Design of High-Efficiency Bidirectional DC-DC

Converter and High-Precision Efficiency

Measurement
Wensong Yu, Hao Qian, Jih-Sheng Lai
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Future Energy Electronics Center
614 Whittemore Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0111, USA
wensong@vt.edu, hqian@vt.edu, laijs@vt.edu

Abstract-This paper first introduces the design of an ultra
high-efficiency 50kW bidirectional dc-dc converter at ZVS
operation and then a high-precision efficiency measurement
method using regenerative approach. The ultra high-efficiency
bidirectional dc-dc converter is achieved with (1) the use of
CoolMOS as the main switch under zero-voltage soft switching
condition (2) multiple phase legs for current sharing to reduce
the conduction loss, and (3) coupling inductors between each two
phase legs to reduce the core loss. Two identical hardware
prototypes were designed, fabricated and tested for performance
evaluation. In order to precisely measure the converter
efficiency, the two identical bidirectional dc-dc converters are
tested with one as the device under test (DUT) and the other as
the regenerative unit. With the use of ±0.5% current shunt and
regenerative measurement, the relative efficiency error stays
below ±0.025%. Measured efficiency from 20% to 100% load
consistently show above 97.50% and peaks at 99.05%.
Index Terms - Bidirectional dc-dc converter, efficiency
measurement, high precision, regenerative test
I. INTRODUCTION
The bidirectional dc-dc converter has been widely used in
many power related systems, including hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV), fuel cell vehicle (FCV) [1-3], satellite [4], renewable
energy system [5-8] and so forth. In electric vehicle (EV)
applications, a bidirectional dc-dc converter that manages
energy and power flow between the dc bus and energy storage
allows the use of low-voltage battery and high-voltage
inverter-motor drive. Bidirectional power flow enables the
energy capture of regenerative brake and energy release
during startup, accelerating and hill climbing. In renewable
energy applications, a bidirectional dc-dc converter is used to
transfer the renewable energy to the capacitive energy source
when the dc bus voltage is high, while delivering energy to
the load when the dc bus voltage is low.
In this paper, the design of a high-efficiency buck-and-
boost bidirectional dc-dc converter, which combines a buck
converter and a boost converter in a half-bridge configuration,
is proposed. The main advantages of this bidirectional
converter are zero-voltage soft switching for switching loss
reduction, interleaving phase-leg currents for conduction loss
reduction [9] and coupled inductor for core loss reduction
[10-14]. The design utilizes the CoolMOS as the power
device to allow synchronous rectification during reverse
conducting period and to achieve fast turn-off without tail
current as compared to the insulated gate bipolar junction
transistor (IGBT) [15].
Power loss measurement with high precision is of great
importance to verify power electronics systems design and to
assess system performance and reliability. There are two
categories of power loss measurement techniques: electrical
methods and calorimetric methods [16]. The electrical
measurement [17-18] uses the product of voltage and current,
which gives an electrical quantity equivalent to power. For
this method, small errors are difficult to achieve, even
employing the most sophisticated metering equipment. An
appealing feature of the electrical methods is that they are
easy to perform. Since the power losses dissipate as heat, the
effect caused by the heat can be measured to determine the
losses, which can be achieved by calorimetric methods.
Calorimetric methods have been widely used in power
electronics and are considered to be the most promising of the
methods available for accurate power loss measurements [19,
20]. Although this method is more accurate and independent
of electrical quantities of the DUT, it is usually difficult to
reach steady state and thus the measurement procedure is very
time consuming.
The proposed measurement method is to duplicate two
highly efficient bidirectional dc-dc converters with one as the
DUT and the other as the regenerative unit, which can be
considered as an active load [21-23]. Compared to electrical
methods and calorimetric methods, the advantages of this
method are high accuracy, fast, and easy to perform and
reproduce a measurement. The total power supply needed is
only a fraction of the nominal load. If the efficiency is 99%
for each unit, then the total power consumption for testing is
only 2% of the nominal load. Thus this method is very
suitable for high-power converter testing.
This paper will present a regenerative measurement of a
high-efficiency high-power bidirectional dc-dc converter. The
efficiency is above 98% in most load conditions, and the
power level is 50-kW for EV/HEV applications. Since the
power level is proportional to the duty cycle control, the high
precision of power level adjustment can be achieved with
small duty cycle stepping. The method does not require
synchronization and complicated closed-loop control, so there
is no stability concern, and is not sensitive to noise.

