Electronics(EEC124) Introduction

Allmatterismadeofatoms,anatomhastwoparts,nucleusandtheelectroncloud(seethe
Fig.Below)Electronsarethesmallestandlightestparticles.Theycarryanegativeelectric
charge.Theelectroncloudcontainsoneormoreelectronswhicharemovingathighspeed
aroundthenucleus.Eachelectroncarriesthesameamountofnegativecharge.The
nucleusconsistsofoneormoreparticles.Theparticlesinthenucleusareoftwokinds.
Protons:Aprotonisabout1840timesmoremassivethananelectron.Itcarriesapositive
electricchargethatisequalinsizebutoppositeinsigntothechargecarriedbyanelectron.
Thereforeallprotonscarrythesameamountofpositivecharge.Neutrons:Aneutronhas
aboutthesamemassasaprotonbutcarriesnoelectriccharge.Modernphysicshasshown
thatthereareotherkindsofparticiple.Italsotellsusthatprotons,neutrons,electronsand
theotherparticlesmayreallybemadeofevensmallerparticles.Tounderstandelectronics
weneedtoknowaboutprotons,neutronsandelectrons,butnotabouttheotherkindsof particle.

TheStructureofanAtom

FundamentalofElectricity
ElectronandProtons

Allsolids,liquidsandgasesareprincipallymadeupoftwobasictypesofparticiplesknown
aselectronsandprotons.Theelectronisthesmallerofthetwo;theprotonis1840times
moremassivethantheelectron.Theelectroncarriesanegativeelectricalcharge.The
protoncarriesanequalandoppositepositivecharge.Whenamaterialisinanuncharged
state,itcontainsasmanyprotonsasitdoeselectrons.However,ifweremovesome
electronsfromthematerial,thenetpositivechargeonitexceedstheremainingnegative
chargesothatthematerialexhibitsanetpositivecharge.Thisphenomenoncanbe
experiencedbyanyonewearingclothesmanufacturedfromman-madefiber;whilethe
garmentisbeingworn,someelectronstransfertothewearer,andthestaticchargebuiltup
inthiswaymaycausethewearertoexperienceanelectricalshockduringremovalofthe garment.
Basic Atomic Structure

Allatomshavebroadlythesametypeofstructure,withtheheavierprotonsformingthe
nucleus,aroundwhichtheelectronsorbit.Theelectronsorbitindistinctlayersorshells.
Theradiusoftheorbitdependsonthebalancebetweentwoforces:themechanical
outwardforceontheelectronduetoitsmotionandtheinwardelectrostaticpullbetween
thepositivechargeonthenucleusandthenegativechargeontheelectron.Theshellin
whichanelectronfindsitselfdependsonitsenergy;ahigh–energyelectronorbitsinashell
furtherawayfromthenucleusthandoesalow-energyelectron.

StructureofHydrogen,HeliumandLithiumAtoms

Scientisthasletteredtheshellsalphabetically,beginningwiththeK-shell(whichistheshell
nearesttothenucleus).Eachshellcanalsobegivenanumber(K=1,L=2,M=3,etc)and
ithasbeenshownthatthemaximumnumberofelectronswhichcanorbitinanyshellis2n 2,
wherenisthe“number”oftheshell.Themaximumnumberofelectronswhichmayorbitin
shellsKtoNisgiveninthetablebelow.

Shell Shellnumber Maximumelectronsinorbit

K 123 28
L 4
M
18 32
N

Inthehydrogenatom,theK–shellcontainsonlyoneelectron,andtheshellissaidtobean
incompleteshell.Likehydrogen,neonhasonlyoneshell(theK-shell)but,sinceitcontains
twoelectrons.Itisdescribedasafullshell.Lithiumwiththreeprotonshasthreeelectrons
inorbit,whichcompletelyfilltheK-shellandpartiallyfillL-shell.Inacomplexstructurelike
lithium,theelectronsinorbit,whichcompletelyfilltheK-shellandpartiallyfillL-shell.Ina
complexstructurelikeLithium,theelectronsintheinnershellsaretightlyboundtothe
nucleusduetotheelectrostaticforceinvolved.Electronsfarthestawayfromthenucleus (thoseintheL-
shellinLithium)canbedetachedfromtheatommoreeasilyandaresaidto
belooselybound.Thegapsbetweentheshellsareregionswhereelectronscannotorbit,
andaredescribedasforbiddenenergygaps.

Itistheelectronsintheoutermostshellwhichareofparticularinteresttoelectricaland
electronicengineers.Sincethesedictatemanypropertiesofthesubstance.Theoutermost
shellisknownasthevalenceshellandtheelectronsinthisshellareknownasvalence electrons.

AtomicBonds

Whenatomscombine,theydosobyattemptingtoemptytheoutershellbylosingelectrons,
orbyattemptingtofilltheoutershellbygainingelectrons,oralternativelytheyshare
electronswithotheratomsinordertogivetheappearanceofafullshell.Thelattermethod
isofparticularinteresttoelectronicengineers,sincethisisthewayinwhichsomeofthe
mostusefulsemiconductormaterialsbondtogether.Inthesharingprocess,eachvalence
electronformsanorbitaroundtwoatomsincludingtheparentatomandoneotheratom,
formingwhatisknownasacovalentbondbetweentheatoms.

