ENGLISH SYNTAX I

FACULTAD DE FILOSOFÍA Y LETRAS

UNT
 Adjective Complementation
Many adjectives can be followed by complements – other words and
expressions that complete their meaning.
Adjectives can have different types of complements such as:
• A prepositional phrase
Liz is happy with her new job.
• A that-clause
I’m sure (that) he will win the race.
• A wh-clause
I’m not quite sure how to do it.
• A than-clause
The estimate was different than we expected.
• A present participle clause
My sister is busy writing out her wedding invitations.
• A to-infinitive clause
I’m glad to hear she is recovering.
Many adjectives may be used in more than one pattern.
 Adjective Complementation
by a to-infinitive clause
There are eight kinds of constructions in which an adjective is complemented
by to-infinitive clause.

Type 1: Sally was clever to solve the problem so quickly.

Adjectives evaluative of human behaviour

• The subject is always animate.

• The subject of the main clause (Sally) is also the subject of the infinitive
clause.
Andrew was kind to help us.
• This group includes:

careful – careless – crazy – mad – silly – wise – greedy – nice – unwise –

wrong – clever – cruel – good – kind – rude – silly – stupid – naughty
 Paraphrases: These adjectives can be paraphrased:
a) With the anticipatory ‘it’
It was kind of Andrew to help us
b) With how + an of-phrase as additional complementation.
How kind of Andrew to help us!
c) With the interrogative negative.
Wasn’t Andrew kind to help us?

Type 2: Sally is slow to react.

• The subject of the main clause (Sally) is also the subject of the infinitive
clause.
• In this type, the sentence corresponds to one in which the adjective
becomes the adverb, while the infinitive becomes the finite verb.
Sally is slow to react. [= Sally reacts slowly. ]
Andrew is quick to take a decision. [= He takes a decision quickly. ]
• Paraphrase: These adjectives can be paraphrased by using an adverb.
• Adjectives in this small group are:
slow – quick – prompt
 Type 3: Sally is sorry to hear it
Emotive adjectives
• Adjectives used in this pattern denote an emotional state (e.g. fear, sorrow, joy,
indignation) or a mental state (e.g. surprise, impatience, interest, disappointment).
• The infinitive clause expresses causation.
• The subject of the main clause (Sally) is also the subject of the infinitive clause.
I am glad to see you.

Paraphrases:
a) When there is a participle in –ed, conversion to the active voice:
We were shocked to hear about the terrorist attack in Paris.
[= To hear about the terrorist attack in Paris shocked us.]
b) With make
I was sorry to hear about your trouble on holiday.
[= To hear / Hearing about your trouble on holiday made me sorry.]
c) With a clause of reason / cause introduced by because.
They are happy to go on holidays.
[= They are happy because they are going on holidays.]
 This group includes:
afraid – angry – ashamed – content – furious – glad – happy – impatient –
indignant – jubilant – thankful
Participial adjectives: annoyed – astonished – bored – concerned –
delighted – depressed – disappointed – disgusted – dissatisfied –
embarrassed – fascinated – frightened – interested – overwhelmed –
perturbed – puzzled – relieved – surprised – worried

Type 4: Sally is hard to convince.

Adjectives that indicate degrees of ease and comfort.

In this type the subject of the sentence is identified with the unexpressed
object of the to inf-clause.
John is hard to please. To please John is hard.
Rose is easy to deceive.
Paraphrases:
a) By using the infinitive (in some cases the gerund) as the subject.
To please John is hard. Deceiving Rose is easy.
b) By using the anticipatory ‘it’.
It is hard to please John. It is easy to deceive Rose.
c) By a passive construction if the adjective has an adverb form with
the suffix –ly.
Rose is easily deceived.
If there is no adverb form in –ly, a passive construction may be possible
with and adverbial phrase:
Essays are written with difficulty.
d) In exclamatory style with ‘how’.
How easy it is to deceive Rose! How hard it is to please John!
e) With the interrogative negative.
Isn’t it hard to please John? Isn’t it easy to deceive Rose?

