CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the literature review of heat transfer in the automotive radiator
by using nanofluid, types of engine cooling system, components that comprised of the
engine cooling system, characteristics of water cooling system and characteristics of
nanofluid cooling system are described.

2.1. Literature Review of Heat Transfer in the Automotive Radiator by Using

Nanofluid
Adnan M. Hussein presented the heat transfer enhancement using TiO₂ and
SiO₂ nano powder suspended in pure water. The test setup includes a car radiator, and
the effects on heat transfer enhancement under the operating conditions are analyzed
under laminar flow conditions. The volume flow rate, inlet temperature and nano fluid
volume concentrations are in the range of 2–8 LPM, 60–80 °C and 1–2% respectively.
The results showed that the Nusselt number enhancements of up to 11% and 22.5%
were obtained for TiO₂ and SiO₂ nanoparticles, respectively in water. SiO₂ nanofluid
produces a higher heat transfer enhancement than the TiO₂ and TiO₂ Nano fluid
produces higher heat transfer more than pure Al₂O₃ nanoparticles varied in the range
of 13 to 30 nm and he observed enhancement in the thermal conductivity of 2% to
36% [14Adn].
Rupesh Kumar found the addition of 1 to 6% of Al2O3 nanofluid. The thermal
conductivity is increased by 20% in addition of 6% of Al2O3 nanofluid [14Rup].
Y. Vermahmoudia investigated experimentally air cooled heat exchanger by
using Fe₂O₃ as a coolant to measure the overall heat transfer coefficient of water
based iron oxide under laminar flow condition. They made different concentration and
examined at different flow rates. For good dispersion of iron (III) oxide nanoparticles
in water, 0.8 wt% polyethylene glycol was added and pH was adjusted to 11.1. They
found that overall heat transfer increased with flow rate, concentration and air
Reynolds number decreased with enhancing the temperature and it create negative
 6

effect. The maximum enhancements of the overall heat transfer coefficient and heat
transfer rate compared with base fluid are equal to 13% and 11.5% which is occurred
at the concentration of 0.65 vol.%[14Ver].
M.S.Wadd conducted experimentally on dilute nano fluid to measure the heat
transfer rate. Heat transfer capacity and flow characteristics of copper and Titania
nanofluids in an automobile radiator are tested with radiator flow range 1-5ltr and
Reynolds number 2000 to 20000. The convective heat transfer coefficient of
nanofluids increased with the Reynolds number Titania nanofluids with 0.1 % weight
concentration, the convective heat transfer coefficient, Nusselt number, overall heat
transfer coefficient were enhanced by 6%, 13% and 3% respectively and copper
nanofluids with very little weight concentration of up to 0.1%, the convective heat
transfer coefficient, Nusselt number, overall heat transfer coefficient were enhanced
by 7%, 15% and 5% respectively. The friction factor and pressure drop for both the
type of nanofluids are nearly same but are more than water, which makes increase in
pumping power. The friction factor decreases with increasing of volume flow rate.
The results suggested that Cu nanofluids have high potential for flow and heat transfer
enhancement [14Wad].
Navid Bozorgan performed experimentally car radiator by using Al₂O₃/Water
as coolant. Al₂O₃ nanoparticles with diameters of 20 nm dispersed in water and
volume concentrations up 2% are selected and their performances in a radiator of
Chevrolet Suburban diesel engine under turbulent flow conditions are numerically
studied. He found result that 2% Al₂O₃ nanoparticles in water with Reynolds number
6000 the overall heat transfer coefficient and pumping power increased up to 11.11%
and 28.17% more than water [13Nav].

Paresh Machhar and Falgun Adroja observed that in forced convection heat
transfer, five different concentration of 0.1 to 1% volume concentration will be
prepared by addition of TiO2 nanoparticle into water. They found that the application
of nanofluid with low concentration can enhance heat transfer efficiency up to 45% in
comparison of pure water [13Par].

Navid Bozorgan investigated numerically the use of CuO-water nanofluid as a

coolant in a radiator of Chevrolet Suburban diesel engine with a given heat exchange
capacity.In this study, the effects of the automotive speed and Reynolds number of the
nanofluid in the different volume concentration on the radiator performance are also
 7

investigated. The results showed that the overall heat transfer coefficient and pumping
power are approximately 10% and 23.8% more than base fluid respectively for CuO-
water nanofluid at 2% volume concentration circulating through the flat tubes with
Re(for nanofluid)=6000 while the automotive speed is 70 km/hr [12Nav].

Dr.G.R.Selokar found that the effectiveness of radiator increases up to 17% by

adding 4% volume fraction of Al2O3 nanoparticle in a base fluid as compared to use
of water as coolant and then effectiveness increases up to 26% by using 8% Al2O3
volume fraction in a base fluid as compared to use of water as coolant [12Sel].

S.M. Peyghambarzadeh performed traditionally forced convection heat

transfer in a car radiator to cool circulating fluid which consisted of water or a
mixture of water and anti-freezing materials like ethylene glycol (EG). Then, the heat
transfer performance of pure water and pure EG was compared with their binary
mixtures. Furthermore, different amounts of Al₂O₃ nanoparticle have been added into
these base fluids and its effects on the heat transfer performance of the car radiator
have been determined experimentally. Liquid flow rate was changed in the range of
2–6 L/minute and the fluid inlet temperature has been changed for all the experiments.
The results demonstrate that Nano fluids clearly enhance heat transfer compared to
their own base fluid. In the best conditions, the heat transfer enhancement of about
40% compared to the base fluids was recorded [11Pey].