IonizationandExcitation

Sinceanindividualatomcontainsasmanyelectronsasitdoesprotons.Itiselectrically
neutralinitsnormalstate.However,theadditionofanelectrongivesitanetnegative
charge;andtheremovalofanelectrongivesitanetpositivecharge.Whenanatomcarries
eitheranegativeorapositivechargeitisknownasanionandtheprocessofproducingthis
chargeisknownasionization.Whenanelectronreceivesenergyfromanexternalsource,
suchasheatorlight,theextraenergyallowsittomovetoahigherorbit.Thisprocessis
knownasexcitation.Similarly,whenanelectrongivesupenergy,itfallsfromahigherorbit
toalowerone.Thislossofenergyfromtheelectronmayappearintheformofheatorlight;
anexampleofthelatteroccursinthelight-emittingdiode(led).

HolesandElectrons

Whenanatomlossesanelectron,theelectricalchargebalanceisupsetandtheatomtakes
onanetpositivecharge.Thispositivechargeisdescribedasanelectronichole,andcanbe
regardedastheabsenceofanelectronwhereonewouldnormallybefound.Thusaholeis
regardedasapositivechargecarrier,muchasanelectronisanegativechargecarrier.

CurrentandCharge

Whentheelectricalcircuitbetweenageneratorandanelectricalloadsuchasalampor
heateriscomplete,electriccurrentflowsroundthecircuit,Electriccurrentissimplythe
movementofelectricalchargecarrier(suchaselectrons)aroundthecircuit.Considernow
themovementofelectrons;whenthecircuitiscomplete,theelectronsareattractedfrom
thenegativepoleofthesupplyandflowviatheloadtothepositivepoleofthesupply.
Supply,electroniccannot“accumulate”atanypointinthecircuit;theymustcompletethe
returnpathinsidethegeneratortoreturntothenegativepole.Current(symbolI)hasthe
unitoftheampere(symbolA).Certaindevicessuchascellsandcapacitorshavetheability
tostoreaquantityofelectricity.Electricalquantityorelectricalcharge(symbolQ)isthe
capacityofapieceofelectricalapparatustostore(ortodischargeforthatmatter)acertain
currentforagivenlengthoftime.Forexample,thestoragecapacityofanaccumulatoris
statedasacertainnumberofampere-hours.

Thusanaccumulatorwithastoragecapacityof40Ahcandischargeelectricityattherate
of1Afor40hoursor2Afor20hours.However,thehourislongperiodoftime,andwe
normallyspecifyquantityorchargeinamperesecondorcoulombs(unitsymbolC).

Thus,Quantity=CurrentxtimeorinsymbolsQ=Itcoulombs(C)egn.………..(1.1).

Wherethecurrentisinamperesandtimeinseconds.

AnelectronisachargecarrierwhoseelectricalchargeisE=-1.6x10 C
-19

Thatis,acurrentof1Aflowsinacircuitwhen1/1.6x10 =6.25x10 electronsPass

-19 18

througheachpointinthecircuitinonesecond.Strictlyspeakingweshouldtalkof“rateof
theflowofcharge”ratherthancurrentflow,butthelatterismoreconventional.

WorkedExample

Example

Ifacurrentof3Aflowsinacircuitfor120ms,calculatethequantityofelectricitywhichis involved.

Solution

I=3A;t=120ms=120x10-3s=0.12s

Fromeqn.(1.1)
Q=It=3x0.12=0.36C(ans)

EnergyLevelsinMaterials
Atomsconstitutethebuildingblocksofallmaterialsinexistence.Intheseatoms,thereisa
centralportioncallednucleuswhichconsistsofprotonsandneutrons,aroundwhich
revolvestheparticlescalledelectrons.Next,itistobenotedthatalltheelectrons
constitutingtheconsideredmaterialdonotrevolvealongthesamepath.However,this
doesnotmeanthattherevolutionarypathscanberandom.Thatis,eachelectronofa
particularatomhasitsowndedicatedpath,calledorbit,alongwhichitcirclesaroundthe
centralnucleus.Itistheseorbitswhicharereferredtoasenergylevelofanatom.

Thisisbecauseeachofthempossessesadedicatedamountofenergywhichisexpressed
intermsofanintegralmultipleofequation

E=hv

WherehisthePlanck’sconstantandvisthefrequency.
TheFigureBelowshowsthefiniteenergypossessesbydifferentenergystates(andthereby
alltheelectronspresentinthem)intheelectronvolts(eV).FromtheFigureBelow,itcanbe
seenthattheenergyoftheelectronsincreasesasonemoveawayfromthecenterofthe
atom.Forexample,anelectroninthefirstenergystate(E1)hasanenergyof-13.6eV,that
isthesecond(E2)possessanenergyof-3.4eVandsoon.Continuingso,onemayreacha
levelatwhichtheenergybecomes0eVi.e.theenergylevelE ∞.

Nowassumethatwearesupplyingexternalenergy(mightbeinanywayincludingthatof
light)tothematerial.Thisenergysuppliedwillbeabsorbedbytheelectronspresentinthe
atomsconstitutingthematerial.Howevertheelectronsarenotlettoabsorbanyamountof
energyastheywish-for.Thisisbecause,ifanelectronabsorbssomeenergy,thenitsnet
energychanges.Thisinturnmeansthattheelectroncannolongerstayinitsoriginal
energylevel.Sayforexample,anelectronintheenergystateE 1absorbs4eVofenergy.On
doingso,thenetenergyoftheelectronwouldincreaseto
-9.6eV(=-13.6eV+4eV)

DuetowhichitcannolongerstayintheenergylevelE1whichhasitsenergyas-13.6eV.
Moreoveritcannotseeanyotherlevelwhichhasanenergyequivalenttowhatithas.This makesitloseitstrack!

