Module

3 Cellular Basis of Life

Module Overview

Welcome to the introductory lessons of Animal Cell forms and functions, and
its homeostasis. This module covers the information about the structures and
functions of the human cell, cell membrane and homeostasis, cell division and cellular
respiration.
The structural and functional characteristics of different types of cells are
determined by the nature of the proteins present. Cells of various types have different
functions because cell structure and function are closely related. The generalized cell
functions include movement of substances across the cell membrane, cell division,
and protein synthesis. Homeostasis is the maintenance of the internal environment of
the body within narrow and rigidly controlled limits. The major functions important in
the maintenance of homeostasis are fluid and electrolyte balance, acid-base
regulation, thermoregulation, and metabolic control.

After the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify the different parts, of animal cell; describe cell parts and their functions.
 Discuss cell membrane and movement of materials in the Cell Membrane
 Discuss homeostasis and Homeostatic mechanisms.

Module 3 composed of the following Lessons:

 Lesson 1: Cell Structure and function

 Lesson 2: The Cell membrane
 Lesson 3: Homeostasis and Homeostatic Mechanisms
 Lesson 4: Cell Division
 Lesson 5: Cellular Respiration

Lesson 1. Cell Structure and Function

Learning Outcomes

 Identify the Parts of the Cell

Anatomy & Physiology 1

  Discuss the function of Cell Parts.
 Discuss Cell Functions
 Identify types of animal cells

Introduction

Welcome to Lesson 1!
Cells determine the form and functions of the animal body. Since the body is
made up of many cells, you must first understand the anatomy and physiology of the
cell before you can understand the other forms and functions of the different body
systems.

Activity

What do you know already?

Recall an information that you know about the human or animal cell, then make a
drawing of an animal cell and label the different parts.

Analysis

After drawing an animal cell,

1. What are the differences between bacterial cell, plant cell and animal
cell?
2. Can you differentiate the structure and function of the rough and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
3.What can you say about the structure and function of plant and
animal vacuole?

Abstraction

Please read carefully!

Cells are not only the building blocks of the organisms, they are also the functional
units of life. Life passes from one generation to the next in the form of cells. Cells are
complex, and their components perform various functions in an organism. They are of
different shapes and sizes. The body of the organisms is made up of cells of different
shapes and sizes. Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialized
functions to carry out life processes. Every organelle has a specific structure.

Anatomy & Physiology 2

Cells are grouped into tissues, tissues into organs and organs into organ systems.
Different types of tissues, organs and organ system results in division of labor or
performance of different functions of the body by specialized structures.
Functions of Cell
A cell performs these major functions essential for the growth and
development of an organism.

1. Provides Support and Structure of the Body

Cells form the structural basis of all the organisms. Cell wall and the cell membrane
are the main parts that function to provide support and structure to the organism.

2. Allows Transport of Substances

Various nutrients are carried by the cells to transport various chemical processes
inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is removed from the
cells by active and passive transport. In passive transport, small molecules such as
oxygen and carbon dioxide are diffused across the cell membrane along the
concentration gradient. In active transport, the larger molecules are diffused across the
cell membrane where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.

3. Energy Production
Cells need energy to carry out various chemical processes. The energy is produced by
the cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

4. Facilitates Growth through Mitosis

In mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. The cells multiply and
facilitate the growth in an organism.

5. Helps in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis
is called as asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells.
Meiosis makes the daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.
That is why cells are known as the structural and functional unit of life. This is
because cells are responsible for providing structure to the organisms and performs
several functions necessary for carrying out life’s processes.

Different types of animal cells

1. Skin cells of animals mostly consist of keratinocytes and melanocytes – ‘cyte’

meaning cell. Keratinocytes make up around 90% of all skin cells and produce
a protein called ‘keratin’. The keratin in skin cells helps to make skin an effective
layer of protection for the body. Keratin also makes hair and nails. Melanocytes are
the second main type of skin cell. They produce a compound called ‘melanin’ which
gives skin its color. Melanocytes sit underneath keratinocytes in a lower layer of skin
cells and the melanin they produce is transported up to the surface layers of cells. The
more melanocytes you have in your skin, the darker your skin is.

