Human Anatomy and Physiology Prelims Reviewer

Astronomy (San Pablo Colleges )

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Human Anatomy and Physiology Reviewer by: Hannah Izbelle Sanchez

LESSON 1: HUMAN ORGANISM

- the study of the structure or morphology of the body and how the body parts
are organized
Anatomy
- means to cut the body parts to study
- means to dissect
1. Systemic Anatomy
2. Regional Anatomy - (3) Subdivisions of Gross Anatomy
3. Surface Anatomy
Systemic Anatomy - study of organs per system
Regional Anatomy - study of organs per region
Surface Anatomy - study of external features
- it is for students who plan to take up medical courses to have a background
Why is it important to
knowledge on the human body
study anatomy? - basis to understand the diseases and pathologies
- is the study of the functions of body parts, what they do, and how they do it.
Physiology - helps to understand and predict the body’ response to stimuli
- is the study of the diseases of the body
Pathology - any changes in the body are called symptoms
Anatomy is not changing, - to facilitate uniformity of terms, scientists have adopted the four basic
rather it is improving reference systems of bodily organization
A. Directions
B. Planes
- (4) Basic reference systems
C. Cavities
D. Structural units
- when describing the 4 basic reference systems, the human body must be in
Anatomical Position
its
1. Erect position of
the body
2. Face directed forward
3. Arms at the side - Anatomical Position
4. Palms of the
hand facing
forward
5. Feet facing forward
A. Terms of Direction
- upper or above
1. Superior - example: the head is superior to the neck
- lower or below
2. Inferior - example: the foot is inferior to the ankle
- toward the front of the body
3. Anterior or Ventral - example: the teeth are anterior to the throat
- toward the back of the body
4. Posterior or Dorsal
- example: the brain is posterior to the eyes
- towards the surface
5. Superficial - example: the skin is superficial to the muscle
- away from the surface
6. Deep - example: the lungs is deep to the ribs
- skull or head end
7. Cephalad or Cranial - cephalad is synonymous with superior
- example: the thoracic activity lies cephalad to the abdominopelvic activity
- tail end
8. Caudal - caudal is synonymous with inferior
- towards the middle or midline of the body
9. Medial - example: the ulna is on the medial side of the forearm
- away from the midline of the body
10. Lateral - example: radius is lateral to the ulna
- closer or towards to the point of attachment
11. Proximal - example: the elbow is proximal to the wrist
- farther from the point of attachment
12. Distal - example: the wrist is distal to the elbow
- no body part is more superior than the head
- no body part is more inferior than the feet
Take note that:
- no body part is more lateral than the shoulder
- no body part is more proximal than the shoulders
1. Supine
2. Prone - (2) Actions requiring directions
Supine - lying on your back

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Prone - lying on your belly

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 Body Parts and Regions
Head
Frontal - forehead
Orbital - eye
Nasal - nose
Oral - mouth
Otic - ear
Buccal - cheek
Mental - chin
Cranial - skull
Neck
- front of the neck or spine
Cervical - has 7 vertebrae (from C1 to C7)
Clavicular - collarbone
Occipital - base of the skull
Nuchal - back of the neck
Trunk
- thorax
Thoracic - has 12 vertebrae (from T1 to T12)
- comprises the pectoral, sternal, and mammary
1. Pectoral - chest
2. Sternal - breastbone or sternum
3. Mammary - breast
Abdominal - abdomen
Umbilical - navel
Pelvic - pelvis
Inguinal - groin
Pubic - genital
- back
Dorsal - comprises the scapular, vertebral, and lumbar
1. Scapular - shoulder blade
2. Vertebral - spinal column
- loin of lower back
3. Lumbar - has 5 vertebrae (from L1 to L5)
Sacral - between the hips
Gluteal - buttock
Perineal - perineum
Upper limb
Axillary - armpit
Brachial - arm
Antecubital - front of elbow
Antebrachial - forearm
Carpal - wrist
- hand
Manual - comprises the palmar and digital
1. Palmar - palm
2. Digital - fingers
Acromial - point of shoulder
Olecranon - point of elbow
Dorsum - back of the hand
Lower limb
Coxal - hip
Femoral - thigh or femur
Patellar - knee cap or patella
Crural - leg
- foot
Pedal - comprises the talus, dorsum, and digital
1. Talus - ankle
2. Dorsum - top of the foot
3. Digital - toes
Popliteal - hallow behind the knee
Sural - calf
Plantar - sole
Calcaneal - heel or calcaneus

Abdominal Subdivisions
1. Right upper quadrant
2. Left upper quadrant
- (4) Abdominal Quadrants
3. Right Lower quadrant
4. Left lower quadrant
Right upper quadrant - liver

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 - stomach
Left upper quadrant - pancreas
- spleen
Right lower quadrant - appendix
Left lower quadrant - intestine
1. Left hypochondriac
2. Right hypochondriac
3. Left Lumbar
4. Right Lumbar
5. Left Inguinal - (9) Abdominal Regions
6. Right Inguinal
7. Epigastric
8. Umbilical
9. Hypogastric
B. Planes
1. Frontal or Coronal - plane is one that divides the anterior (or ventral) and posterior (or
Plane dorsal) portions of the body at the right angles to the sagittal plane
2. Midsagittal or Sagittal - vertically divides the body through the midline equally into two left and
Plane right portions or halves
3. Transverse or
- divides the body into superior and inferior portions
Horizontal Plane
Sections
1. Longitudinal section - cut through the long axis of the organ
2. Transverse section - cut at the right angles to the long axis
3. Oblique section - slant or diagonal
C. Cavities
1. Dorsal Cavity
2. Ventral Cavity - (2) Major Cavities include:
- Cranial Cavity: contains the brain
Dorsal Cavity - Spinal Cavity: spinal cord
- Thoracic Cavity: it is divided by the mediastinum (pleural and pericardium)
Ventral Cavity - Abdominopelvic cavity: it is not physically separated unlike the
thoracic cavity (abdominal and pelvic)
Pleural Cavity - lungs
Pericardial Cavity - heart
Abdominal Cavity - comprises the liver, stomach, spleen, pancreas, and intestine
- comprises the urinary bladder, large intestine, and the internal reproductive
Pelvic Cavity
organs
- includes the heart, thymus gland, lymph and blood vessels, trachea,
Mediastinum esophagus and nerves
Diaphragm muscle - separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity
1. Parietal
- (2) Coverings
2. Visceral
Parietal - covers the walls of a cavity (pleural and pericardium)
Visceral - covering of an organ
Mesentery - anchors all the organs in the abdominopelvic cavity to the wall
D. Structural Units
1. Atoms
2. Molecules
3. Cells
4. Tissues - (7) Structural Levels of Organization of the Human Body
5. Organs
6. Systems
7. Human Organism
Atoms - are the smallest units of elements, such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- are formed when atoms combine through chemical bonds to form units such
Molecules
was water, sugars, and amino acids
- are the smallest living units of biologic organization made of structures that
Cells perform the activities of life, such as the nucleus that controls all the activities of
the cell
- are made up of similar cells that perform similar functions, such as
Tissues
muscle tissues that cause contraction and movement
- there are four different kinds of tissues (epithelial, connective, muscular and
Organs nervous) that group together in different proportions to make an organ like the
stomach, which mixes our food with digestive enzymes
- a group of organs makes up a body system like the nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, and lungs that makes up the respiratory system whose
Systems
function is to bring in oxygen to the body cells and take away carbon dioxide
gas
Human Organism - all of the organ systems together constitute a functioning human being