Ontheotherhand,ifthiselectronabsorbsenergyof10.2eV,thenitsincreasedenergy wouldbe

-13.6+10.2eV=-3.4eV

ThisisnothingbuttheenergypossessedbythelevelE2,meaningthattheelectronwhich
wasformallyinE1isnowinenergylevelE2.Inotherwords,wesaythatthiselectronhas
madeatransitionfromthelevelE1tothelevelE2whichinturnleadstoanexcitedatom.
However,theelectroncannotstayinthisunstablestateforlong.Itwillsoonreturntoits
originalstatebymakingatransitionfromthelevelE2tothelevelE1.Butanimportantpoint
tobenotedisthefactthatwhiledoingso,theelectronemitsanenergyof10.2eV(whichis
thesameasthatoftheabsorbed)intheformofanelectromagneticwaves.

Fromthediscussionpresented,itisevidentthattheelectronsarepermittedtoabsorb(or
equivalentlyemit)quantizedamountsofenergy.Theamountofthisenergyisnothingbut
thedifferenceintheenergiesofthelevelsamongwhichthetransitionoccurs.Next,from
Figureaboveitcanbeseenthatthisdifferencebetweentheenergystatesgoeson
decreasingasonemovesawayfromE1i.e.…
 (E4–E3)<(E3–E2)<(E2–E1)

Thismeansthattheelectronsintheoutermostshellsrequirelessamountofenergytoget
excitedthanthosepresentintheinnermostshells.Thisisinaccordancewiththewell
knownfactthattheelectronspresentnearthenucleusarestronglybondedtotheatoms
ratherthantheoncewhicharepresentawayfromit.Althoughwehaveexplainedthe
processofexcitation,thesamemodeofargumentholdsgoodevenforthecaseof
liberation.Thisisbecause,wecanassumethatwhentheelectrongetsexcitedtothe
energylevelwithanenergyof0eV(E∞),itwouldbecompletelyfreefromtheattractive
forceoftheatom’snucleus.Itisthesefreeelectronswhichcontributeforconductioninthe
caseofmaterialslikemetals.

ValenceandConductionBands
ValenceBand:Thevalencebandisthebandofelectronorbitalsthatelectronscanjump
outof,movingintotheconductionbandwhenexcited.Thevalencebandissimplythe
outermostelectronorbitalofanatomofanyspecificmaterialthatelectronsactually
occupy.Thisiscloselyrelatedtotheideaofthevalenceelectron.

Theenergydifferencebetweenthehighestoccupiedenergystateofthevalencebandand
thelowestunoccupiedstateoftheconductionbandiscalledthebandgapandisindicative
oftheelectricalconductivityofamaterial.Alargebandgapmeansthatalotofenergyis
requiredtoexcitevalenceelectronstotheconductionband.Conversely,whenthevalence
bandandconductionbandoverlapsastheydoinmetals,electronscanreadilyjump
betweenthetwobands(seetheFigureBelow)meaningthematerialishighlyconductive.

ConductionBand:Theconductionbandisthebandofelectronorbitalsthatelectronscan
jumpupintofromthevalencebandwhenexcited.Whentheelectronsareintheseorbitals,
theyhaveenoughenergytomovefreelyinthematerial.Themovementofelectronscreates
anelectriccurrent.Thevalencebandissimplytheoutermostelectronorbitalofanatomof
anyspecificmaterialthatelectronsactuallyoccupy.Theenergydifferencebetweenthe
highestoccupiedenergystateofthevalencebandandthelowestunoccupiedstateofthe
conductionbandiscalledthebandgapandisindicativeoftheelectricalconductivityofa
material.Alargebandgapmeansthatalotofenergyisrequiredtoexcitevalenceelectrons
totheconductionband.Conversely,whenthevalencebandandconductionbandoverlapas
theydoinmetals,electronscanreadilyjumpbetweenthetwobands(seetheFigureBelow)
meaningthematerialishighlyconductive.
 Thedifferencebetweenconductors,insulators,andsemiconductorscanbeshownbyhow
largetheirbandgapis.Insulatorsarecharacterizedbyalargebandgap,soaprohibitively
largeamountofenergyisrequiredtomoveelectronsoutofthevalencebandtoforma
current.Conductorshaveanoverlapbetweentheconductionandvalencebands,sothe
valenceelectronsinsuchconductorsareessentiallyfree.Semiconductors,ontheother
hand,haveasmallbandgapthatallowsforameaningfulfractionofthevalenceelectrons
ofthematerialtomoveintotheconductionbandgivenacertainamountofenergy.This
propertygivesthemconductivitybetweenconductorsandinsulator,whichispartofthe
reasonwhytheyareidealforcircuitsastheywillnotcauseashortcircuitlikeaconductor.
Thisbandgapalsoallowssemiconductorstoconvertlightintoelectricityinphotovoltaic
cellsandtoemitlightasLEDswhenmadeintocertaintypesofdiodes.Boththese
processesrelyontheenergyabsorbedorreleasedbyelectronsmovingbetweenthe
conductionandvalencebands.

FermiEnergy
Inphysicsthereareseveraltypesofenergiesassociatedwiththeatom,likeheatenergy,
electricalenergy,lightenergyandsoonandsoforth.Butweknowthattheatomsand
moleculescanbedescribedbyquantummechanics.Thequantummechanicsisverytricky
andcomplexfield.InthequantummechanicsthescientistsrelyontheFemienergyto
definetheenergyoftheelectronsorprotons.

