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FUTURE PL ANET | SUSTAINABILIT Y

The hydrogen revolution in the skies

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(Image credit: ZeroAvia)

By Caspar Henderson 8th April 2021

A record-breaking commercial-scale hydrogen plane has

taken off in the UK, with more set to join it soon. How far
can such planes go in cutting the aviation industry's
emissions?
s the plane rose from the runway for what was to prove a smooth and

A uneventful flight, the team breathed a sigh of relief. The six-seater Piper
M-Class had been fitted out at a research and development hub at Cranfield
airport in the UK to run on hydrogen, and on this maiden flight in the late
summer of 2020 everything worked perfectly. With that flight, ZeroAvia, the California-
based start-up that had developed the aircra with partners in Britain and elsewhere, was

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ready to move to the next stage in the journey towards zero carbon aviation.

A catchphrase for the transition to a low or zero carbon economy is "electrify everything"
– that is, create a world in which most human activities, from manufacturing and
construction to transport and tourism, run on electricity generated from low or zero
carbon sources such as wind, solar and perhaps nuclear power. But there is a problem:
some sectors look to be hard if not impossible to electrify in the near and medium term,
and aviation is, perhaps, foremost among them.

Before the pandemic grounded most flights, commercial aviation accounted for about
2.5% of global emissions of carbon dioxide. It sounds like a small proportion of the
whole, but it is more than those of Germany (2.2%), and this is not the whole story.
Carbon dioxide accounts for about half of aviation's contribution to what is known as its
effective radiative forcing – that is, its total contribution to the factors that actually drive
a rise in global average temperature. Contrails – water vapour trails from aircra – are
aviation's largest other factor.

Importantly in the context of flight, hydrogen packs a lot of

energy per unit of mass
The good news is that commercial aviation has an excellent track record in improving
efficiency. Carbon dioxide emissions per passenger flight have fallen more than 50%
since 1990 thanks to improved engines and operations. The bad news is that these gains
have been overwhelmed by rising volumes of air traffic. This has increased by at least a
fih over the past five years, and is predicted to reach 10 billion passengers a year by
2050.

Tests of the hydrogen-powered HyFlyer I, which is a six-seater plane, have been successful. Its
successor is planned to seat up to 20 passengers (Credit: ZeroAvia)

At first glance, hydrogen looks to be a good solution to the challenge of flying without
wrecking the climate. Whether hydrogen is used to power a fuel cell to generate
electricity or directly combusted for motive power, the only waste product is clean water.
Importantly in the context of flight, hydrogen packs a lot of energy per unit of mass –
three times more than conventional jet fuel, and more than a hundred times that of
lithium-ion batteries.

Governments and companies are investing in this potential. ZeroAvia's 2020 hydrogen-

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powered flight, known as HyFlyer I, was supported by the UK Government, whose Jet
Zero Council promises "a laser focus on UK production facilities for sustainable aviation
fuels and the acceleration of the design, manufacture and commercial operation of zero-
emission aircra."

The UK government, together with private investors and commercial partners are
supporting ZeroAvia in the development of an aircra with a hydrogen-electric (fuel cell)
powertrain capable of carrying up to 20 passengers about 350 nautical miles
(648km). ZeroAvia's founder and chief executive Val Miakhov, says the company expects
to offer commercial flights using such a plane as early as 2023, and that by 2026 it will be
able to realise flights over a range of 500 nautical miles (926km) in aircra with up to 80
seats. For 2030, Miakhov has even bigger plans: "We will have single-aisle jets, 100-seat
category," he says.

There is ambition in mainland Europe too. Hydrogen "is one of the most promising
technology vectors to allow mobility to continue fulfilling the basic human need for
mobility in better harmony with our environment", says Grazia Vitaldini, chief technology
officer at Airbus, the world's largest aircra manufacturer. In September 2020, Airbus
announced that hydrogen-fuelled propulsion systems would be at the heart of a new
generation of zero-emissions commercial aircra. The project, named ZeroE, is a flagship
of the European Union's multibillion-euro stimulus package, aimed at greening the bloc's
economy.