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 Organ Systems
- provides protection
- regulates temperature
Integumentary System
- prevents water loss
- helps produce vitamin D
- consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands
- provides protection and support
- allows body movement
Skeletal System - produces blood cells
- stores minerals and adipose tissue
- consists bones, associated cartilages, ligaments and joints
- produces body movements
- maintains posture
Muscular System
- produces body heat
- consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons
- removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph
- combats disease
Lymphatic System - maintains fluid balance
- absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract
- consists of lymphatic vessels, lymphatic nodes, and other lymphatic organs
- exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air
Respiratory System - regulates blood pH
- consists of lungs and respiratory passages
- performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion
- absorption of nutrients
Digestive System
- elimination of wastes
- consists of mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs
- a major regulatory system that detect sensation and control
Nervous System movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions
- consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors
- a major regulatory system that influenced metabolism, growth,
Endocrine System reproduction, and many other functions
- consists of glands, such as pituitary, that secretes hormones
- transports nutrients, waste products, gases and hormones throughout
the body
Cardiovascular System
- plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature
- consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood
- removes waste products from the blood
Urinary System - regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance
- consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ducts that carry urine
- produces oocytes
- site of fertilization
Female Reproductive - produces milk for the new born
System - produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors
- consists of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands,
and associated structures
- produces and transfers sperm cells to the female
Male Reproductive System - produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors
- consists of testes, accessory structures, ducts and penis
Homeostasis
- maintenance of the body's internal environment: within varying narrow limits
Homeostasis - most of homeostatic mechanisms are governed by endocrine and
nervous system
1. Negative feedback loop
2. Positive Feedback loop - (2) body monitors deviations in homeostasis
- it is any homeostatic process that changes the direction of the stimulus
Negative feedback loop - it may either increase or decrease the stimulus, but is not allowed to
continue as it did before the receptor sensed it
1. blood glucose levels’ increase or decrease
Examples of
If a level is too low, the body does something to make it go up.
negative If a level is too high, the body does something to bring it down.
feedback loop

2. Body temperature - hypothalamus detects increase in body

temperature. Sweating helps in regulating body temperature as it
promotes heat loss thorough evaporation.
Positive Feedback loop - it maintains the direction of the stimulus, possibly accelerating it
Examples of - blood clotting or coagulation and uterine contractions during childbirth
positive The direction is maintained, not changed.
feedback loop
LESSON 2: CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM, AND REPRODUCTION

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 Cell Structure
- is the basic unit of biological organization
Cell - prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic
- has no nucleus
Prokaryote - has no membrane – bound organelles
- has a circular DNA
- has a nucleus
Eukaryote - have membrane – bound organelles
- has a linear DNA
1. Protoplasm
2. Cell membrane - Basic Composition of the Cell
3. Organelles
History of the Cell Theory - proposed in 1830s by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
- cells are the smallest complete living things
- all organisms are composed of one or more cells
Modern Cell Theory
- cells arise only from other cells
- all existing cells are descendants of the first cells
1. Cell metabolism
2. Synthesis of molecules
Functions of the Cell
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
1. Cell or Plasma Membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
4. Ribosome
5. Mitochondria
6. Endoplasmic Reticulum
7. Golgi Apparatus - (13) Cell Organelles:
8. Lysosomes
9. Peroxisomes
10. Cytoskeleton
11. Centrioles
12. Cilia and Flagella
13. Microvilli
- outer boundary of the cell
- double phospholipid layer with embedded proteins “selective”
The Cell Membrane
- also called plasma membrane or plasmalemma
- membrane transport: selectively permeable membrane
Extra cellular substances - substances outside the cell
Intra cellular substances - substances inside the cell
- potassium inside the cell
PISO - sodium outside the cell
1. Proteins
2. Phospholipids
- other substances that are inside the cell membrane
3. Cholesterol
4. Carbohydrates
Hydrophilic heads - attracts water (polar)
Hydrophobic tails - repels water (non – polar)
- like tiles of mosaic but are embedded in a fluid and can move slightly to allow
passage of water molecules across the membrane
- neither rigid or static in structure but is highly flexible and can change
Fluid Mosaic Model
its shape and composition through time
- any damage to the membrane can be repaired because phospholipids tend
to reassemble
MARKER MOLECULES - allow cells to identify other cells or other molecules
Glycoprotein - example: sperm cell recognition to egg cells, immune cells ability
(cell surface marker) to recognize foreign bodies
ATTACHMENT PROTEINS
Extracellular molecule
Attachment proteins - anchor cells to other cells (cadherins) or to extracellular molecules (integrins)
(integrins)
Intracellular molecule
- from passageways through the plasma membrane, allowing specific ions
TRANSPORT PROTEINS
or molecules to enter and exit the cell
Channel Proteins - may be gated (ligand and voltage) or non gated (leaked ion)
Ligand – gated ion channel - needs chemical signals to open or close
Voltage – gated ion
- needs voltage to open or close
channel