FemiEnergyDefinition
TheFemienergyistheenergyofthehighestlevelofquantumstatewhichisoccupiedby
thefermions(likeelectrons,protonsorneutrons)attheabsolutezerotemperature.The
FemienergyandFemilevelareveryconfusingtermsandoftenareusedinterchangeablyto
refereachother.Althoughboththetermsareequalattheabsolutezerotemperaturebut
differentatothertemperaturebuttheseshouldnotbeconfusedwitheachother.
TheFemienergyisusefulindeterminingthethermalandelectricalcharacteristicsofthe
solids.Itistheimportantconceptsinthequantummechanicsandthesuperconductor
physics.Itisusedinmetals,insulatorsandsemi-conductors.

FemiFunction
TheFemiFunctionisalsoknownasFemi-Diracdistributionfunction.Thisfunction
describestheenergyofthesingleparticle(likefermions)inasystemwithsimilarparticles
whichobeysPauli’sexclusionprinciple.Thisfunctionalsocalculatestheaveragenumberof
fermionsinasimilarparticlestatesandisgivenby:

∈ 1
Fe ( ) =
∈-µ
ekT+1

Where,
Fe(∈)=Femi-Diracfunction;
∈=potentialenergyofthefermion; µ=chemicalpotentialofthefermion;
k=Boltzmann’sconstant; T=temperature.

Thisfunctionalalsogivestheprobabilityoftheelectroninthegivenenergylevel.

FemiEnergyEquation
TheFemiEnergyEquationcanbedescribedbythefollowingequation:

22
hπ 2
En=2mL2n
Where, En=FemiEnergy;
m=massoffermions;
h=modifiedPlanck’sconstant;
L=lengthofthesquarewell;and
n=quantumnumber.

Theaboveequationisfortheonedimensionalsquarewell.

ThebelowequationgivetheFemienergyinthethreedimensionalsphericalspace

h 2 π2 2 2 2
En ,n ,n =2mL2(nx+ny+nz)
x y z

HistoryofFemiEnergyandFemiLevel
TheFemienergyandFemilevelareassociatedwiththequantumnatureoftheelements.
AnAmericanphysicistEnricoFemicontributedtoalargeextentindevelopingthetheoryof
thequantummechanics,nuclearandparticlephysics.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeof
physicsfortheyear1938forhisworkontheinducedradioactivity.Hewasknownforhis
workonthedevelopmentofthefirstnuclearreactoroftheworld.

FemiLevel
TheFemiLevelisthehighestenergylevelwhichanelectroncanoccupyattheabsolute
zerotemperature.Sinceatabsolutezerotemperaturetheelectronsareallinthelowest
energystatehencetheFermilevelisinbetweenthevalencebandandtheconductionband.
TheFermilevelcanbeconsideredastheseaoffermions(orelectrons)abovewhichno
electronsexistsbecauseoflackofsufficientenergyat0Kelvin.

FormetalstheFermilevelisinsidetheconductionbandwhileinthecaseofthesemi
conductoritexistsbetweentheconductionandthevalencebandatabsolutezero
temperature.Incaseoftheinsulator,itisinsidethevalencebandandhenceitisimpossible
foranelectrontocrossitandhencetheinsulatoractsasbadconductors.Fortheproper
understandingoftheseconceptsrefertothediagrambelow.

TheFermilevelinthesemiconductordeterminesthedensitiesoftheelectronsandholesat
thecompletethermodynamicequilibrium.TheFermileveloftheconductors,
semiconductorsandinsulatorsareshownbelow.

Inthesolidstatephysicsaterm“quasiFermilevel”isthenewFermilevelwhichdescribes
thepopulationofthechargecarriersinthesemiconductorswhentheyaredisplacedfrom theequilibrium.

FermiEnergyLevel
TheFermienergylevelisthehighestenergylevelofquantumstatewhichisoccupiedbythe
fermions(likeelectrons,protonsandneutrons,etc).TheFermienergylevelisrelatedtothe Fermienergy.
ThereasonfortheexistenceoftheFermienergylevelisduetothePauli’sexclusive
principlewhichstatesthatnotwofermionscanoccupysamequantumstate.So,fora
systemhavingmorethanonefermions,eachfermionhasdifferentsetofquantum numbersassociatedwithit.

TheFermiTemperatureisdefinedastheenergyoftheFermileveldividedbythe
Boltzmann’sconstant.TheFermitemperatureisalsodefinedasthetemperatureatwhich
theenergyoftheelectronisequaltotheFermienergy.Itisalsoameasureoftheelectrons
inthelowerenergystatesinametal.

FermiVelocity
TheFermivelocityofthefermionsisthevelocityassociatedwithitwithrespecttothe
Fermienergyithaveandcanbedescribedas;
1 2
EF=mvF
2

Or

2E F
vF=
m
Where; EF=FermiEnergy;
vF=Velocityoffermions;
m=massofthefermions.
TheFermivelocityisalsodefinedasthevelocityofthefermionsmovingontheFermi surface

FermiSurface
Itisthearbitrarysurfaceforpredictingthevariouscharacteristics;likethermal,optical,
magneticpropertiesoftheconductors,semiconductorsorinsulators.Theshapeofthe
arbitrarysurfaceisdepictedfromtheperiodicityandsymmetryofthecrystallinelatticeof
theelementinquestion.Theshapeisalsodependentontheoccupationoftheelectronic energybands.