Airbus has presented three concept planes which it says could be ready for deployment by
2035. The first is a turboprop (propeller) driven aircra capable of carrying around 100
passengers about 1,000 nautical miles (1,850km). The second, a turbofan (jet), could carry
200 passengers twice as far. Both look similar to already existing planes, but ZeroE's third
concept is a futuristic-looking blended-wing design that is a striking departure from
commercial models today. Airbus says this third design could be capable of carrying more
passengers over longer distances than the other two, but has not released more detail at
this stage. All three designs are envisaged as hydrogen hybrids, which means they would
be powered by gas-turbine engines that burn liquid hydrogen as fuel, and also generate
electricity via hydrogen fuel cells.

Airbus is aiming to have its three concept hydrogen aircra in operation by 2035 (Credit:
Airbus)

The work at ZeroAvia and Airbus has aroused a lot of interest, but not everyone in the
aviation industry is convinced hydrogen will play a major role in a transition towards low

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or zero carbon flight.

There is the question of whether hydrogen can be produced

at scale and at a competitive price without itself having a
large carbon footprint
The disadvantages start with the physics and chemistry. Hydrogen has higher energy by
mass than jet fuel, but it has lower energy by volume. This lower energy density is because
it is a gas at typical atmospheric pressure and temperature. The gas needs to be
compressed or turned into a liquid by cooling it to extremely low temperatures (-253C) if
it is to be stored in sufficient quantities. "Storage tanks for the compressed gas or liquid
are complex and heavy," says Finlay Asher, a former aircra engine designer at Rolls-
Royce and founder of Green Sky Thinking, a platform exploring sustainable aviation.

And there are other challenges. The energy density of liquid hydrogen is only about a
quarter of that of jet fuel. This means that for the same amount of energy it needs a
storage tank four times the size. As a consequence, aircra may either have to carry fewer
passengers to make space for the storage tanks, or become significantly larger. The first
option, which applies to Airbus's first two concept planes, would mean a reduction in
ticket revenue, other things being equal. The second option, embodied in Airbus's third
concept, requires a bigger airframe, which is subject to more drag. Further, an entire new
infrastructure would need to be put in place to transport and store hydrogen at airports.

In addition, there is the question of whether hydrogen can be produced at scale and at a
competitive price without itself having a large carbon footprint. The great majority of
hydrogen used in industry today is created using fossil fuel methane, releasing carbon
dioxide as a waste product. Hydrogen can be produced from water through a process
called electrolysis, driven by renewable power, but this process is currently expensive
and requires large amounts of energy. Only about 1% of hydrogen is produced this way
at present.

Aviation passenger numbers are projected to double by 2037, meaning many more
greenhouse gas emissions unless sustainable alternatives are found (Credit: Getty Images)

As things stand, liquid hydrogen is more than four times as expensive as conventional jet
fuel. Over the coming decades the price is expected to drop as infrastructure is scaled up
and becomes more efficient. But according to Britain's Royal Society and the
management consulting group McKinsey, it is likely to remain at least twice as expensive

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as fossil fuels for the next few decades.

These factors, and others, give pause for some major players in aviation. Sean Newsum,
director of environmental strategy at Boeing Commercial, Airbus's main rival, recently
told the Financial Times: "Our belief is that it will take a while for all the technology and
elements of hydrogen propulsion to be worked out before we can get to… commercial
use." And a key advisory body to the UK government also has doubts. "Switching to direct
hydrogen adds decades into the transition," says David Joffe, of the Climate Change
Committee, an advisory body to the UK government.

So what are the alternatives? In September 2020, the Air Transport Action Group, a
Geneva-based body that speaks on behalf the global aviation industry, published a set
of scenarios which suggest that, even as the volume of air traffic increases, it will be
possible for global aviation to reach zero emissions of carbon dioxide – but only a decade
or so later than 2050. According to these scenarios, the direct use of hydrogen will play
only a marginal role, but the game-changer will be what are termed "sustainable aviation
fuels", or SAFs.

This catch-all term covers a range of products, such as biofuels, that result in low net
emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants associated with conventional jet fuel.
The advocates of SAFs argue they have a number of clear advantages over pure hydrogen.
Because they are chemically identical to existing jet fuel, they can in principle be "dropped
in" to existing systems with little or no redesign, without delay, and without the
substantial ancillary investments required for hydrogen-powered airframes and their
supporting infrastructure. Paul Stein, chief technology officer at the engine makers Rolls
Royce, argues they are the key to a more sustainable future. "If SAF production can be
scaled up – and aviation needs 500 million tonnes a year by 2050 – we can make a huge
contribution for our planet," he says.