2. Muscle cells. Myocytes, muscle fibers or muscle cells are long tubular cells
responsible for moving an organism’s limbs and organs. Muscle cells can be either

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 skeletal muscle cells, cardiac muscle cells or smooth muscle cells. Skeletal muscle
cells are the most common type of muscle cells and are responsible for making
general, conscious movements of the body. Cardiac muscle cells control contractions
of heart by generating electrical impulses and smooth muscle cells control
subconscious movements of tissues such as blood vessels, the uterus, and the stomach.
3. Blood cells can be split into red and white blood cells. Red blood cells make up
around 99.9% of all blood cells and are responsible for delivering oxygen from the
lungs to the rest of the body. Red blood cells are the only animal cells that do not have
a nucleus. White blood cells are a vital part of an animal’s immune system and help
to battle infections by killing off damaging bacteria and other compounds.

4. Nerve cells also called neurons, are the main cells of the nervous system. The
human brain alone has around 100 billion nerve cells. They are the message carriers
of animal cells and deliver and receive signals using dendrites and axons. Dendrites
and axons are extensions from the cell that receive and export signals to and from the
cell, respectively.

5. Fat cells, also known as adipocytes or lipocytes, are used to store fats and
other lipids as energy reserves. There are two common types of fat cells in animals –
white fat cells and brown fat cells. The main difference between the two cell types is
the way they store lipids. White fat cells have one large lipid drop whereas in brown
fat cells there are multiple, smaller lipid droplets spread through the cell.

Application

Make a life cycle of an organism (from developmental stage up

to adult stage) applying or integrating the different functions of
the cell.

Congratulations! You did a great Job! You have finished the activities and
tasks for Lesson 1. It is expected that you have gained additional information about
the cell and its functions. Rest and relax for a while then move on to Lesson 2. Cell
Membrane. Good Luck!
Note: Assessment for this will be available in the LMS, please wait for further
announcement.

Lesson 2. The Cell Membrane

Learning Outcomes

 Discuss the functions of the Cell Membrane

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  Illustrate movement of materials in the Cell Membrane

Introduction

Welcome to Lesson 2.
In this lesson, you will learn the importance of cell membrane as a part of the
cell. Knowing how the cell membrane works would help you understand how
materials enter and move out from the cell. This lesson will discuss how the cell
membrane functions.

Activity

Diagram Analysis
Examine the diagram of the Cell Membrane below and answer the analysis
questions.

Analysis

What did you observe about the outer and inner layers of the cell
membrane as illustrated above?
How do integral and peripheral proteins differ in location and
function?
Based on the diagram above, explain how the cell membrane
works?

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 Abstraction

To understand the cell membrane and its function, you read the following:
Cell membrane
The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, is a thin layer that
surrounds the cytoplasm of all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, including plant and
animal cells. It is a selectively permeable cell organelle, allowing certain substances
inside the cell while preventing others to pass through. It also serves as the site of
attachment for the cytoskeleton that helps to provide shape and support to the cell.
A cell membrane is composed of lipids and proteins. The composition fluctuates
based on fluidity, external environment, and in the different stages of development of
the cell.
Cell Membrane Structure
The main components that make up all cell membranes are lipids, proteins,
and carbohydrates. Their proportions vary between different types of eukaryotic cells,
but their basic characteristics remain the same. Lipids form the core of all membranes.
Lipids are ideally suited to a barrier function because they are hydrophobic (they
repel water and anything dissolved in it). Proteins allow cells to interact and
communicate with each other, and they provide pathways that allow water and
hydrophilic molecules to cross the lipid core. Carbohydrates are found on the outside
surface of cells. For a typical human cell, proteins account for about 50 percent of the
composition by mass, lipids account for about 40 percent, and the remaining 10
percent comes from carbohydrate molecules.

Membrane Composition

1. Lipids is one of the main components of the cell membrane that makes up the
cell’s structural framework. Membrane lipids are composed of the following types:

a) Phospholipid: Major component of the cell membrane forming a bilayer

structure. The hydrophilic (water-loving) head of phospholipids points
towards the inner cytoplasmic side and outer extracellular fluid. While the
hydrophobic (water-hating) tail faces away from them. This lipid bilayer is
semi-permeable, meaning that it allows only certain molecules to diffuse
across the membrane.

b) Cholesterol is the second most common membrane lipid. They are selectively
dispersed between phospholipid molecules. They are also hydrophobic but
contains a polar hydroxyl group and that draws it to the bilayer’s outer surface,
where it is found between adjacent phospholipids. Cholesterol works by
preventing phospholipids from being too closely packed thus preventing the
cell membrane from becoming stiff.