TheFermisurfaceseparatestheunfilledorbitalsfromthefilledorbitalsattheabsolutezero temperature.

TheFermiGasisthecollectionofthelargenumberofthefermions.Thefermionsare
namedafterEnricoFermiandtheyobeytheFermi-Diracequation.

IntrinsicandExtrinsicSemiconductors
Semiconductorisdividedintotwotypes.OneisIntrinsicSemiconductorandtheotheris
ExtrinsicSemiconductor.Thepureformofthesemiconductorisknownastheintrinsic
semiconductorandthesemiconductorinwhichintentionallyimpuritiesareaddedtomake
itconductiveisknownasextrinsicsemiconductor.Theconductivityoftheintrinsic
semiconductorbecomeszeroatroomtemperaturewhiletheextrinsicsemiconductorhasa
verylittleconductivityatroomtemperature.

IntrinsicSemiconductor

Anextremelypuresemiconductoriscalledanintrinsicsemiconductor.Onthebasisofthe
energybandphenomenon,anintrinsicsemiconductoratabsolutezerotemperatureis shownbelow.

Itsvalencebandiscompletelyfilledandtheconductionbandiscompletelyempty.When
thetemperatureisraisedandsomeheatenergyissuppliedtoit,somethevalence
electronsareliftedtotheconductionbandleavingbehindholesinthevalencebandas shownbelow.
Theelectronreachingtheconductionbandmoverandomly.Theholescreatedinthecrystal
arealsofreetomoveanywhere.Thebehaviorofthesemiconductorshowsthattheyhavea
negativetemperaturecoefficientofresistance.Thismeansthatwiththeincreasein
temperature,theresistivityofthematerialdecreasesandtheconductivityincreases.

ExtrinsicSemiconductor
Asemiconductortowhichanimpurityatcontrolledrateisaddedtomakeitconductiveis
knownasanextrinsicSemiconductor.

Anintrinsicsemiconductoriscapabletoconductalittlecurrentevenatroomtemperature
butitisnotusefulforthepreparationofvariouselectronicdevices.Thus,tomakeit
conductiveasmallamountofsuitableimpurityisaddedtothematerial.

Doping
TheprocessbywhichanimpurityisaddedtoasemiconductorisknownasDoping.The
amountandtypeofimpuritywhichistobeaddedtoamaterialhastobecloselycontrolled
duringthepreparationofextrinsicsemiconductor.Generally,oneimpurityatomisaddedto
a108atomsofasemiconductor.

Thepurposeofaddingimpuritytothesemiconductorcrystalistoincreasethenumberof
freeelectronsorholestomakeitconductive.IfaPentavalentimpurityhavingfivevalence
electrons(e.g.arsenic,antimony,phosphorus)isaddedtoapuresemiconductor,alarge
numberoffreeelectronswillexist.

Ifatrivalentimpurityhavingthreevalenceelectrons(e.g.gallium,indium,aluminium,boron)
isadded,alargenumberofholeswillexistinthesemiconductor.

Dependingonthetypeofimpurityaddedtheextrinsicsemiconductormaybeclassifiedasn
typesemiconductorandptypesemiconductor.

N-typeExtrinsicSemiconductor
Thistypeofsemiconductorisobtainedwhenapentavalentmateriallikeantimony(Sb)is
addedtopuregermaniumcrystal.Eachantimonyatomformscovalentbondswiththe
surroundingfourgermaniumatomswiththehelpoffourofitsfiveelectrons.Thefifth
electronissuperfluousandislooselyboundtotheantimonyatom.Hence,itcanbeeasily
excitedfromthevalencebandtotheconductionbandbytheapplicationofelectricfieldor
increaseinthermalenergy.Thus,practicallyeveryantimonyatomintroducedintothe
germaniumlattice,contributesoneconductionelectronintothegermaniumlatticewithout
creatingapositivehole.Antimonyiscalleddonorimpurityandmakesthepuregermanium anN-
type(Nfornegativechargecarrier)extrinsicsemiconductor.

Itmaybenotedthatbygivingawayitsonevalenceelectron,thedonorbecomesapositively
chargedion.Butitcannottakepartinconductionbecauseitisfirmlyfixedortiedintothe crystallattice.
 P-typeExtrinsicSemiconductor
Thistypeofsemiconductorisobtainedwhentracesofatrivalentmateriallikeboron(B)are
addedtopuregermaniumcrystal.

Inthiscase,thethreevalenceelectronsofboronatomformcovalentbondswithfour
surroundinggermaniumatomsbutonebondisleftincompleteandgivesrisetoahole.

Thus,boronwhichiscalledanacceptorimpuritycausesasmanypositiveholesin
germaniumcrystalasthereareboronatomstherebyproducingaP-type(Pforpositive
chargecarrier)extrinsicsemiconductor.

MajorityandMinorityCarriers
Inapieceofpuregermaniumorsilicon,nofreechargecarriersareavailableat0 oK.
However,asitstemperatureisraisedtoroomtemperature,someofthecovalentbondsare
brokenbyheatenergyandasaresult,electronholepairsareproduced.Thesearecalled
thermallygeneratedchargecarriers.Theyarealsoknownasintrinsicallyavailablecharge
carriers.Ordinarily,theirnumberisquitesmall.

Thechargecarriersthatarepresentinlargequantityarecalledmajoritycarriers.The
majoritychargecarrierscarrymostoftheelectricchargeorelectriccurrentinthe
semiconductor.Hence,majoritychargecarriersaremainlyresponsibleforelectriccurrent
flowinthesemiconductor.