k,((( 
 II. DESIGN OF HIGH-EFFICIENCY BIDIRECTIONAL DC-DC converter can be designed to operate in discontinuous
CONVERTER conduction mode (DCM) such that the passive inductor can
A. Circuit Topology with 4-Phase Coupled Magnetics be minimized. Typically a minimum inductance can be found
by the boundary of DCM and CCM. To ensure ZVS condition,
Fig. 1 shows the circuit diagram of a four-phase the operating mode needs to extend further to synchronous
bidirectional dc-dc converter. The design utilizes the conducting mode (SCM), which introduces a negative current
CoolMOS as the power device to avoid a fixed voltage drop to charge and discharge the device junction capacitance.
loss and to achieve fast turn-off without tail current. The Fig. 3 shows non-coupled inductor current under (a) DCM-
CoolMOS features low on resistance in high voltage rating, CCM boundary condition and (b) synchronous mode
which not only lowers the conduction voltage drop in forward operations. The inductance needs to be lower than what is
current flow, but also lowers the conduction loss in reverse calculated with the boundary condition to ensure the negative
current flow. That means during reverse on-state period, the peak current Ipk– goes into negative. For the same average
high on-state voltage drop of the body diode will be overtaken inductor current, this introduction of Ipk– requires a larger
by the reverse-gated channel – a well known “synchronous positive peak current Ipk+ than that of the boundary condition.
rectification” effect. The inductors of phases 1 and 2 are The values of Ipk+ and Ipk– are a function of high-side voltage
coupled together, which are represented as symbol L12. The Vhigh, low-side voltage Vlow, duty cycle D, and inductance L.
inductors of phases 3 and 4 are coupled together and are
presented as L34. The inductors can be constructed with ferrite Vhigh − Vlow Ipk Vlow Vhigh − Vlow Ipk+ Vlow
EE cores with air gap. Two windings are wound on the outer L L L L
legs with adding polarity to allow flux ripple cancellation in iL iL
the center leg.
S1u S2u S3u S4u t t
DTs D’ T s Ipk–
L12 (a) (b)
i1 φ =0 Fig. 3. Inductance calculation under (a) boundary condition, and (b)
1 °
Vlow = i2 φ2=180° synchronous conducting mode.
240 V Chigh
L34 i3 φ3=90° Vhigh =
i4 φ4=270° 400 V Fig. 4 shows the conceptual voltage and current waveforms
Clow
of the coupled inductor under buck mode operation with
S1d S2d S3d S4d
upper device duty cycle D > 0.5. Here vL1 is the voltage
across the phase 1 inductor, and i1 is its associated current
Fig. 1. Circuit diagram of a four-phase interleaved bidirectional converter with convention referring to Fig. 1.
using coupled magnetics.
vL1 Vlow
DTs D’ Ts
S1u
0
S1d Vhigh-low
Ts
Leq1
i1
S2u Ts/2 DTs
0
S2d
Ts/4
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
S3u DTs Fig. 4. Equivalent inductance in one switching cycle.
S3d
3Ts/4 From t0 to t1, the lower device turns on, and the inductor
S4u DTs
sees Vlow. With D’ < 0.5, the other phase does not introduce
S4d coupling effect, so the current falls linearly. Between t1 and t4,
Fig. 2. Timing diagram of the 4-phase bidirectional converter with duty cycle the upper switch is turned on, and the other phase introduces
defined in buck mode.
coupling effect, so the current rise shows nonlinearity [12,
13]. The equivalent inductance in the linear region can be
Fig. 2 shows the complete timing diagram of four phase
derived in (1)
switches with duty cycle defined in buck mode. Each phase in
the same coupled inductor has 180oC phase shift, which is L2 − M 2
equivalent to a period of Ts/2. Leq1 = . (1)
D
L− M
B. Coupled Inductor Design for ZVS Condition 1− D
The inductance needs to be high enough to minimize the where L is the self inductance of the coupled inductor, M is
ripple and associated loss. However, a high inductance tends the mutual inductance of the coupled inductor, and D is the
to push the converter to operate in continuous conducting duty cycle defined in buck mode.
mode (CCM), which will not allow the switches to operate in With equal gap on each leg, the EE core should have a
soft switching. In order to achieve high-power density, the mutual inductance M equals one-third of the self inductance,