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 - moves ions or molecules across the membrane
CARRIER PROTEINS - binding of specific chemical to carrier proteins causes changes in shape of
(Transporters) the carrier proteins
- the carrier proteins then move the specific chemical across the membrane
- move specific ions or molecules across the membrane
ATP-POWERED PUMPS - require ATP molecules to function
- function as binding sites for chemical signals in the extracellular fluid
RECEPTOR PROTEINS
- binding of chemical signals to receptors triggers cellular responses
ENZYMES - catalyze chemical reactions either inside or outside cells
Selectively Permeable - it allows only certain substances to pass through it
Small, non-lipid-soluble - diffuse between the phospholipid molecules of the plasma membrane
molecules - example: urea
Large, non-lipid soluble - molecules and ions that cannot diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer may
molecules (and ions) move across the plasma membrane with the help of transport proteins
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis - (3) Passive Transport Mechanisms
3. Facilitated Diffusion
- movement of molecules results in net movement from areas of higher to
Diffusion lower concentratiom, moving the solutes towards the concentration gradient
- does not require ATP
Lipid – soluble molecules - dissolve and diffuse through the lipid bilayer
Ions and small molecules - diffuse through membrane channels
1. Temperature
2. Size of molecules
- (4) Factors that can affect diffusion
3. Viscosity
4. Magnitude
- movement of water molecules ONLY
Osmosis - water diffuses through the lipid layer
- does not require ATP
1. Isotonic
2. Hypertonic - (3) Types under Osmosis
3. Hypotonic
Isotonic - balanced extracellular and intracellular concentration
- higher concentration of solute outside the cell
Hypertonic
- cell tends to shrink
- lower concentration of solute outside the cell
Hypotonic - cell tends to swell
- carrier proteins combine with substances and move them across the
plasma membrane
Facilitated Diffusion - no ATP is used
- some substances too large to pass through membrane channels and
too polar to dissolve in the lipid bilayer are transported
1. Active Transport
2. Secondary Active - (2) Active Transport Mechanisms
Transport
- ATP – powered pumps combine with substances and move them across
Active Transport the plasma membrane
- requires ATP
- ions are moved across the plasma membrane by active transport,
Secondary Active
which establishes ion concentration gradient
Transport
- ATP is required
1. Endocytosis
2. Exocytosis - (2) Vesicular Transport
- process by which molecules enter the cell by vesicles
Endocytosis - requires ATP
1. Phagocytosis
- (2) Types of Endocytosis
2. Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis - engulfs solid materials (cell eating)
Pinocytosis - engulfs dissolved or liquid substances (cell drinking)
- process by which molecules exits the cell by vesicles
Exocytosis - requires ATP
 Secretions accumulate within the secretory vesicles
Process of Exocytosis  The vesicles will then migrate to the plasma membrane

 Vesicles will fuse with the plasma membrane

 Vesicle content will be released from the cell
- mostly water with chemical compounds in solution or colloid
Cytoplasm - polar (charged) compounds go into solution
- non polar (noncharged) compounds go into colloidal suspension
Cytosol - fluid portion of the cytoplasm
Solution vs. Colloid - individual vs. clumped atoms or ions distributed in medium

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 - control center of the cell
Nucleus - all body cells have a nucleus at some point in their life cycle (RBC lose
their nuclei as they develop
Nuclear Membrane - has pores to allow the passage of substances
Nucleoplasm - colloidal suspension of proteins, nucleic acids, and enzymes
Chromatin - contains the genetic material of the cell
Nucleolus - site of ribosome formation
- distributed throughout cytoplasm
- attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosomes
- no membrane covering
- site of protein synthesis
Free Ribosomes - ribosomes that are not attached to any organelle
- mostly found within the nucleus, although small amounts of DNA are
Deoxyribonucleic Acid or also found within the mitchondria
DNA - does not leave the nucleus but functions by means of an intermediate called
ribonucleic acid or RNA, which can leave the nucleus through nuclear pores
Gene - sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule that specifies and RNA molecule
- Double helical chain of nucleotides
The Anatomy of a DNA - Gene: sequence of base pairs that codes for polypeptide or protein
Molecule - Human Genome Project
- Duplication of DNA Molecule
1. Phosphate Group
2. Five-carbon sugars (deoxyribose)
Components of DNA 3. Nitrogen-containing base
4. Pyrimidines pair with purines
5. Chains held together by hydrogen bonds
- powerhouse of the cell
- (outer) capsule shape, (inner) folds
Mitochondria - energy requirements of cell determine cristae number
- self replicative
- forms ATP or Adenosine triphosphate
- found in the mitochondria
Cristae - inner folds where cellular respiration occurs
- system of membranes that makes up channels
Endoplasmic Reticulum - connects with outer nuclear and cell membranes
- found in the endoplasmic reticulum
Cisternae - sac like or channel like cavities
- for protein synthesis
Rough ER (Granular) - has attached ribosomes
- fat transport (lacteals in small intestine)
Smooth ER (Agranular) - responsible for sex hormones synthesis (gonads) and lipid synthesis
- stores calcium ions
- collection of flat sac like cisternae
- concentration and collection of cellular compounds
- packaging and distribution center because it modifies, packages, and
Golgi Apparatus
distributes proteins and lipids
- storage warehouses of the cell
- carbohydrate synthesis site
- digestive enzyme packages
Lysosomes - carries out intracellular digestion
- may be formed by rough endoplasmic reticulum and golgi bodies
- digest stored food
Functions of Lysosomes - maintenance and repair organelles
- suicide agents for old or weak cells (autolysis)
- contain enzymes that break down fatty acids and amino acids
Peroxisomes - breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) - is a by – product of that breakdown which can be toxic to the cell
- supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles in place
Cytoskeleton - responsible for the changes in cell shape and the movement of cell organ
1. Microtubules
2. Intermediate filaments - (3) three groups of proteins in the cytoskeleton (from thickest to thinnest)
3. Actin filaments
- form spindle fibers during cell division (microtubules)
Centrioles
- guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells
- two centrioles at right angles to each other
Centrosomes - composed of nine sets of triplet fibers
- hair – like protrusions from cell membrane
Cilia and Flagella
- nine double fibrils around two single central fibrils
- move materials across cell surface
Cilia - numerous in the respiratory and female reproductive tract