Thechargecarriersthatarepresentinsmallquantityarecalledminoritychargecarriers.
Theminoritychargecarrierscarryverysmallamountofelectricchargeorelectriccurrentin
thesemiconductor.

Obviously,inaPtypematerial,thenumberofholes(bothaddedorthermallygenerated)is
muchmorethanthatofelectrons.Hence,insuchamaterial,holesconstitutemajority
carriersandelectronsformminoritycarriers.

Similarly,intheN-typematerial,thenumberofelectrons(bothaddedorthermallygenerated)
ismuchlargerthanthenumberofthermallygeneratedholes.Hence,insuchamaterial,
electronsaremajoritycarrierswhereas,holesareminoritycarriers.

TheEffectofTemperatureontheConductivityofSemiconductors
andConductors
Semiconductor:Withincreaseintemperature,theconductivityofthesemiconductor
materialincreases.Aswithincreasewithtemperature,outermostelectronsacquireenergy
andhencebyacquiringenergy,theoutermostelectronsleavetheshelloftheatom.

Hencewithincreaseintemperature,thenumberofcarriersinthesemiconductormaterial
increaseswhichleadstoincreaseinconductivityofthematerial.Asaresult,wesaythat
thesemiconductormaterialhasanegativetemperaturecoefficienti.e.withincreasein
temperature,resistancedecreases.

Conductors:theoutermostshellofconductorsismostlyfreeatroomtemperatureand
henceduetothefactthatconductingmaterialsleavestheoutermostelectrons,thenucleus
oftheatomofaconductingmaterialismorepositiveasitisapositiveion.

Hencetakingoutmoreelectronsfromthepenultimateshelloftheatomisverydifficultand
whenthetemperatureisincreased,theenergysuppliedisnotenoughtotakeoutmore
electronsbutduetotheenergybecauseofincreaseintemperature,thenucleusoftheatom
startsvibratingandhence,obstructtheflowofelectronsalreadyinthefreespace.So,with
increaseintemperature,conductivityoftheconductordecreasesandresistanceincreases.
Hence,wesayconductorshavepositivetemperaturecoefficient.

PNJunctionDiode
ThePNjunctionisoneofthemostimportantstructuresintoday’selectronicsscene.It
formsthebasisoftoday’ssemiconductortechnology,andwasthefirstsemiconductor
devicetobeused.ThefirstsemiconductordiodetobeusedwasCat’sWhiskerswireless
detectorusedinearlywirelesssets.Itconsistedofawireplacedontoamaterialthatwas
effectivelyasemiconductor.Thepointwherethewiremetthesemiconductorthenformed
asmallPNjunctionandthisdictatedtheradiosignal.

ThediodeorPNjunctionwasthefirstformofsemiconductordevicetobeinvestigatedin
theearly1940swhenthefirstrealresearchwasundertakenintosemiconductortechnology.
Itwasfoundthatsmallpointcontactdiodeswereabletorectifysomeofthemicrowave
frequenciesusedinearlyradarsystemsandasaresulttheysoonfoundmanyuses.

Today,thePNjunctionhasundergoneaseriesofsignificantamountofdevelopment.Many
varietiesofdiodesareinuseinavarietyofapplications.Inadditiontothis,thePNjunction
formsthebasisofmanyofthetoday’ssemiconductorstechnologywhereitisusedin
transistors,FETs,andmanytypesofintegratedcircuit.

ThePNjunctionisfoundinmanysemiconductordevicestoday.Theseinclude:

Diode

Bipolartransistor
JunctionFET

Diac

Triac
ThePNjunctionhastheveryusefulpropertythatelectronsareonlyabletoflowinone
direction.Ascurrentconsistsofaflowofelectrons,thismeansthatcurrentisallowedto
flowonlyinonedirectionacrossthestructure,butitisstoppedfromflowingintheother
directionacrossthejunction.

PNJunction
APNjunctionismadefromasinglepieceofsemiconductorthatismadetohavetwo
differingareas.OneendismadetobeP-typeandtheotherN-type.Thismeansthatboth endsofthePN-
junctionhavedifferentproperties.Oneendhasanexcessofelectrons
whilsttheotherhasanexcessofholes.Wherethetwoareasmeettheelectronsfillthe
holesandtherearenoavailablechargecarriersinthisregion.Inviewofthefactthatthis
areaisdepletedofchargecarriersitisknownasthedepletedregion.

Thedepletionregionisverythin(oftenonlyfewthousandthsofamillimeter)butthisis
enoughtopreventcurrentflowinginthenormalway.Howeveritisfoundthatdifferent
effectsarenoticeddependentuponthewayinwhichthevoltageisappliedtothejunction.

ZeroBiasedCondition
Inthiscase,noexternalvoltageisappliedtotheP-Njunctiondiode;andtherefore,the electronsdiffusetotheP-
sideandsimultaneouslyholesdiffusetowardstheN-sidethrough
thejunction,andthencombinewitheachother.Duetothisanelectricfieldisgeneratedby
thesechargecarriers.Electricfieldopposesfurtherdiffusionofchargedcarrierssothat
thereisnomovementinthemiddleregion.