k,((( 
 or M = L/3. With Vlow = 240V and Vhigh = 400 V condition, D
= 0.4, D’=0.6. Then, Leq1 = 1.14L.
The negative peak inductance current Ipk– can be obtained
by the energy balance between inductor and output capacitors
of the switching device, as shown in (2).
The calculation is based on the fact that the average voltage
on the left hand side of the inductor must equal the low-side
output voltage Vlow. Assuming the upper converter operated as
a buck converter, the voltage balance condition can be
expressed as:

2CoVhigh 2
I pk − = . (2) Vhigh Vlow
Leq1 + - Buck Mode + -

where Co is output capacitance of the CoolMOS, Vhigh is the D1

high side voltage and Leq1 is the equivalent resonant Phigh
inductance.
Auxiliary 1- D1
The half of the peak-to-peak current Ipk-pk equals to the Plow
Power
average battery current plus the negative peak inductance Supply
current, as shown in (3).
Converter under testing
Paux
1 1 Vhigh − Vlow P
I pk − pk = DTs = + I pk − . (3) Preg
Iout
2 2 Leq1 Vlow
D2 Plow
Here Leq1 is the equivalent resonant inductance, D is the duty
cycle defined in buck mode, Ts is the switching period, P is
the low side power and Ipk– is the negative peak inductance 1- D2
current.

III. REGENERATIVE TESTING METHOD FOR HIGH-

EFFICIENCY BIDIRECTIONAL DC-DC CONVERTER a) D1>D2=const.
A. Proposed System Structure and Control
Vhigh Vlow
+ - Boost Mode + -
The proposed regenerative testing method is to duplicate
two highly efficient bidirectional dc-dc converters with one as D1
the DUT and the other as the regenerative unit, which is Preg
shown in Fig. 5. Since the high-voltage side and low-voltage
Auxiliary 1- D1
side of the two converters are connected together, one Plow
operates as buck converter and the other as boost converter Power
Supply
when there is power flowing inside the system.
The high-side voltage can be given by the auxiliary power Paux
Converter under testing
and D2 is set as some constant values for different operating Iout
point. By regulating the duty cycle difference D1–D2, the Phigh
output power level can be precisely controlled. The high
D2 Plow
precision of power level adjustment can be achieved with
small duty cycle stepping of D1. The method does not require
synchronization and complicated closed-loop control, so there 1- D2
is no stability concern, and is not sensitive to noise.
Buck or boost operating mode of the bidirectional converter
under test can be selected by choosing the condition of D1 >
D2 or D1 < D2. When D1 > D2, the upper bidirectional dc-dc b) D1<D2=const.
converter under testing will run in buck mode while the lower Fig. 5. Proposed system structure and control.
converter will run in boost mode. When D1 < D2, the upper
bidirectional dc-dc converter under testing will run in boost (Vhigh − I out × RU ) × D1 − I out × RD × (1 − D1 ) − I out × RL = Vlow .(4)
mode while the lower converter will run in buck mode.
The equation can be rearranged as:
B. Analysis of Low-Side Output Voltage and Current Vhigh × D1 = Vlow + I out × ( RU × D1 + RD × (1 − D1 ) + RL ) . (5)
Low-side output voltage Vlow and low-side output current
From this, the equivalent resistance in the converter can be
Iout can be calculated based on the equivalent power stage
obtained as:
model of Fig. 6. In this model, RU is the equivalent resistance
of the top switches, RD is the equivalent resistance of the REQU 1 = RU × D1 + RD × (1 − D1 ) + RL . (6)
bottom switches, and RL is the equivalent resistance of the
inductors in the upper and lower converter.

k,((( 
 D1 RL L Pout U out × I out
RU η= = . (13)
Vhigh
1-D1 Iout
Vlow Pin U in × I in