Biofuels are one alternative to fossil fuels for aviation, but they require large tracts of land to
grow (Credit: Getty Images)

SAFs can be divided into two categories. The first are biofuels made through the chemical
or thermal treatment of biomass such as agricultural residues and other wastes. A second
category is electro fuels, or "E fuels". Through these fuels, which are also known as "power
to liquid", hydrogen could end up playing a key role in aviation aer all.

E fuels are made by reacting hydrogen with carbon dioxide to make "syngas". This is then
converted through what is known as Fischer-Tropsch process into "e-crude" – a crude oil

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substitute that can be refined to jet fuel and other fuels. If the large amount of energy
required at each stage of manufacture is sourced from zero carbon sources, then the
whole process can be carbon neutral, with no more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
aer the flight than before the fuel was made.

Using direct air capture technology developed by the Swiss company Climeworks to
source CO2, and hydrogen produced from water with renewable energy, the Oslo-based
company Norsk e-Fuel aims to open what may be the world's first E fuel industrial plant
Herøya, Norway, in 2023, producing 10 million litres of fuel per year for the Norwegian
and European markets. The next step in 2026 would be a plant capable of 100 million
litres a year. A full-sized plant could provide half the fuel for the top five most frequently
serviced flight routes within Norway, cutting their emissions by half, says Karl Hauptmeier,
Norsk e-Fuel's managing director.

For now, one thing remains almost certain: hydrogen and E fuels are likely to continue to
be substantially more expensive than conventional jet fuel for years or decades to come,
limiting their role in greening aviation – unless the other costs of aviation come to be
weighed differently. Campaigners such as Leo Murray of the campaign group Possible
argue that conventionally-fuelled aviation must be priced to reflect the cost of the
damage it causes to the climate. This, he argues, might mean higher ticket prices, but it
could also give us aviation that does not cost the Earth.

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FUTURE PL ANET | ENERGY

Lithium batteries' big unanswered question

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(Image credit: Getty Images)

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By Allison Hirschlag 6th January 2022

As the world looks to electrify vehicles and store renewable

power, one giant challenge looms: what will happen to all
the old lithium batteries?

s the quiet whirr of electric vehicles gradually replaces the revs and noxious

A fumes of internal combustion engines, a number of changes are set to filter

through our familiar world. The overpowering smell of gas stations will fade
away into odourless charge stations where cars can re-juice their batteries as
needed. Meanwhile, gas-powered generator sites that dot the horizon may be retrofitted
to house massive batteries that could one day power entire cities with renewable
energy.

This electrified future is much closer than you might think. General Motors announced
earlier this year that it plans to stop selling gas-powered vehicles by 2035. Audi's goal is
to stop producing them by 2033, and many other major auto companies are following
suit. In fact, according to BloombergNEF, two-thirds of the world's passenger vehicle
sales will be electric by 2040. And grid-scale systems the world over are growing rapidly
thanks to advancing battery storage technology.

While this may sound like the ideal path to sustainable power and road travel, there's one
big problem. Currently, lithium (Li) ion batteries are those typically used in EVs and the
megabatteries used to store energy from renewables, and Li batteries are hard to recycle.

As demand for EVs escalates, as it's projected to, the impetus

to recycle more of them is set to barrel through the battery
and motor vehicle industry
Continue reading

One reason is that the most widely used methods of recycling more traditional batteries,

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like lead-acid batteries, don't work well with Li batteries. The latter are typically larger,
heavier, much more complex and even dangerous if taken apart wrong.

You might also like:

• The world's largest batteries

• The new use for old coal mines
• Why environmental lawsuits are on the rise

In your average battery recycling plant, battery parts are shredded down into a powder,
and then that powder is either melted (pyrometallurgy) or dissolved in acid
(hydrometallurgy). But Li batteries are made up of lots of different parts that could
explode if they're not disassembled carefully. And even when Li batteries are broken down
this way, the products aren't easy to reuse.

"The current method of simply shredding everything and trying to purify a complex
mixture results in expensive processes with low value products," says Andrew Abbott, a
physical chemist at the University of Leicester. As a result, it costs more to recycle them
than to mine more lithium to make new ones. Also, since large scale, cheap ways to
recycle Li batteries are lagging behind, only about 5% of Li batteries are recycled globally,
meaning the majority are simply going to waste.

But as demand for EVs escalates, as it's projected to, the impetus to recycle more of
them is set to barrel through the battery and motor vehicle industry.