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 c) Glycolipids: The outer leaflet of the bilayer contains glycolipids, a minor but
physiologically significant lipid type comprising a fatty acid tail coupled via
sphingosine to a carbohydrate head group. Glycolipids create a carbohydrate
cell coat that is involved in cell-to-cell interactions and conveys antigenicity.
2. Proteins. It is the second major part of the cell membrane, its function is to help
ions and other charge molecules cross the lipid barrier. Membrane proteins also allow
for intercellular communication and provide cells with sensory information about the
external environment. The two main categories of membrane proteins are:

a) Integral Membrane Proteins: Also called intrinsic proteins, they penetrate the
lipid core and permanently embedded within the cell membrane. Structurally,
the integral proteins are hydrophobic in nature that penetrates the phospholipid
bilayer, thus anchoring the protein to the membrane.

b) Peripheral Membrane Proteins: Also called extrinsic proteins, they are only
temporarily associated with the membrane. Most peripheral membrane
proteins are hydrophilic, so they are usually attached to integral membrane
proteins or are loosely bound to the phospholipid head group. They help in cell
signaling and are often associated with ion channels and transmembrane
receptors. Peripheral proteins are associated with both the intracellular and
extracellular plasma membrane surface.

c) Intracellular. Proteins that are localize to the intracellular surface include

many enzymes, regulatory subunits of ion channels, receptors, and
transporters.

d) Extracellular. Proteins located on the extracellular surface are enzymes,

antigens, and adhesion molecules.
3. Carbohydrates is the least abundant component of the cell membrane.
Carbohydrates are found on the outside surface of cells that exists in either of the
following two forms:

a) Glycoproteins: Proteins having carbohydrate chains attached to them. They

are embedded within the cell membrane and are important in cell-to-cell
communications and transport of substances across the membrane.

b) Glycolipids: Lipids having carbohydrate chains attached to them. They are

located on the surface of the cell membrane, extending from the phospholipid
bilayer into the extracellular environment. Glycolipids help to maintain
membrane stability and to facilitate cellular recognition and cell-to-cell
communication.
Cell Membrane Functions
Primary Role

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Selectively Permeable: Creates a potential gradient across the membrane that allows
small uncharged molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water as well as
hydrophobic substances such as lipids to get through the membrane passively inside
the cell without any loss of metabolic energy. While charged ions such as sodium,
potassium, and calcium as well as large molecules like amino acid and carbohydrates
cannot pass through. This is important for the cell to preserve its internal milieu
irrespective of any environmental changes and thus is the main function of the cell
membrane.

Other Functions

 Protection and Cell Defense: Insulates the interior of the cell and provides
mechanical support from outside shock and harmful agents
 Maintaining Homeostasis: Determines the internal milieu of the cell, the
physiological conditions such as temperature and osmotic pressure by
maintaining the salt balance
 Maintaining Concentration Gradient: Maintains the differences in
concentration of substances inside and outside the cell thus helping in their
transport
 Signal Transduction: Receives and processes the extracellular signals by
receptor molecules present in the cell membrane and relay them inside the cell
for necessary actions
 Catalysis of Chemical Reactions: Stimulates chemical reactions that help in
the growth and metabolism of the cell using enzymes
 Cell Communication: Allows exchange (receiving and sending) of messages
between adjacent cells, thus helping them to function in a coordinated fashion.
 Adaptation and Response: Helping to sense the extracellular environment and
thus regulating the fluidity of the cell membranes by altering the lipid of the
cell
 Maintaining Cell Shape and Morphology: Acting as the base of attachment for
the cytoskeleton that helps in cell movement
Movement of Substances through the Cell Membrane

Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning that they allow some
substances, but not others, to pass into or out of the cells. Intracellular material has a
different composition than extra-cellular material, and the cell’s survival depends on
maintaining the difference. Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potas-sium
ions (K+) are found at higher concentrations intracellularly, whereas Na +, Ca 2+, and
Cl− are found in greater concentrations extracellularly. In addition, nutrients must
enter cells continually, and waste products must exit. Because of the permeability
characteristics of cell membranes and their ability to transport certain molecules, cells
are able to maintain proper intracellular concentrations of molecules.
Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or active. Passive
membrane transport does not require the cell to expend energy. Active membrane
transport does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.