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 Flagellum - propels cell through a medium
- increase the cell surface area
- are only one tenth to one twentieth the size of the cilia
Microvilli - specialized extensions of cell membrane that support the cilia
- supported with actin filaments
- one of the important functions is absorption
Cell Metabolism and Reproduction
- total cellular chemical changes
Metabolism
- set of chemical reactions in living organisms in order to maintain life
1. Anabolism
2. Catabolism - (2) Types of Metabolism
- process of building up
Anabolism - energy requiring process that builds larger molecules by combining
smaller molecules
- process of breaking down
Catabolism - energy releasing process that breaks down large molecules into smaller ones
Calorie - measure of energy contained in the food
Adenosine Triphosphate
- most common energy source available to the cell
(ATP)
ATP Production - cellular respiration through aerobic process
Glucose (C6H12O6) - most common substance decomposed aerobically in cells to produce ATP
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Citric Acid Cycle - (3) Steps in ATP production
3. Electron Transfer
- process by which glucose is turned into pyruvate
Glycolysis - occurs in the cytoplasm
- 2 ATP and 2 NADH are products of glycolysis
- process by which pyruvate acid is turned into carbon dioxide
Krebs – Cycle - occurs in the mitochondria
- 2 ATP and 6 NADH are products of krebs – cycle
- occurs in the mitochondria
Electron Transfer - 34 ATP are products of electron transfer
Cellular Reproduction
Cell Divisions - process of cell duplication
Cell Replications
Cell Cycle - all reproduction begins at cellular level
1. Interphase
2. Mitosis or Meiosis - (3) Stages of Cell Cycle
3. Cytokinesis
- previously called resting stage
Interphase - time between divisions
- it is the longest and most dynamic part of cell life
1. GAP 1 (G1)
2. Synthesis Phase (S-phase) - (3) Stages under Interphase:
3. GAP 2 (G2)
Gap 1 (G1) - primary growth phase
Synthesis Phase (S) - DNA duplication
- centrioles complete duplication
Gap 2 (G2) - mitochondria replicate
- chromosomes condense and coil
Mitosis - duplication of genetic material
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
- (4) Processes under Mitosis
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
- chromosomes become visible as chromatids are joined by centromere
- two kinetochores at the centromere
Prophase - centrioles move to opposite poles
- nuclear membrane breaks down
- microtubules attach kinetochores to spindle

- chromatids align at equator of cell

Metaphase - centromere divides
- divided centromere pulls chromatids to opposite pole
Anaphase - cytokinesis begins
- appearance of cleavage furrow
- chromosomes uncoil and decondense
- spindle apparatus breaks down
Telophase
- new nuclear membrane forms
- cytokinesis nearly complete

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 - duplication of organelles
- cytoplasmic division
Cytokinesis
- the division of the cell’s cytoplasm to produce two new cells
- begins in anaphase and continues through telophase
- cleavage furrow forms
Cytokinesis in animal cells
- cell is pinched into daughter cells
- cell plate forms at equator
Cytokinesis in plant cells
- cell plate becomes new cell wall
- occurs only in gonads
Meiosis:
- reduces genetic material from diploid to haploid
A Reduction Division - two divisions resulting in four cells
1. Prophase I
2. Metaphase I
3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I
- (8) Stages of Meiosis
5. Prophase II
6. Metaphase II
7. Anaphase II
8. Telophase II
Prophase I - homologous chromosomes pair and cross over
Metaphase I - chromosomes align along equator
- centromeres pulled to poles
Anaphase I
- one member to each pole
Telophase I - one of each pair is at each pole
- spindle forms
Prophase II - centrioles move to poles
Metaphase II - chromosomes line up at equator
Anaphase II - centromeres divide
- chromatids at each pole
Telophase II
- new nuclear membrane forms
Meiosis Mitosis
Two daughter (diploid) cells each containing the full Four daughter (haploid) cells each containing only
complement of genetic material half the genetic material
Asexual Sexual
One division Two divisions
No cross over There is cross over
Responsible for growth, maintenance, repair Responsible for reproduction
Most cells of our body Only in gonads
Gametogenesis - the formation of the sex cells
1. Spermatogenesis
2. Oogenesis - (2) Forms of Gametogenesis
- four cells produced
Spermatogenesis - develop into sperm
- four cells produced
Oogenesis - only one becomes functional egg
LESSON 3: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Integumentary System - provides covering for the body
- largest external organ of the body
Skin - large waterproof covering
- protects the body from the harmful UV light and chemicals
1. Hair
2. Nails - (3) Accessory Structures
3. Glands
1. Epidermis
2. Dermis - (2) Layers of the Skin
- upper or superficial layer of the skin
- epithelial tissue divided into sub layers
Epidermis - stratified squamous, keratinized epithelium
- it is composed of five strata
- not as thick as the dermis
- contains no blood vessels
- produces vitamin D
- gives rise to hair, nails, and glands
- protects against abrasion and harmful effects of UV light
- prevents water loss and the entry of chemicals and microorganisms
Keratinization - process in which cells move to surface, lose water, and nuclei change
1. Keratinocytes
2. Melanocytes
- (4) Cells inside the epidermis
3. Langerhans cells
4. Merkel Cells

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 - produces keratin which makes the cell more durable
Keratinocytes - resists abrasion
- prevents water loss
Melanocytes - contribute to the skin color, eye color, and hair color
Langerhans cells - part of the immune system
Merkel cells - light touch and superficial pressure
1. Stratum Corneum
2. Stratum Lucidum
3. Stratum Granulosum - (5) Layers of the Epidermis
4. Stratum Spinosum
5. Stratum Germinativum
- outermost or most superficial layer of the epidermis
- composed of 25 or more layers of dead, keratinized cells
- barrier to light, heat, chemicals, and microorganisms
Stratum Corneum
- provides structural strength due to keratin within the cells
- prevents water loss due to lipids surrounding cells
- sloughing off of most superficial cells resists abrasion
Corneocytes - serves as a hard protective layer to environmental trauma
Callus - thickened area that is formed when subjected to friction
Dandruff - excessive shredding of stratum of scalp
- one to two cell layers thick
- appears to be flat and transparent
- clear; difficult to see
Stratum Lucidum - hairless part of the body
- present in only a few areas of the body (eg. Palms of the hands, soles of
the feet)
- disperses keratohyalin around keratin fibers
Lucid - means clear and transparent
- composed of two or three layers
- consists of flattened, diamond – shaped cells
- it is where active keratinization takes place
Stratum Granulosum - lose nuclei
- compact and brittle
- produces keratohyalin granules
- lamellar bodies release lipids from cells
- composed of 8 to 10 layers of spiny – shaped cells
- produces keratin fibers
Stratum Spinosum - lamellar bodies form inside keratinocytes
- partly responsible for the skin’s strength and flexibility
- desmosomes prevalent
Desmosomes - interlocking cellular bridges
- rests on the basement membrane that is attached to the dermis
- lowermost or deepest layer of the epidermis
Stratum Germinativum or - composed of single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells
Stratum Basale - closest to blood supply
- millions of new cells are produced here via mitosis
- consists of melanocytes that produce melanin
- are responsible for skin color
Melanin - protects against ultraviolet light
- occurs when melanocytes in the skin grow in cluster instead of being spread
Mole
throughout the skin
Albinism - refers to the complete or partial absence of melanin
19 days - keratinized stem cells undergo mitotic divisions approximately every
40 to 56 days - keratinized stem cells reach the epidermis in
Stratum malphigi - stratum germinativum together with stratum spinosum
- also called corium
- it is a tough layer under the epidermis
Dermis
- it is a connective tissue composed of two layers
- connects skin to fat and muscle