Extracting and processing lithium requires huge amounts of water and energy, and has been
linked to environmental problems near lithium facilities (Credit: Alamy)

The current shortcomings in Li battery recycling isn't the only reason they are an
environmental strain. Mining the various metals needed for Li batteries requires vast
resources. It takes 500,000 gallons (2,273,000 litres) of water to mine one tonne of
lithium. In Chile's Atacama Salt Flats, lithium mining has been linked to declining
vegetation, hotter daytime temperatures and increasing drought conditions in national
reserve areas. So even though EVs may help reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions over
their lifetime, the battery that powers them starts its life laden with a large environmental
footprint.

We can no longer treat the batteries as disposable – Shirley

Meng
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If the millions upon millions of Li batteries that will give out aer around 10 years or so
of use are recycled more efficiently, however, it will help neutralise all that energy
expenditure. Several labs have been working on refining more efficient recycling methods
so that, eventually, a standardised, eco-friendly way to recycle Li batteries will be ready to
meet skyrocketing demand.

"We have to find ways to make it enter what we call a circular lifecycle, because the
lithium and the cobalt and nickel take a lot of electricity and a lot of effort to be mined
and refined and made into the batteries. We can no longer treat the batteries as
disposable," says Shirley Meng, professor in energy technologies at the University of
California, San Diego.

How to recycle Li batteries

A Li battery cell has a metal cathode, or positive electrode that collects electrons during
the electrochemical reaction, made of lithium and some mix of elements that typically
include cobalt, nickel, manganese and iron. It also has an anode, or the electrode that
releases electrons to the external circuit, made of graphite, a separator and an electrolyte
of some kind, which is the medium that transports the electrons between cathode and
anode. The lithium ions travelling from the anode to the cathode form an electric current.
The metals in the cathode are the most valuable parts of the battery, and these are what
chemists focus on preserving and refurbishing when they dismantle an Li battery.

Meng says to think of an Li battery like a bookshelf with many layers, and the lithium ions
rapidly move across each shelf, cycling back each time to the top shelf – a process called
intercalation. Aer years and years, the bookshelf naturally starts to break down and
collapse. So when chemists like Meng dismantle an Li battery, that's the sort of
degradation they see in the structure and materials.

"We can actually find the mechanisms, [and] either using heat or some kind of chemical
treatment method, we can put the bookshelf back [together]," says Meng. "So we can let
those recycled and refurbished materials go back to the assembly line to the [Li battery]
factories to be made into new batteries."

Lithium batteries are more internally complex than lead-acid batteries, composed of many
carefully assembled parts (Credit: Getty Images)

Improving Li battery recycling and ultimately making their parts reusable will reinfuse
value into the Li batteries already out there. This is why scientists are advocating for the
direct recycling process Meng describes – because it can give the most precious parts of Li

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batteries, like the cathode and anode, a second life. This could significantly offset the
energy, waste and costs associated with manufacturing them.

But disassembling Li batteries is currently being done predominantly by hand in lab

settings, which will need to change if direct recycling is to compete with more traditional
recycling methods. "In the future, there will need to be more technology in disassembly,"
says Abbott. "If a battery is assembled using robots, it is logical that it needs to be
disassembled in the same way."
Abbott's team at the Faraday Institution in the UK is
ON COUNT
investigating the robotic disassembly of Li batteries as
part of the ReLib Project, which specialises in the recycling
and reuse of Li batteries. The team has also found a way to
issions from travel it took to achieve direct recycling of the anode and cathode using an
this story were 0kg CO2. The ultrasonic probe, "like what the dentist uses to clean your
teeth," he explains. "It focuses ultrasound on a surface
emissions from this story are an
which creates tiny bubbles that implode and blast the
ed 1.2g to 3.6g CO2 per page coating off the surface." This process avoids having to
nd out more about how we shred the battery parts, which can make recovering them
ted this figure here. exceedingly difficult.

According to Abbott's team's research, this ultrasonic

recycling method can process 100 times more material
over the same period than the more traditional hydrometallurgy method. He says it can
also be done for less than half the cost of creating a new battery from virgin material.

Abbott believes the process can easily be applied to scale, and used on larger grid-based
batteries, because they typically have the same battery cell structure, they just contain
more cells. However, the team is currently only applying it to production scrap, from
which parts are easier to separate, because they're already free of their casings. The
team's robotic dismantling tests are ramping up though. "We have a demonstrator unit
that currently works on whole electrodes and we hope in the next 18 months to be able to
showcase an automated process working in a production facility," says Abbott.