Thisregionisknownasdepletionwidthorspacecharge.
DifferenceBetweenForward&ReverseBiasing
Oneofthemajordifferencebetweentheforwardandthereversebiasingisthatinforward
biasingthepositiveterminalofthebatteryisconnectedtothep-typesemiconductor
materialandthenegativeterminalisconnectedtothen-typesemiconductormaterial.
Whereasinreversebiasthen-typematerialisconnectedtothepositiveterminalofthe supplyandthep-
typematerialisconnectedtothenegativeterminalofthebattery.The
forwardandreversebiasingisdifferentiatedbelowinthecomparisonchart.

Biasingmeanstheelectricalsupplyorpotentialdifferenceisconnectedtothe
semiconductordevice.Thepotentialdifferenceisoftwotypesnamely–forwardbiasand thereversebias.

Theforwardbiasreducesthepotentialbarrierofthediodeandestablishestheeasypath
fortheflowofcurrent.Whileinreversebiasthepotentialdifferenceincreasesthestrength
ofthebarrierwhichpreventsthechargecarriertomoveacrossthejunction.Thereverse
biasprovidesthehighresistivepathtotheflowofcurrent,andhencenocurrentflows throughthecircuit.
ComparisonChart
Basisfor ForwardBiasing ReverseBiasing

Comparison

Definition Theexternalvoltagewhichis Theexternalvoltagewhichis

appliedacrossthePN-diode
forreducingthepotential
barriertoconstitutetheeasy
flowofcurrentthroughitis
calledforwardbias.
appliedtothePNjunctionfo r
strengtheningthepotential
barrierandpreventstheflow
ofcurrentthroughitiscalled reversebias.
Symbol

Connection Thepositiveterminalofthe Thenegativeterminalofthe

batteryisconnectedtothePtypesemiconducto batteryisconnectedtothePregionandthepo
rofthe deviceandthenegative sitive terminalofthebatteryis
terminalisconnectedtoNtypesemiconductor connectedtoN-type semiconductor.

Barrier Reduces Strengthen

Potential

Voltage Thevoltageofananodeis greaterthancathode. Thevoltageofcathodeis

greaterthanananode.

Forward Large Small

Current

Depletionlay Thin Thick

er
Resistance Low High

CurrentFlow Allows Prevents

Magnitudeof Dependsonforwardvoltage. Zero

Current

Operate Conductor Insulator

DefinitionofForwardBiasing
InforwardbiasingtheexternalvoltageisappliedacrossthePN-junctiondiode.Thisvoltage
cancelsthepotentialbarrierandprovidesthelowresistancepathtotheflowofcurrent.The
forwardbiasmeansthepositiveregionisconnectedtothep-terminalofthesupplyandthe
negativeregionisconnectedtothen-typeofthedevice.
 ForwardBiasing

Thepotentialbarriervoltageisverysmall(nearly0.7Vforsiliconand0.3Vforgermanium
junction)henceveryfewamountofvoltageisrequiredforthecompleteeliminationofthe
barrier.Thecompleteeliminationofthebarrierconstitutesthelowresistancepathforthe
flowofcurrent.Thus,thecurrentstartsflowingthroughthejunction.Thiscurrentiscalled forwardcurrent.

DefinitionofReverseBiasing
Inreversedbiasthenegativeregionisconnectedtothepositiveterminalofthebatteryand
thepositiveregionisconnectedtothenegativeterminal.Thereversepotentialincreases
thestrengthofthepotentialbarrier.Thepotentialbarrierresiststheflowofchargecarrier
acrossthejunction.Itcreatesahighresistivepathinwhichnocurrentflowsthroughthe circuit.

ReverseBiasing
 ZenerDiode
However,theZenerDiodeor“BreakdownDiode”,astheyaresometimesreferredtoo,are
basicallythesameasthestandardPNjunctiondiodebuttheyarespeciallydesignedto
havealowandspecifiedReverseBreakdownVoltagewhichtakesadvantageofanyreverse
voltageappliedtoit.

TheZenerdiodebehavesjustlikeanormalgeneral-purposediodeconsistingofasiliconPN
junctionandwhenbiasedintheforwarddirection,thatisAnodepositivewithrespecttoits
Cathode,itbehavesjustlikeanormalsignaldiodepassingtheratedcurrent.

However,unlikeaconventionaldiodethatblocksanyflowofcurrentthroughitselfwhen
reversebiased,thatistheCathodebecomesmorepositivethantheAnode,assoonasthe
reversevoltagereachesapre-determinedvalue,thezenerdiodebeginstoconductinthe reversedirection.

Thisisbecausewhenthereversevoltageappliedacrossthezenerdiodeexceedstherated
voltageofthedeviceaprocesscalledAvalancheBreakdownoccursinthesemiconductor
depletionlayerandacurrentstartstoflowthroughthediodetolimitthisincreaseinvoltage.

Thecurrentnowflowingthroughthezenerdiodeincreasesdramaticallytothemaximum
circuitvalue(whichisusuallylimitedbyaseriesresistor)andonceachieved,thisreverse
saturationcurrentremainsfairlyconstantoverawiderangeofreversevoltages.The
voltagepointatwhichthevoltageacrossthezenerdiodebecomesstableiscalledthe “zenervoltage”,
(Vz)andforzenerdiodesthisvoltagecanrangefromlessthanonevoltto afewhundredvolts.

Thepointatwhichthezenervoltagetriggersthecurrenttoflowthroughthediodecanbe
veryaccuratelycontrolled(tolessthan1%tolerance)inthedopingstageofthediodes
semiconductorconstructiongivingthediodeaspecificzenerbreakdownvoltage,( V z )for
example,4.3Vor7.5V.ThiszenerbreakdownvoltageontheI-Vcurveisalmostavertical straightline.