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Passive membrane transport mechanisms include diffusion, osmosis, and
facilitated diffusion.
Diffusion results from the natural, constant random motion of all solutes in a solution.
More solute particles occur in an area of higher concentration than in an area of lower
concentration. Because particles move randomly, the chances are greater that solute
particles will move from the higher toward the lower con-centration than from the
lower toward the higher concentration. A concentration gradient is the difference in
the concentration of a solute in a solvent between two points divided by the distance
between the two points. The concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the
concentration difference is large and/or the distance is small. When we say that a
substance moves down (or with) the concentration gradient, we mean that solutes are
diffusing from a higher toward a lower concentration of solutes. When we say that a
solute moves up (or against) its concentration gradient, this means that the substance
moves from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute
concentration. In the body, diffusion is an important means of transporting substances
through the extracellular and intracellular fluids. In addition, substances, such as
nutrients and some waste products, can diffuse into and out of the cell. The normal
intracellular concentrations of many substances depend on diffusion. For example, if
the extracellular concentration of O2 is reduced, not enough O2 diffuses into the cell,
and the cell cannot function normally.

Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable

membrane, such as the cell membrane, from a region of higher water concentration to
one of lower water concentration. Even though water is a polar molecule, it is small
enough that it can move across the cell membrane by passing either between the
phospholipid molecules or through water channels. Osmosis is important to cells
because large volume changes caused by water movement can disrupt normal cell
functions. Osmosis occurs when the cell membrane is less permeable, selectively
permeable, or not permeable to solutes and a concentration gradient for water exists
across the cell membrane. Water diffuses from a solution with a higher water
concentration across the cell membrane into a solution with a lower water con-
centration. The ability to predict the direction of water movement across the cell
membrane depends on knowing which solution on either side of the membrane has the
higher water concentration. The concentration of a solution, however, is expressed not
in terms of water, but in terms of solute concentration. For example, if sugar solution
A is more concentrated than sugar solution B, then solution A has more sugar (solute)
than solution B. As the concentration of a solution increases, the amount of water
(solvent) proportionately decreases. Water diffuses from the less concentrated
solution B (less sugar, more water), into the more concentrated solution A (more
sugar, less water). In other words, water diffuses toward areas of high solute
concentration and dilutes those solutes. Osmotic pressure is the force required to
prevent the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Thus,
osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of water to move by osmosis across a
selectively permeable membrane. When placed into a solution, a cell may swell,
remain unchanged, or shrink, depending on the concentration gradient between the
solution and the cell’s cytoplasm. A hypotonic (under) solution usually has a lower

Anatomy & Physiology 9

concentration of solutes and a higher concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm
of the cell. Thus, the solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell. Water
moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell. If the cell swells enough, it can
rupture, a process called lysis. When a cell is immersed in an isotonic (equal)
solution, the concentrations of various solutes and water are the same on both sides of
the cell membrane. The cell therefore neither shrinks nor swells. When a cell is
immersed in a hypertonic (above) solution, the solution usually has a higher
concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm
of the cell. Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic When placed
into a solution, a cell may swell, remain unchanged, or shrink, depending on the
concentration gradient between the solution and the cell’s cytoplasm.

Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated transport process that moves substances

across the cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance. Because movement is with the concentration gradient,
metabolic energy in the form of ATP is not required.
Active membrane transport mechanisms include active transport, secondary active
transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Active transport is a carrier-mediated process that moves substances across the cell
membrane from regions of lower concentration to those of higher concentration
against a concentration gradient. Consequently, active transport processes accumulate
substances on one side of the cell membrane at concentrations many times greater
than those on the other side.
Secondary active transport involves the active transport of one substance, such as
Na+, across the cell membrane, establishing a concentration gradient. The diffusion of
that transported substance down its concentration gradient provides the energy to
transport a second substance, such as glucose, across the cell membrane.
In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in the same direction as the transported
substance; in countertransport, the diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite
to that of the transported substance.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis. Endocytosis is the uptake of material through the cell
membrane by the formation of a vesicle. The cell membrane invaginates (folds
inward) to form a vesicle containing the material to be taken into the cell. The vesicle
then moves into the cytoplasm. Endocytosis usually exhibits specificity. The cell
membrane contains specific receptor molecules that bind to specific sub-stances.
When a specific substance binds to the receptor molecule, endocytosis is triggered,
and the substance is transported into the cell. This process is called receptor-
mediated endocytosis. Cholesterol and growth factors are examples of molecules that
can be taken into a cell by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Bacterial phagocytosis is
also receptor-mediated. The term phagocytosis (cell-eating) is often used for
endocytosis when solid particles are ingested. A part of the cell membrane extends
around a particle and fuses so that the particle is surrounded by the membrane. That
part of the membrane then “pinches off” to form a vesicle containing the particle. The
vesicle is now within the cytoplasm of the cell, and the cell membrane is left intact.
Phagocytosis is an important means by which white blood cells take up and destroy