This group includes:

convenient – easy – difficult – hard (difficult) – safe – dangerous – pleasant

– painful – impossible – exciting – thrilling – fascinating – interesting
 Type 5: Sally is hesitant to agree with you.
Adjectives with modal meaning

These adjectives express volitional meaning or a modal meaning, such as

ability, possibility, (un)willingness, (dis)inclination, reluctance.
Paraphrase:
By using a verb that expresses the modal meaning expressed by the
adjective.
Sally is hesitant to agree with you. [= Sally hesitates to agree with you.]
The children are ready to leave. [= They are prepared to leave.]
Mr. Spencer is eager to cooperate with the investigation.
[= He wants very much to cooperate with the investigation.]
He is able to solve problems in a peaceful way.
[= He can solve problems in a peaceful way.]
This group includes:
able – anxious – apt – curious – due – eager – eligible – fit – free – ready
– greedy – hesitant – impotent – keen – liable – reluctant – unable –
welcome – willing – worthy
Participial adjectives: determined – disposed – fated – inclined – poised
–prepared – set – unqualified
Type 6: The food is ready to eat
Adjectives in which the subject of the main clause is identified
with the unexpressed object of the to-infinitive clause.

This type has no analogous construction with an infinitive clause

subject.
Paraphrases:
a) By using passivisation.
b) By omitting the to- infinitive clause.
• Breakfast is ready (to eat).
[= Breakfast is ready to be eaten.]
• Are these bikes available (to use)?
[= Are these bikes available to be used?]
This meat isn’t fit (to eat).
[= This meat isn’t fit to be eaten.]
 • This ticket is free (to use) for 30 days.
[= This ticket is free to be used for 30 days.]
Some adjectives of this type are:

available – fit – free –ready – sufficient

Type 7: Sally is certain to win

Adjectives of prediction are used to make statements or to ask about the
future. There is always reference to the future.
Paraphrases:
a) By using ‘perhaps’ or ‘maybe’ or
b) With anticipatory ‘it’ + a that- clause.
Sally is certain to win the race.
[= Perhaps / Maybe Sally will win the race.]
[= It is certain that Sally will win the race.]
 • The crisis is likely to continue still for some time.
[= Perhaps / Maybe the crisis will continue still for some time.]
[= It is likely that the crisis will continue still for some time.]

The adjectives in this group are:

likely – unlikely – sure – certain

Type 8: Sally was the first to come.
Adjectives of specification

These adjectives are used to indicate order and specification of

occurrence.
The infinitive of specification is used after the ordinals and after next /
last. These adjectives are usually preceded by the definite article.

Paraphrases: Adjectives of specification can be paraphrased:

a) By restoring back the elements of the relative clause.
The first to finish may leave earlier.
[= Those who finish first may leave earlier.]
b) By using an adverb.
• The French deputy was the last to speak at the NATO conference.
[= He spoke last.]
[= The French deputy was the last person who spoke.]
• China was the second country to export trash to America, after
Nigeria in 1960.
[= China exported trash second.]
• My cousins were the next to leave the country before the pandemic
time was declared
[= They left the country next.]

Adjectives of this type are:

first – second – last – next

Analyse the underlying structure of the group of sentences below
and say if they are similar or not. Provide an appropriate
paraphrase and indicate the type of adjective.

1. Anne was wrong to forgive David.

2. Anne was willing to forgive David.
3. Anne was the first to forgive David.
4. Anne was happy to forgive David.
5. Anne was likely to forgive David.
6. Anne was quick to forgive David.
7. Anne was crazy to forgive David.
8. Anne was hesitant to forgive David.
1. Anne was wrong to forgive David.
Adjective evaluative of human behaviour.
It was wrong of Anne to forgive David.

2. Anne was willing to forgive David.

Adjective with modal meaning. Anne really wanted to forgive David.

3. Anne was the first to forgive David..

Adjective of specification. Anne forgave David first.

4. Anne was happy to forgive David.

Emotive adjective. Anne was happy because she forgave David.

5. Anne was likely to forgive David.

Adjective of Prediction. It was likely that Anne would forgive David.
6. Anne was quick to forgive David.
In this type the adjective becomes the adverb, while the infinitive
becomes the finite verb.
Anne forgave David quickly.

7. Anne was crazy to forgive David.

Adjective evaluative of human behaviour.
Wasn’t Anne crazy to forgive David?

8. Anne was hesitant to forgive David.

Adjective with modal meaning.
Anne hesitated to forgive David.

‘Wrong’ and ‘crazy’ are similar because they are adjectives evaluative
of human behaviour.
‘Willing’ and ‘hesitant’ are similar because they are adjectives with
modal meaning.