ZenerDiodeI-VCharacteristics
TheZenerDiodeisusedinits“reversebias”orreversebreakdownmode,i.e.thediodes
anodeconnectstothenegativesupply.FromtheI-Vcharacteristicscurveabove,wecan
seethatthezenerdiodehasaregioninitsreversebiascharacteristicsofalmostaconstant
negativevoltageregardlessofthevalueofthecurrentflowingthroughthediodeand
remainsnearlyconstantevenwithlargechangesincurrentaslongasthezenerdiodes
currentremainsbetweenthebreakdowncurrentIZ(min)andthemaximumcurrentrating
IZ(max).

Thisabilitytocontrolitselfcanbeusedtogreateffecttoregulateorstabiliseavoltage
sourceagainstsupplyorloadvariations.Thefactthatthevoltageacrossthediodeinthe
breakdownregionisalmostconstantturnsouttobeanimportantcharacteristicofthe
zenerdiodeasitcanbeusedinthesimplesttypesofvoltageregulatorapplications.
Thefunctionofaregulatoristoprovideaconstantoutputvoltagetoaloadconnectedin
parallelwithitinspiteoftheripplesinthesupplyvoltageorthevariationintheloadcurrent
andthezenerdiodewillcontinuetoregulatethevoltageuntilthediodescurrentfallsbelow
theminimumIZ(min)valueinthereversebreakdownregion.

ZenerEffect
TheZenereffectisatypeofelectricalbreakdown,discoveredbyClarenceMelvinZener.It
occursinareversebiasedp-ndiodewhentheelectricfieldenablestunnelingofelectrons
fromthevalencetotheconductionbandofasemiconductor,leadingtoalargenumberof
freeminoritycarrierswhichsuddenlyincreasethereversecurrent.

ZenerDiodeApplications
1.ZenerDiodeasaVoltageRegulator
InaDCcircuit,Zenerdiodecanbeusedasavoltageregulatorortoprovidevoltage
reference.ThemainuseofzenerdiodeliesinthefactthatthevoltageacrossaZenerdiode
remainsconstantforalargerchangeincurrent.ThismakesitpossibletouseaZenerdiode
asaconstantvoltagedeviceoravoltageregulator.

Inanypowersupplycircuit,aregulatorisusedtoprovideaconstantoutput(load)voltage
irrespectiveofvariationininputvoltageorvariationinloadcurrent.Thevariationininput
voltageiscalledlineregulation,whereasthevariationinloadcurrentiscalledload regulation.

AsimplecircuitinvolvingZenerdiodeasaregulatorrequiresaresistoroflowvalue
connectedinserieswiththeinputvoltagesource.Thelowvalueisrequiredsoastoallow
themaximumflowofcurrentthroughthediode,connectedinparallel.However,theonly
constraintbeing,thecurrentthroughzenerdiodeshouldnotbelessthanminimumzener
diodecurrent.Simplyput,foraminimuminputvoltageandamaximumloadcurrent,the
ZenerdiodecurrentshouldalwaysbeIzmin.

Whiledesigningavoltageregulatorusingzenerdiode,thelatterischosenwithrespectto
itsmaximumpowerrating.Inotherwords,themaximumcurrentthroughthedeviceshould be:-

Imax=Power/ZenerVoltage

Sincetheinputvoltageandtherequiredoutputvoltageisknown,itiseasiertochoosea
zenerdiodewithavoltageapproximatelyequaltotheloadvoltage,i.e.V z~=Vo.

Thevalueoftheseriesresistorischosentobe
R=(Vin–Vz)/(Izmin+IL),whereIL =LoadVoltage/Loadresistance.

Notethatforloadvoltagesupto8V,asinglezenerdiodecanbeused.Howeverforload
voltagesbeyond8V,requiringZenervoltagesofhighervoltagevalue,itisadvisabletousea
forwardbiaseddiodeinserieswiththeZenerdiode.ThisisbecausetheZenerdiodeat
highervoltagefollowstheavalanchebreakdownprinciple,havingapositivetemperatureof coefficient.

Henceanegativetemperaturecoefficientdiodeisusedforcompensation. Ofcourse,these
days,practicaltemperaturecompensatedZenerdiodesareused.

2.ZenerDiodeasavoltagereference

Inpowersuppliesandmanyothercircuits,Zenerdiodefindsitsapplicationasaconstant
voltageprovideroravoltagereference. Theonlyconditionsarethattheinputvoltage
shouldbegreaterthanzenervoltageandtheseriesresistorshouldhaveaminimumvalue
suchthatthemaximumcurrentflowsthroughthedevice.

3.ZenerDiodeasavoltageclamper
InacircuitinvolvingACinputsource,differentfromthenormalPNdiodeclampingcircuit,a
Zenerdiodecanalsobeused.Thediodecanbeusedtolimitthepeakoftheoutputvoltage
tozenervoltageatonesideandtoabout0Vatothersideofthesinusoidalwaveform.

Intheabovecircuit,duringpositivehalfcycle,oncetheinputvoltageissuchthatthezener
diodeisreversebiased,theoutputvoltageisconstantforacertainamountoftimetillthe
voltagestartsdecreasing.
Nowduringthenegativehalfcycle,thezenerdiodeisinforwardbiasedconnection.Asthe
negativevoltageincreasestillforwardthresholdvoltage,thediodestartsconductingand
thenegativesideoftheoutputvoltageislimitedtothethresholdvoltage.