Anatomy & Physiology 10

harmful substances that have entered the body. Pinocytosis (cell-drinking) is
distinguished from phagocytosis in that much smaller vesicles are formed, and they
contain liquid rather than particles.
In some cells, membrane-bound sacs called secretory vesicles accumulate
materials for release from the cell. The secretory vesicles move to the cell membrane,
where the membrane of the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane, and the material in
the vesicle is eliminated from the cell. This process is called exocytosis (exo, outside).
Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of digestive enzymes by the pancreas and the
secretion of mucus by the salivary glands.

Application

How can you apply the above information when you stayed
long in the seawater and you keep on peeing?
What happens to the cells of your skin (hands) when they are
exposed longer to soap suds while doing your laundry?

Congratulations! You have finished Lesson 2. Now, you are already prepared
to move to Lesson 3 about Homeostasis and Homeostatic Mechanisms. Enjoy and
keep reading!

Lesson 3. Homeostasis and Homeostatic Mechanisms

Learning Outcomes

 Discuss homeostasis
 Explain how homeostatic mechanisms normally maintain a constant
interior milieu.

Introduction

Welcome to Lesson 3

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 In this lesson, you will learn Homeostasis and Homeostatic Mechanisms.
Understanding homeostasis would help you to know the process by which the body
tend to maintain stability while regulating to conditions that are optimal for survival.

Activity

Diagram Analysis
Examine the diagram how the body temperature decreases and increases then answer
the analysis questions below:

Figure 1. Response to body temperature.

Analysis

What did you observe on the responses of the body as the

temperature increases and decreases as illustrated above?
How do thermoreceptors reacted on the changes of body
temperature?

Abstraction

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 To understand homeostasis and homeostatic mechanisms, please study the
following:

Homeostasis is the tendency of biological systems to maintain relatively

constant conditions in the internal environment while continuously interacting with
and adjusting to changes originating within or outside the system. Maintaining a
stable internal environment is the responsibility of the autonomic nervous
system(ANS). The ANS is organized similarly to the somatic nervous system and
uses many of the same neural pathways. Internal sensory receptors gather information
about blood pressure (baroreceptors), blood chemistry (chemoreceptors), and
temperature (thermoreceptors) and relay it to autonomic control centers in the brain.
The principal organs of homeostasis are the skin, liver, lungs, heart, and kidneys. The
ANS modulates organ function via two distinct effector pathways: the sympathetic
nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS). The
actions of the SNS and PSNS often appear antagonistic, but they work in close
coordination with each other.
The maintenance of homeostasis in the body typically occurs through the use
of feedback loops that control the body’s internal conditions.

Feedback Mechanisms
Feedback occurs when reponse to either a biotic or abiotic factor has an effect
on the person of some kind (or animal). There are two types of feedback, negative and
positive feedback. Negative feedback is most common in biological systems, for
example: doing excercise creates metabolic heat which raises the core temperature of
the body, then due to cooling mechanisms such as flushed skin or sweating begin and
the temperature decreases.

Feedback loop is defined as a system used to control the level of a variable in which
there is an identifiable receptor (sensor), control center (integrator or comparator),
effectors, and methods of communication.

In feedback loops: Variables are parameters that are monitored and controlled or
affected by the feedback system. Receptors (sensors) detect changes in the variable
and sends message to the control center in the form of a chemical signal or a nerve
impulse. Control centers (integrators) compare the variable in relation to a set point
and signal the effectors to generate a response. Control centers sometimes consider
information other than just the level of the variable in their decision-making, such as
time of day, age, external conditions, etc. Effectors execute the necessary changes to
adjust the variable, receives outputs from the control center and produces a response
or effect that changes the condition, nearly every body organ and tissue can behave an
effector.