RD The relative error of efficiency ∆ŋ/ŋ can be expressed as

Iout
∆Pout ⋅ Pin − ∆Pin ⋅ Pout
L
D2 RL ∆η Pin2 ∆P ∆P
RU = = out − in
1-D2 Iout η Pout Pout Pin
(14)
RD
Pin
∆U out ∆I out ∆U in ∆I in
= + −( + )
Fig. 6. Equivalent power stage model. U out I out U in I in

The high-side voltage can then be derived in (7) where ∆Uout/ Uout, ∆Iout/ Iout, ∆Uin/ Uin, ∆Iout/ Iout are the
relative errors on the output voltage and current, and the input
Vhigh × D1 = Vlow + REQU 1 × I out . (7) voltage and current measurements. For example, the relative
errors of the voltage meter and current meter are ±0.1% and
Here REQU1 is the combined equivalent resistance for
±0.5% relatively, thus, the maximum efficiency measurement
devices and inductor equivalent series resistance when the
relative error for conventional electrical method is ±1.2%.
upper device duty cycle is D1.
For the proposed efficiency measurement method, the
Similarly, for the lower boost converter, we have
auxiliary power can be connected to the high-voltage or low-
Vhigh × D2 = Vlow − REQU 2 × I out . (8) voltage side. Without losing generality, when the auxiliary
power is connected to the low-voltage side, the power
Here REQU2 is the combined equivalent resistance for distribution of the regenerative testing system is shown in Fig.
devices and inductor equivalent series resistance when the 7. Since the two 4-phase bidirectional dc-dc converters are
upper device duty cycle is D2. identical, the efficiency of the two converters can be treated
as the same.
REQU 2 = RU × D2 + RD × (1 − D2 ) + RL . (9)
Paux Phigh Plow
Although the equivalent resistance is a function of the duty + η
+
cycle, it can be assumed that for small duty cycle the change
Preg
of the equivalent resistance is nearly constant. η
Fig. 7. Power distribution of the regenerative test
REQU 1 ≈ REQU 2 = REQU . (10)
From Fig. 7,
From (7), (8) and (10), the low-side output voltage Vlow can
Phigh = Paux + Preg
be derived as
Plow = Phigh ×η (15)
D + D2
Vlow = Vhigh × 1 . (11) Preg = Plow ×η
2
This equation shows that Iout will not influence the value of The efficiency η can be obtained as
Vlow and low-side output voltage Vlow is nearly constant. From
(7), (8) and (10), the output current can be derived as a Paux I
η = 1− = 1 − aux (16)
function of REQU, D1, and D2, as shown in (12) Phigh I high
Vhigh
I out = × ( D1 − D2 ) . (12) Then the relative error of efficiency can be expressed as
2 ⋅ REQU 1
1 I − ∆I aux ⋅ I high − ∆I high ⋅ I aux
(1 − aux ) 2 ( − )
As this equation shows, the low-side output current can be ∆η 2 I high 2
I high
precisely controlled by regulating the duty cycle difference =
η 1
I aux 2
D1–D2. (1 − )
I high (17)
C. Improved Accuracy of Efficiency Measurement
1 ∆I high ∆I aux 1
The efficiency measurement accuracies of the conventional = ⋅( − )⋅
2 I high I aux I high
input and output powers method and the proposed −1
regenerative method are calculated and compared in this I aux
section. In conventional input and output powers method, the
From (16) and (17), the relative error of efficiency can be
efficiency is calculated as the ratio between the output power
rearranged as
and the input power

k,((( 
 ∆η 1 ∆I high ∆I aux  1  Coupled
DSP
= ⋅( − ) ⋅  2 − 1 . (18) inductor
board
η 2 I high I aux  η 
CoolMOS
After substituting the same relative errors ±0.5% of the DC
module

current meter, the relative error of efficiency can be derived bus

as a function of the converter efficiency as

Heat
Gate driver sink
∆η  1  board
= ±0.5% ⋅  2 − 1 . (19)
η  η 
For the proposed high efficiency converter, the full load
efficiency is larger than 99%. Then, the efficiency relative a)
error for the proposed measurement method is less than
±0.01%, which is much better compared to the traditional
electrical measurement method. Fig. 8 compares the
efficiency measurement accuracies between the conventional
and the proposed methods. This plot indicates that the
proposed regenerative method is more suitable for higher
efficiencies.
∆I ∆V b)
@ = ±0.5%, = ±0.1% Fig. 9. Photograph of the prototype: a) the ZVS bidirectional converter, b) the
I V
Efficiency Relative Error (%)

converter under testing with the proposed regenerative method.