- it is responsible for structural strength and flexibility of the skin

- the epidermis exchanges gases, nutrients, and waste products with
blood vessels in the dermis
 Blood and lymph vessels
 Nerve endings
and receptors
- (5) structures found in dermis
 Muscles
 Glands
 Hair follicles
1. Papillary
2. Reticular
- (3) divisions of the dermis
3. Subcutaneous or

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 hypodermis
- adjacent to the epidermis
- it is composed of loose connective tissue
Papillary
- bring blood vessels close to the epidermis
- it is responsible for nutrient supply and temperature regulations
Dilation of Blood vessels - gives pink tint to skin
- projections that extend toward the epidermis
Dermal Papillae - forms fingerprints and footprints to increase friction and improve grip
the more ridges, the stronger the grip
Stretch Marks - form when the skin is stretched or ruptured
- main layer of the dermis
- lies between the papillary and subcutaneous layer
- provides strength and elasticity to the skin
Reticular
- mat of collagen and elastic fibers
- composed of dense irregular connective tissue
- contains the hair follicles, sweat and oil glands
- layers of fat below the dermis
- not part of the skin
- composed of loose connective tissue with abundant deposits of adipose
Subcutaneous or
tissue
Hypodermis
- has many collagen cells and fats
- attaches the dermis to underlying structures
- blood vessels from the subcutaneous tissue supply the dermis
- acts as a cushion of muscles and other internal structures, and an insulator
Fat
of the body
Adipose tissue - provides energy storage, insulation, and padding
1. Hair
2. Nails
3. Sebaceous Glands - (5) accessory structures of the skin
4. Sweat Glands
5. Sensory Receptors
- covers most of the surface of the body
Hair - contains lanugo
- responsible for the growth of the hair
Hair follicles - contracts to hold the hair in place while in resting stage
- delicate, unpigmented hair develops and cover the fetus
Lanugo
- 5th to 6th month of fetal development
 Palms
 Soles
 Lips
 The nipples
- hair is found everywhere on the skin except for the following:
 Parts of the
external genitalia
 Distal segments of
the fingers and toes
 Scalp
 Eyelids - Terminal hairs
 Eyebrows
 Rest of the body - Velus hair
Scalp hair - grows for 3 years then rests for 1-2 years
1. Cuticle
2. Cortex - (3) parts of the hair
3. Medulla
- outermost layer of the hair
Cuticle - covers the cortex
Cortex - principal portion of the hair
Medulla - central part of the hair
Shaft - visible portion of the hair
Root - hair follicle
- smooth muscle that extends from the root to the papillary, pulls the hair more
Arrector pili
perpendicular direction (goosebumps)
- hair follicle
Growth - cycles of growth and rest
- straight
Texture - curly
- tightly curly
Color - based on complex genetic factors
- modified epidermal cells
- composed of dead stratum corneum
Nails
- contains very hard type of keratin
- nails go continuously and has no resting stage

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 Lunula
 Nail Body
 Nail Root
 Nail bed
 Nail fold - (9) Parts of the Nails
 Nail Groove
 Free edge
 Cuticle or Eponychium
 Hyponychium
Lunula - white crescent
Nail Body - visible portion
Nail Root - is covered by the skin
Nail bed - site for the growth of the nail
Nail fold - the lateral and proximal edges of the nail are covered by skin called
Nail groove - the edges are held in place by the
Free edge - overlapping nails
Cuticle or eponychium - the stratum corneum of the nail fold grows onto the nail body as the
- a thickened region of the stratum corneum beneath the free edge of the nail
Hyponychium
body
- produce sebum (oil)
Sebaceous or Oil Glands
- provide natural moisturizer
Sebum or oil - lubricates skin and hair
- controlled by the endocrine system
Secretion of oil - increases at puberty
- decreases in later life
- modified sebaceous glands line the ear canal are called , that
Ceruminous glands
produces cerumen or ear wax
- most numerous in palms and soles
Sudoriferous or Sweat - not found in margins of the lips of head of the penis
Glands - each gland has secretory portion and excretory duct
- sweating helps cool the body
Nervousness - can cause sweatiness due to stress
1. Eccrine
2. Apocrine - (2) Types of Sweat Glands
- most numerous in palms of the hands and soles of the feet but are
absent from the margin of the lips, the labia minora, and the tips of the
Eccrine Sweat Glands
penis and clitoris
- produces an isotonic fluid that is mostly water but also contains some salts
- found in the axillae and genitalia (scrotum and labia majora) and around the
anus
Apocrine Sweat Glands - produces organic substances and are influenced by sex hormones
- essentially odorless when first released but are quickly metabolized
by bacteria to cause what is commonly known as body odor
Sensory Receptor Location Sensation Mediated
Free nerve ending Epidermis Pain, itch
Free nerve ending Dermis Pain
Merkel’s disk Stratum spinosum Touch
Meissner’s corpuscle Papillary dermis Touch
Ruffini’s corpuscle Papillary dermis Warmth
Krause’s end bulb Papillary dermis Cold
Pacinian corpuscle Reticular dermis Pressure, vibration
1. Protection
2. Sensation
3. Thermoregulation - (5) Functions of the Integumentary System
4. Secretion
5. Burn

- prevents passage of harmful physical and chemical agents

- melanin protects from UV rays
- lipid content inhibits water loss
Protection
- acid mantle kills most bacteria
- nails protect ends of our digits
- hair acts as insulation and filter
- temperature receptors: hot and cold (Ruffini's and Krause's end)
- pressure receptors: excessive pressure as pain; mild pressure as
Sensation
pleasurable (Pacinian corpuscle)
- combinations produce burning, itching, tickling
Thermoregulation - normal body temperature is 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit
 Blood vessels dilate
 Sweat occurs - when external temperatures increases:
 Blood vessels first
- when external temperatures decreases:

