
and effective mental processes/strategies which he refers to as 'higher mental functions.'
For example, memory in young children this is limited by biological factors. However, culture determines the type of
memory strategy we develop. E.g., in our culture, we learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies,
other strategies must be developed, such as tying knots in a string to remember, or carrying pebbles, or repetition of
the names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated.
Vygotsky refers to tools of intellectual adaptation - these allow children to use the basic mental functions more
effectively/adaptively, and these are culturally determined (e.g., memory mnemonics, mind maps).
Vygotsky, therefore, sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as affected by the beliefs, values, and tools
of intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person develops and therefore socio-culturally determined. The
tools of intellectual adaptation, therefore, vary from culture to culture - as in the memory example.

Social Influences on Cognitive Development

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the
discovery and development of new understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social
contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful
tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as
cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor
(often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.
Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she performs poorly in attempting
to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding

19
all the corner/edge pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers
encouragement when she does so.
As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more independently. According to
Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving cooperative or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive
development.
In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development, one must understand two
of the main principles of Vygotsky's work: the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD).

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. Many times, a
child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.
For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music groups, how to win at the most recent
PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance craze - a child or their parents?
In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in their learning process, are
now using electronic performance support systems.
Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide students through the learning
process. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being
learned than the learner does.

Zone of Proximal Development

The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second important principle of Vygotsky's
work, the Zone of Proximal Development. This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a
child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

20
 For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above) by itself and would have taken a
long time to do so (if at all), but was able to solve it following interaction with the father, and has developed
competence at this skill that will be applied to future jigsaws.
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance
should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental
functions.

Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that
teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers
- within the zone of proximal development

TOPIC 6: BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

Urie Bronfenbrenner
 American psychologist who formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how the inherent
qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they grow and develop.
 His theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple environments, also known as
ecological systems, in the attempt to understand their development.
 According to his Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find themselves enmeshed in various
ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system to the larger school system, and then
to the most expansive system which includes society and culture. Each of these ecological systems
inevitably interact with and influence each other in all aspects of the children’s lives.
 His ecological model organizes contexts of development into five levels of external influence. These
levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the broadest.

21
Microsystem
 the smallest and most immediate environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem
comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment of the
children.
 Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members,
classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals interact with the children will
affect how they grow.

Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they treat the children
in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will understandably foster they
children’s improved development.
One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological systems
is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to experience very
different environments.

Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible for the development
of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular personality traits, such as temperament,
which is influenced by unique genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated
by others.

Mesosystem

 encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children find themselves in.
 It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between home and school,
between peer group and family, and between family and community.
 According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved in the friendships of
their child, for example they invite their child’s friends over to their house from time to time and
spend time with them, then the child’s development is affected positively through harmony and like-
mindedness. However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then
the child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative
development.

Exosystem

 pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may not contain
the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless.

 Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not directly interact
with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people may include the parents’
workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood the children live in. For example, a
father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the workplace may take
it out on his children and mistreat them at home.

22
Macrosystem

 the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that still have significant
influences on them. This ecological system is composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values,
specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.

For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development than children in
peaceful environments.

Chronosystem

 chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change
and constancy in the children’s environments.
 The chronosystem may include a change in family structure, address, parents’ employment status,
as well as immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars.

By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory is able to
demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on children’s development. Awareness of the contexts
that children are in can sensitize us to variations in the way children may act in different settings.

For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the role of a terrified
victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with the care of a particular child should
pay close attention to his/her behavior in different settings, as well as to the quality and type of connections
that exist between these settings.

23