Degradable batteries

Some scientists are advocating for a move away from Li batteries in favour of ones that
can be produced and broken down in more eco-friendly ways. Jodie Lutkenhaus, a
professor of chemical engineering at Texas A&M University, has been working on a
battery that is made of organic substances that can degrade on command.

"Many batteries today are not recycled because of the associated energy and labour cost,"
says Lutkenhaus. "Batteries that degrade on command may simplify or lower the barrier
to recycling. Eventually, these degradation products could be reconstituted back into a
fresh new battery, closing the materials life-cycle loop."

It's a fair argument considering that, even when a Li battery is dismantled and its parts are
refurbished, there will still be some parts that can't be saved and become waste. A
degradable battery like the one Lutkenhaus' team is working on could be a more
sustainable power source.

Organic Radical Batteries (ORBs) have been around since the 2000s, and function with
the help of organic materials that are synthesised to store and release electrons. "An
Organic Radical Battery has two of these [materials], both acting as electrodes, that work
in concert to store and release electrons, or energy, together," explains Lutkenhaus.

The team uses an acid to break their ORBs down into amino acids and other byproducts,
however, conditions need to be just right for the parts to degrade properly. "Eventually we
found that acid at elevated heat worked," says Lutkenhaus.

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There are a number of challenges ahead for this degradable battery though. The
materials needed to create it are expensive, and it has yet to provide the amount of power
required for high-demand applications like EVs and power grids. But perhaps the greatest
challenge degradable batteries like Lutkenhaus's face is competing with the already well-
established Li battery.

As demand for electric vehicles surges in the coming decades, the need for a way to recycle
their batteries will grow too (Credit: Getty Images)

The next step for scientists pushing direct recycling of Li batteries forward is working with
battery manufacturers and recycling plants to streamline the process from build to
breakdown.

"We are really encouraging all the battery cell manufacturers to barcode all the batteries
so with robotic AI techniques we can easily sort out the batteries," says Meng. "It takes the
entire field to cooperate with each other in order to make that happen."

Li batteries are used to power many different devices, from laptops to cars to power grids,
and the chemical makeup differs depending on the purpose, sometimes significantly. This
should be reflected in the way they're recycled. Scientists say battery recycling plants
must separate the various Li batteries into separate streams, similar to how different
types of plastic are sorted when recycled, in order for the process to be most efficient.

And even though they face an uphill battle, more sustainable batteries are slowly but
surely coming onto the scene. "We can already see designs entering the market which
make assembly and disassembly easier, and it is probable that this will be an important
topic in future battery development," says Abbott.

On the production side, battery and car manufacturers are working on cutting down on
the materials needed to build Li batteries to help reduce energy expenditure during
mining and the waste each battery creates at the end of its life.

Electric car manufacturers have also begun to reuse and repurpose their own batteries in
a number of different ways. For example, Nissan is refurbishing old Leaf car batteries and
putting them in automated guided vehicles that bring parts to its factories.

Speed bumps ahead

The steadily increasing market demand for EVs already has companies across the
automobile industry spending billions of dollars on increasing the sustainability of Li

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batteries. However, China is currently the largest producer of Li batteries by far, and
subsequently ahead when it comes to recycling them.

So far, China produces the most lithium batteries, and it also has more capability to recycle
them than other producers (Credit: Getty Images)

Widely adopting standardised methods for recycling Li batteries that include sorting
streams for the different types will get them a big step closer. Meanwhile, using AI
technology to refurbish the most useful parts, such as the cathode, could help countries
with small supplies of Li battery components to not have to rely so much on China.

Developing new batteries that might rival the Li battery will also likely shake up the
industry by creating some healthy competition. "I do think it does the world better if we
diversify the portfolio for battery storage, particularly for grid storage," says Meng.

The advent of a less complex, safer battery that is cheaper to make and easier to separate
at the end of its life is the ultimate answer to the current sustainability problem with EVs.
But until such a battery makes an appearance, standardising Li battery recycling is a
significant move in the right direction.

And in about 2025, when millions of EV batteries reach the end of their initial life cycles, a
streamlined recycling process will look much more appealing to economies the world
over. So perhaps, by the time EVs become the predominant form of transport, there will
be a good chance their batteries will be gearing up for a second life.

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