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 dilate then constrict
- sebum: cosmetic gloss, moisturizer, antifungal/ antibacterial properties
Secretion - sweat: essential in cooling process
- vitamin D for protection of the body
- an injury in the tissue caused by heat, cold, electricity, friction, chemicals,
Burn
radiation
1. Partial Thickness Burn
- (2) Types of Burn
2. Full Thickness Burn
Partial Thickness Burn - parts of Stratum Basale are still viable
1. First – degree burn
- (2) Types of Partial Thickness Burn
2. Second – degree burn
- involves only the epidermis and usually red and painful, sun burn or very hot
First – degree or cold objects
- can heal without scarring
Second – degree - involves epidermis and minimal in dermis
- a burn blister is a fluid – filled blister that may form as a result of a second –
Blister degree burn
- takes about two weeks to heal
- burn from epidermis to subcutaneous, but not painful
Full Thickness Burn or
- this type of burn is painless because the pain receptors have been
Third – Degree Burn
destroyed along with the rest of the dermis
Rules of nines - is used to measure the burn in the body
Dehydration - usually, is the cause of death of burn patients due to water loss
LESSON 4: TISSUES
Tissue - groups of cells with similar functions or structures
Histology - study of tissues
Biopsy - process of taking tissue samples for diagnostic purposes or evaluation
- is the examination of the body of a dead person to identify or characterize
Autopsy
the extent of disease that the person may have had
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
- (4) Types of Tissues
3. Muscle
4. Nervous
1. Endoderm
2. Mesoderm - (3) Layers of Embryonic Germs
3. Ectoderm
- inner layer
Endoderm - forms the lining of digestive tract and its derivative
- middle layer
Mesoderm - forms tissues such as muscle, bone, and blood vessels
- outer layer
Ectoderm - forms the skin
- a portion of the ectoderm
Neuroectoderm - forms the brain and spinal cord
- these are called because the beginning of all adult structures can be
Germ Layers
traced back to one of them and they give rise to all the tissues of the body
- named according to shape, arrangement, and function
Epithelial Tissue
- cells are closely packed
- specialized type of extracellular material secreted by epithelial
Basement Membrane and connective tissue cells
- acts like an adhesive tile while anchoring cells
 Protects underlying tissues
Functions of the Epithelial  Absorbs nutrients
Tissue  Secretes hormones, mucus, and enzymes
 Excretes wastes
1. Squamous
2. Cuboidal - (3) Classifications of Epithelial Tissues based on shape
3. Columnar
- flat and slightly irregular shaped cells (protection)
- they line the heart, blood, and lymphatic vessels, body cavities, and
alveoli (air sacs) of lungs
Squamous - the outer layer of the skin is composed of stratified and keratinized squamous
epithelial cells
- the stratified squamous epithelial cells on the outer skin layer protect the
body against microbial invasion
- cube shaped (protection and secretion)
- they line the kidney tubules and cover the ovaries and secretory parts
Cuboidal
of certain glands
- their function can be secretion and protection

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 - tall and rectangular (secretion and absorption)
- are elongated, with the nucleus generally near the bottom and often ciliated
on the outer surface
Columnar - they line the ducts, digestive tract (especially the intestinal and
stomach lining), parts of the respiratory tract, and glands
- their function can be secretion and absorption
- are also found in mucus-secreting tissues
1. Simple
2. Stratified
- (4) Classifications of Epithelial Tissues based on arrangement
3. Pseudostratified
4. Transitional
Simple - one cell layer thick
Stratified - several layers thick
- appears to be several layers but is not
Pseudostratified - the arrangement is usually seen in columnar cells
Transitional - several layers of easily stretched cells
1. Mucous membrane
2. Exocrine Glands
3. Endocrine Glands - (5) Classification based on function
4. Endothelium
5. Mesothelium
- responsible for mucus production
Mucous membrane - lines all body cavities that open to the outside
Exocrine glands - have excretory ducts
1. Simple tubular
2. Simple branched tubular
3. Simple coiled tubular - (5) Types of Simple exocrine glands
4. Simple acinar
5. Simple branched acinar
Simple Tubular - glands in stomach and colon
Simple Branched Tubular - glands in the lower portion of stomach
Simple Coiled Tubular - lower portion of stomach and small intestine
Simple Acinar - sebaceous glands of the skin
Simple Branched Acinar - sebaceous glands of the skin
1. Compound Tubular
2. Compound Acinar - (3) Types of Compound Exocrine Glands
3. Compound Tubuloacinar
Compound Tubular - mucous glands of duodenum
Compound Acinar - mammary glands
Compound Tubuloacinar - pancreas
1. Merocrine Gland
2. Apocrine Gland - (3) Exocrine Glands by Type of Secretion
3. Holocrine Gland
- cells of the gland produce secretions by active transport or produce vesicles
Merocrine Gland that contain secretory products, and the vesicles empty their contents into
the duct through exocytosis
- secretory products are stored in the cell near the lumen of the duct
Apocrine Gland - a portion of the cell near the lumen containing secretory products is
pinched off the cell and joins secretions produced by a merocrine process
- secretory products are stored in the cells of the gland
Holocrine Gland - entire cells are shed by the gland and become part of the secretion
- the lost cells are replaced by other cells deeper in the gland
Endocrine glands - they are ductless and secretes hormones to the blood
- lines the circulatory system, specifically the blood vessels and lymphatic
Endothelium
vessels
Endocardium - lines the heart

Mesothelium (serous) - lines great cavities that have no openings to the outside
Connective Tissue - cells with large amount of extracellular matrix
1. Protein fibers
2. Ground substance - (3) Major components of the matrix
3. Fluid
Protein fibers - includes collagen, reticular, and elastin
- most abundant protein of the body
Collagen - it is about 6% of the body weight
Type I Collagen - most abundant collagen
Type II Collagen - is the major collagen found in cartilage
Reticular - are composed of type III collagen
1. –blast
- the name of the cell identifies the cell functions by means of one of the
2. –cyte
following suffixes:
3. –clast