Methods of communication among the components of a feedback loop are

necessary in order for it to function. This often occurs through nerves or hormones,
but in some cases receptors and control centers are the same structures, so that there is
no need for these signalling modes in that part of the loop.

Anatomy & Physiology 13

Feedback Cycle is defined as any situation in which a variable is regulated and the
level of the variable impacts the direction in which the variable changes (i.e. increases
or decreases), even if there is not clearly identified loop components.
With this terminology in mind, homeostasis then can be described as the totality of
the feedback loops and feedback cycles that the body incorporates to maintain a
suitable functioning status.

Feedback is a situation when the output or response of a loop impacts or influences

the input or stimulus.

Figure2. Feedback

Typically, we divide feedback loops into two main types:

1. positive feedback loops, in which a change in a given direction causes

additional change in the same direction. For example, an increase in the
concentration of a substance causes feedback that produces continued increases
in concentration
2. negative feedback loops, in which a change in a given direction causes change
in the opposite direction. For example, an increase in the concentration of a
substance causes feedback that ultimately causes the concentration of the
substance to decrease
Neural Regulation
The nervous system plays a critical role in the regulation of vascular homeostasis. The
primary regulatory sites include the cardiovascular centers in the brain that control
both cardiac and vascular functions.
The Cardiovascular Centers in the Brain
Neurological regulation of blood pressure and flow depends on the cardiovascular
centers located in the medulla oblongata. This cluster of neurons responds to changes
in blood pressure as well as blood concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen ions. The cardiovascular center contains three distinct paired components:

Anatomy & Physiology 14

  The cardioaccelerator centers stimulate cardiac function by regulating heart rate
and stroke volume via sympathetic stimulation from the cardiac accelerator
nerve.
 The cardioinhibitor centers slow cardiac function by decreasing heart rate and
stroke volume via parasympathetic stimulation from the vagus nerve.
 The vasomotor centers control vessel tone or contraction of the smooth muscle
in the tunica media. Changes in diameter affect peripheral resistance, pressure,
and flow, which affect cardiac output.
Baroreceptors are specialized stretch receptors located within thin areas of blood
vessels and heart chambers that respond to the degree of stretch caused by the
presence of blood. They send impulses to the cardiovascular center to regulate blood
pressure. Vascular baroreceptors are found primarily in sinuses (small cavities) within
the aorta and carotid arteries: The aortic sinuses are found in the walls of the
ascending aorta just superior to the aortic valve, whereas the carotid sinuses are in
the base of the internal carotid arteries. There are also low-pressure baroreceptors
located in the walls of the venae cavae and right atrium.
When blood pressure increases, the baroreceptors are stretched more tightly and
initiate action potentials at a higher rate. At lower blood pressures, the degree of
stretch is lower and the rate of firing is slower. When the cardiovascular center in the
medulla oblongata receives this input, it triggers a reflex that maintains homeostasis.
 When blood pressure rises too high, the baroreceptors fire at a higher rate and
trigger parasympathetic stimulation of the heart. As a result, cardiac output
falls.
 When blood pressure drops too low, the rate of baroreceptor firing decreases.
This will trigger an increase in sympathetic stimulation of the heart, causing
cardiac output to increase.

Chemoreceptors monitor levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ions (pH),
and thereby contribute to vascular homeostasis. Chemoreceptors monitoring the blood
are located in close proximity to the baroreceptors in the aortic and carotid sinuses.
The chemoreceptors respond to increasing carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion levels
(falling pH) by stimulating the cardioaccelerator and vasomotor centers, increasing
cardiac output and constricting peripheral vessels.

Three homeostatic mechanisms ensure adequate blood flow, blood pressure,

distribution, and ultimately perfusion: neural, endocrine, and autoregulatory
mechanisms. They are summarized in Figure below.

Anatomy & Physiology 15

Figure 3. Adequate blood flow, blood pressure, distribution, and perfusion involve
autoregulatory, neural, and endocrine mechanism.

Application

Make an example of a body activity and apply the responses of

the body by integrating the reactions of variables, receptors,
control centers and effectors in positive and negative feedback
loop.
Based on the diagram above, explain how the homeostatic
mechanisms applied to regulate body temperature?

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Anatomy & Physiology 17