Conventional electric method
1.2
0.9 vL-converter1

Proposed electric method

D1=0.6073

vL-converter2
D2=0.6018
0.05
0.01
0 60 95 99 Iout =203.5A
Efficiency (%)
Fig. 8. Efficiency accuracy comparison

IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT Time (10µs/div)

Fig. 9 shows the photograph of regenerative testing system
with two highly efficient 50-kW 4-phase bidirectional dc-dc
converters. For each unit, a digital control board with a Texas
Instruments TMS320F2808 DSP is used to generate PWM
signals. Eight channels of opto-coupler isolated gate drivers
are designed with MC33153, which provides protection
features including desaturation and under-voltage detection.
The phase-leg CoolMOS module APTM50AM17F is selected
Fig. 10. Experimental verification for the duty cycle of converter-1 and
converter-2, total current at 23-kHz switching, 400V to 240V, 50-kW buck
mode operation.
The function of low-side output current versus the duty
cycle difference is shown in Fig. 11. It shows good agreement
with the theoretical result from the equation (12).
250
Low-side output current (A)

as the switching device, which has drain-source breakdown 200

voltage VDSS = 500V, drain-source resistance RDS-on = 35 mΩ Iout = 36423(D1-D2)

150
@ Tj = 125°C. Four modules are installed on a forced-air heat
sink and underneath the DC bus bar. The inductors are 100
connected using a set of bus bars with equal-length between
individual terminals and the low-side capacitor to ensure 50
balance phase current. The self inductance of the coupled
inductor with EE-80 3C94 ferrite cores is 28.8 µH. High-side 0
0.000
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
voltage (400 V) and low-side voltage (240 V) are maintained
Duty cycle difference D1-D2
constant during the testing.
Fig. 11. The low-side output current as a function of the duty cycle difference
The duty cycle of the two converters and the low-side
output current in the proposed regenerative testing system are Fig. 12 shows some experimental waveforms at the full
shown in Fig. 10. By using automatic measurement function load ZVS operation. The ZVS condition is observed with
of the digital oscillograph, the duty cycle difference D1–D2 at drain-source voltage dropping to zero before gate voltage
different operating points can be measured. turning on.

k,((( 
 vgs-1d
ZVS
vds-1d 400V
Iout =205A
Ipk+=126A
Ipk-=24A
Time (10µs/div)
Fig. 12. Experimental waveforms of the device gate, drain voltages, total
current and phase inductor current at 23-kHz switching, 400V to 240V, 50-
kW buck mode operation.
Fig. 13 shows efficiency evaluation results under different
load conditions. All the dots are experimental points. With
regenerative testing, the efficiency is 97.74% at 10.9 kW or
about 20% load and 99.01% at 40 kW or about 80% load. At
the 50-kW full load condition, the efficiency is 99.05% with
±0.01% efficiency relative error.
100.0
99.5
Efficiency (%)
99.0
98.5
98.0
97.5
0 10 20 30 40 50
Low-side power (kW)
Fig. 13. Efficiency evaluation results under different load.
V. CONCLUSION
A high efficiency bidirectional dc-dc converter has been
proposed using 4-phase interleaved coupled inductor circuit
under ZVS operation. The distinctive features of the proposed
design can be summarized as follows:
1. Using CoolMOS to allow synchronous rectification for
low conduction loss and for fast turn-off without tail
current as compared to the case with IGBT.
2. Using output capacitance of the device to achieve zero
voltage soft switching for the entire load range.
3. Using coupled inductors to cancel the magnetic flux
ripples and to reduce effective rms current of both
inductor and switches such that the conduction loss is
further reduced.
4. Four phases interleaved operation for significant ripple
reduction that allows small passive components to be
used.
In order to precisely measure the converter efficiency, the
two identical bidirectional dc-dc converters are tested with
one as the device under test (DUT) and the other as the
regenerative unit. With the use of ±0.5% current shunt and
regenerative measurement, the relative efficiency error stays
below ±0.025%. Measured efficiency from 20% to 100% load
consistently show above 97.50% and peaks at 99.05%.
k,(((
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