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 Blasts - create the matrix
Cytes - maintain the matrix
Clasts - break the matrix down for remodelling
1. Loose
2. Dense - (3) Subgroups of Connective Tissue
3. Specialized
Loose Connective Tissue - fills spaces between and penetrates organs
1. Areolar
2. Adipose - (3) Types of Loose Connective Tissue
3. Reticular
- “loose packing” material of most organs and other tissues
- it attaches the skin to underlying tissues
- this tissue surrounds various organs and supports both nerve cells and
blood vessels, which transport nutrient (to cells) and wastes (away from
cells)
- temporarily stores glucose, salts, and water
- it is composed of a large semifluid matrix, with many different types of
Areolar
cells and fibers embedded in it
- thses include fibroblasts, plasma cells, macrophages, mast cells, and
various white blood cells
- the fibers are bundles of strong, flexible white fibrous protein called
collagen, and elastic single fibers of elastin
- it is found in the epidermis of the skin and in the subcutaneous layer
with adipose cells
- responsible for injury repair, phagocytosis, inflammatory response
1. Fibroblasts
2. Histiocytes - (3) Types of Cells under Areolar Loose Connective Tissue
3. Mast cells
- refers to the ability of these cells to form fibrils that are active in the repair of
Fibroblasts
injury
- are large, stationary phagocytic cells that eat up debris and microorganisms
Histiocytes
outside the blood circulatory system
Mast cells - function in the production of heparin and histamin
- contains adipocytes
- responsible for fat storage
- this tissue stores lipid, acts as filter tissue, cushions, supports, and insulates
Adipose the body
- a type of loose, connective tissue composed of sac-like adipose cells that are
found throughout the body: in the subcutaneous skin layer, around the
kidneys, within the padding around joints, and in the marrow of long bones
- it consists of a fine network of fiber that form the framework of the liver, bone
Reticular
marrow, and lymphoid organs such as the spleen and lymph nodes
- relatively large number of protein fibers, which form thick bundles and
Dense Connective Tissue
fill nearly all of the extracellular space
1. Regular arrangement - (2) Types of Dense Connective Tissue
2. Irregular arrangement - can both withstand stretching
- oriented in one direction
Regular Arrangement - can withstand stretching in one direction
- examples of this are tendons, ligaments, and aponeuroses
- matrix composed of collagen fibers running in somewhat the same direction
Dense Regular Connective
- able to withstand great pulling forces exerted in the direction of
Tissue in Tendons and
fiber orientation
Ligaments
- has great tensile strength and strength resistance
Dense Regular Connective - matrix composed of regularly arranged collagen fibers and elastic fibers
Tissue in Vocal Folds and - able to stretch and recoil like a rubber band, with strength in the direction
Elastic Ligaments of fiber orientation
- oriented irregularly
Irregular Arrangement - can withstand stretching in all directions
- examples of this are muscle sheaths, joint capsules, fascia
Dense Irregular Connective
- matrix composed of collagen fibers that run in all directions or in
Tissue in sheaths, organ
capsules and septa, and
alternating planes of fibers oriented in a somewhat single direction
outer covering of body tubes - tensile strength capable of withstanding stretching in all directions
- matrix composed of bundles and sheets of collagenous and elastic
Dense Irregular Connective
fibers oriented in multiple directions
Tissues in elastic arteries
- capable of strength, with stretching and recoil in several directions

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1. Cartilage
2. Bone
3. Blood
4. Lymphoid - (6) Specialized Connective Tissue
5. Reticuloendothelial
System
6. Synovial
- is composed of cartilage cells or chondrocytes within an extensive and
Cartilage
relatively rigid matrix
- chondrocytes are located in the
Lacunae - are cavities in a firm matrix composed of protein and polysaccharides
- surrounds nearly all the cartilage
Perichondrium - cartilage cells arise from the perichondrium and secrete cartilage matrix
1. Hyaline
2. Fibrocartilage - (3) Types of Cartilage
3. Elastic
- most abundant type of cartilage
- collagen fibers are small and evenly dispersed in the matrix, making the
matrix appear transparent
- the cartilage cells, or chondrocytes, are found in spaces or lacunae,
within the firm but flexible matrix
Hyaline - allows the growth of long bones
- provides rigidity with some flexibility in the trachea, bronchi, ribs, and nose
- forms rugged, smooth, yet somewhat flexible articulating surfaces
- forms the embryonic skeleton
- can withstand repeated compression
- is found at the ribs and costal cartilages, nose, and trachea
- somewhat flexible and capable of withstanding considerable pressure
- connective structures subjected to great pressure
- has most collagen that can be seen in the matrix
- collagen fibers similar to those in hyaline cartilage
Fibrocartilage
- the fibers are more numerous than in other cartilages and are arranged
in thick bundles
- can withstand compression and resist pulling and tearing
- is found at the intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis
- provides rigidity with even more flexibility than hyaline cartilage
because elastic fibers return to their original shape after being stretched
Elastic
- structure is similar to hyaline cartilage, but matrix also contains elastic fibers
- is found at the ears, auditory tubes, epiglottis
- bone cells, or osteocytes are located within the holes in the matrix, which
are called lacunae
- the matrix of the bone is impregnated with mineral salts, especially
Bone
calcium and phosphorus, which give the bone its firm and hard appearance
- has rich blood supply
- can repair itself more readily than cartilage
1. Compact bone
2. Cancellous bone - (2) Types of Bones
- forms the dense outer layer of the bone
- hard, bony matrix predominates
- many osteocytes are located within lacunae that are distributed in a
circular fashion around the central canals
Compact Bone - small passageways connect adjacent lacunae
- provides great strength and support
- forms a solid outer shell on bones that keeps them from being easily broken
or punctured
- found at the outer portions of all bones and at the shafts of long bones
- forms the inner spongy-looking tissue underneath the compact bone
- lattice like network of scaffolding characterized by trabeculae with large
Cancellous or Spongy Bone
spaces between them filles with hemopoietic tissue
- the osteocytes, or bone cells, are lopcated within lacunae in the trabeculae

- acts as scaffolding to provide strength and support without the greater

weight of compact bone
- located in the interior of the bones of the skull, vertebrae, sternum, and
pelvis, and in the ends of the long bones
- another specialized connective tissue that forms our teeth
Dentin - related to bone in structure but is harder and denser
- is light brown
Enamel - outer covering of the crown with white appearance

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 - fluid portion (plasma) + formed elements
- transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, nutrients, waste products,
Blood and other substances
- protects the body from infections and is involved in temperature regulation
- is located within the blood vessels
1. Erythrocytes or RBC
2. Leukocytes or WBC - (3) Formed Elements of the Blood
3. Thrombocytes or Platelets
- forms blood cells
Hemopoietic Tissue - in adults, is found in the bone marrow
Lymphoid - anti-body production (B lymphocytes) and disease protection
- consists of those specialized connective tissue cells that do phagocytosis
Reticuloendothelial System - it is a system of monocyte and macrophages
1. Kupffer cells
2. Histiocytes
3. Neuroglia (Microglia) - (5) Types of Cells in the Reticuloendothelial System
4. Alveolar macrophage
5. Osteoclast
Kupffer cells - phagocytic cells present in the liver
Histiocytes - phagocytic cells present in the tissues
Neuroglia - phagocytic cells located in the CNS or central nervous system
Alveolar Macrophage - phagocytic cells located in the lungs
Osteoclast - phagocytic cells located in the bones
- lines joints
Synovial - forms bursae
- prevents friction
1. Support
2. Nourishment
3. Transportation
4. Connection
5. Movement - (8) Functions of the Connective Tissue
6. Protection and Insulation
7. Storage
8. Attachment and
Separation
- bones support other tissues in the body
Support - cartilage support our nose
Nourishment - blood carries nutrients to the cells of our body
Transportation - blood transports gases, enzymes, and hormones to the cells
- tendons connect muscle to bone
Connection
- ligaments connect bone to bone
- muscles through tendons pull on bones, and bones move our bodies through
Movement
our environment
- bones protect vital organs of the body like the heart, lungs, brain, and
spinal cord
Protection and Insulation - blood cells¸ especially the white blood cells, protect us from
foreign microorganisms and tissue injury
- fat insulates us from excessive increases in temperature
- bone stores the mineral salts calcium and phosphorus
Storage - adipose tissue stores the high-energy molecules of fat to be used
and converted to adenosine triphosphate
Attachment and Separation - connective tissue attaches skin to underlying muscle
- ability to shorten and thicken
- has the ability to contract
Muscle Tissue
- it makes movement possible
- the length of muscle fibers is greater than their width
1. Smooth Muscle
2. Skeletal Muscle - (3) Types of Muscle Tissue
3. Cardiac Muscle
- “muscle”, “meat”
Skeletal - constitutes about 40% of a person’s body weight
- enables movement by pulling on bones
- has long thin cells
- moves under conscious control or voluntary control
- it is multinucleated and striated
- has actin and myosin
- these muscles are attached to the movable parts of the skeleton
- they are capable of rapid, powerful contraction and long states of partially
sustained contractions, allowing for voluntary movement
- skeletal muscle is striated or has transverse bands that run down the length
of the muscle fiber

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 - it is muscle of the heart
- it is responsible for blood pumping
- it is uninucleated and striated
- it is under unconscious control or involuntary control by the
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Cardiac - it is cylindrical shape in shape and it is shorter than the skeletal muscle
- contractions for beating of heart
- these cells help the heart contract to pump blood through and out of the
heart
- cardiac is a striated (having a cross-banding pattern), involuntary muscle
- it makes up the walls of the heart
- connected to other cardiac muscle cells by with gap junctions
Intercalated disks - has special gap junctions that are important in coordinating cardiac muscle
cells
- spindle-shaped, single nucleus
- only type of muscle that is not striated
- it is under involuntary control by the ANS
- forms the walls of hollow organs like the digestive tract, arteries and
veins, ureters
- also found in the skin and eyes
Smooth Muscle - responsible for several functions like peristalsis by contraction of outer
and inner layer, emptying of the bladder
- these provide for involuntary movement
- smooth muscle is non striated because it lacks the obvious striations (bands)
of skeletal muscles
- it makes up the walls of the digestive, genitourinary, respiratory tracts,
blood vessels, and lymphatic
Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle
In the walls of hollow
Location Attached to bones In the heart organs, blood vessels,
eyes, glands, skin
Very long, cylindrical Cylindrical cells that
Cell Shape Spindle-shaped cells
cells branch
Multinucleated,
Nucleus Single, centrally located Single, centrally located
peripherally located
Striations Yes Yes No
Control Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
Ability to Contract
No Yes Yes
Spontaneously
 Moves found
through the
digestive tract
 Empties the
urinary bladder
Provides the major force
 Regulates blood
Function Moves the body for moving blood
vessel diameter
through the blood
 Changes pupil
vessels
size
 Contracts many
gland ducts
 Moves hair
Branching fibers,
intercalated disks
Special Features None containing gap junctions Gap junctions
joining the cells to each
other

- makes up brain, spinal cord, and nerves

- composed of neurons
- is most highly organized tissue of the body because of overall control of
the body
Nervous Tissue
- controls and coordinates body activities
- allows perception
- control emotion and reasoning
- stores memories
- conducting cells by action potential
- very long: called nerve fibers
Neurons
- have branches through which various parts of the body are connected and
their activities coordinated

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1. Cell body
2. Dendrites - (3) Parts of the Neuron
3. Axons
Cell body - contains nucleus
Dendrites - root-like extensions that transmit impulse towards the cell body
Axons - long thin extensions that transmit impulse away from the cell body
Neuroglia - supporting cells
1. Irritability
- (2) Abilities of Nerve Cells
2. Conductivity
Irritability - ability of nerve tissue to respond to environmental changes
Conductivity - ability to carry a nerve impulse or message
Tissue Repair - is the substitution of viable cells for dead ones
Regeneration or
- tissue repair occurs by
Replacement
1. Labile cells
2. Stable cells - (3) Types of Cells based on their Regenerative Capacity
3. Permanent cells
Labile cells - divide throughout life and can undergo regeneration
- do not ordinarily divide after growth is complete but can regenerate if
Stable cells
necessary
- cannot replicate
Permanent cells
- if killed, permanent tissue is repaired by replacement
Primary Union - tissue repair by occurs when the edges of the wound are close together
Secondary Union - tissues repair by occurs when the edges are far apart

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 IMAGES

Abdominal Subdivisions

Planes and Sections

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 Cavities

Ventral Cavity

Coverings

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 The Cell Membrane

Cell Divisions

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 Layers of the Skin

Hair

Nails

Burn

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Squamous Epithelial Cuboidal Epithelial Columnar Epithelial

Stratified Squamous

Stratified Cuboidal

Stratified Columnar

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 Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar

Transitional Epithelium

Simple Exocrine Glands

Compound Exocrine Glands

Exocrine Glands by Type of Secretion

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Areolar Adipose Reticular

Dense Regular Connective Tissue (Tendons)

Dense Regular Connective Tissue (Vocal Folds and Elastic

LIgaments)

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue (for most of the dermis of the skin)

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue (elastic arteries)

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 Hyaline Cartilage

Fibrocartilage

Elastic Cartilage

Bone (Cancellous)

Bone (Compact)

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 Blood

Skeletal Muscle

Cardiac Muscle

Smooth Muscle

Neuron

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