S.M. Peyghambarzadeh compared experimentally forced convective heat

transfer in a water based nanofluid with pure water in an automobile radiator. Five
different concentrations of nanofluids in the range of 0.1-1% nanoparticle volume
concentration were prepared by the addition of Al₂O₃ nanoparticles into the water.
The test liquid flows through the radiator consisted of 34 vertical tubes with elliptical
cross section and air makes a cross flow inside the tube bank with constant speed.
Liquid flow rate has been changed in the Range of 2-5 L/min to have the fully
turbulent regime (9*103< Re< 2.3*104). Additionally, the effect of fluid inlet
temperature to the radiator on heat transfer coefficient was analyzed by varying the
temperature in the range of 37-490 °C. Results demonstrated that increasing the fluid
circulating rate can improve the heat transfer performance while the fluid inlet
temperature to the radiator has trivial effects. Meanwhile, application of Nano fluid
with low concentrations can enhance heat transfer efficiency up to 45% in comparison
with pure water [11Pey].
 8

K.Y. Leong investigated automotive car radiator operated EG based copper

nanofluid to measure the overall heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer coefficient.
About 3.8% heat transfer enhancement was achieved with addition of 2% copper
particles at 6000 and 5000 Reynolds number for air and coolant respectively. 42.7%
and 45.2% heat transfer enhancement were obtained for pure ethylene glycol and
ethylene glycol with 2% of copper nanoparticles about 12.13% more pumping power
needed for a radiator using copper nanofluid [10Leo].
R. S. Vajjha investigated the heat transfer augmentation by application of two
different nanofluids consisting of Al₂O₃ and CuO nanoparticles in an ethylene glycol
and water mixture circulating through the flat tubes of an automobile radiator. The
numerical results showed that at a Reynolds number of 2000, the percentage
enhancement in the average heat transfer coefficient over the base fluid for a 10%
Al₂O₃ nanofluid was 94% and that for a 6% CuO nanofluid was 89%. Also the
average heat transfer coefficient increases with the Reynolds number and also with
the particle volumetric concentration [10Vaj].
Sharma et al. implemented 1 to 2.5% Al2O3 nanoparticle volume concentration
in water in horizontal tube geometry and while the Peclet number is between 3500
and 6000, up to 41% promotion in heat transfer coefficient compared to pure water
may have occurred [09Sha].
Eastman et al. used nanofluid containing 0.3 vol. % copper nanoparticles with
mean diameter 10nm and ethylene glycol as the base fluid. This nanofluid showed a
higher thermal conductivity than that of the base fluid [01Eas].
Park and Cho presented an experimental investigation of the convective
turbulent heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids (Al2O3+water) with 1 to 3%
nanoparticle volume concentration. Their results showed that Nusselt number for the
nanofluids enhances with increasing of volume concentration and Reynolds number
[98Par].

2.2. Introduction to Engine Cooling System

All internal combustion engines are equipped with some type of cooling
system because of the high temperatures they generate during operation. High
temperature is necessary since it results in the high gas pressure which acts on head of
the piston. Without high temperature, power cannot be produced efficiently. However,
it is not possible to use all of the heat of combustion without producing overheat
 9

which results. If nothing is done to cool the engine during operation, valves will burn,
lubricating oil will warm up, pistons and bearings will overheat, and piston will
oversize in the cylinders. Heat created by combustion must be dissipated by the
cooling system. Other important mediums of cooling an internal combustion engine
are the fuel and the lubricant.

2.3. Types of Engine Cooling System

Engines cooling systems are broadly divided into two types:
(i) Direct or air cooling systems
(ii) Indirect or liquid cooling systems

2.3.1. Air Cooling Systems

. Air cooled system is generally used in small engines which have 15-20 kW
and in aero plane engines. In this system fins or extended surfaces are provided on the
cylinder walls, cylinder head, etc. Heat generated due to combustion in the engine
cylinder will be conducted to the fins and when the air flows over the fins, heat will
be dissipated to air.
The amount of heat dissipated to air depends upon:
(i) Amount of air flowing through the fins
(ii) Fin surface area
(iii) Thermal conductivity of metal used for fins

Figure 2.1. Air Cooling System in the Engine [99Hei]

Advantages of Air Cooled System

The advantages of air cooled system are:
(i) Radiator/pump is absent hence the system is light.
(ii) In case of water cooling system there are leakages, but in this case there are no
leakages.
 10

(iii)Coolant and antifreeze solutions are not required.

(iv) This system can be used in cold climates, where if water is used it may freeze.
Disadvantages of Air Cooled System
(i) Comparatively it is less efficient.
(ii) It is used in aero planes and motorcycle engines where the engines are
exposed to air directly.

2.3.2. Water Cooling System

Water cooling systems can be broadly classified into two types according to
the method of heat absorbed by the water in the cylinder jackets.

(i) Open-type cooling systems

(ii) Closed-type cooling systems

In the open cooling systems, the hot water from the water jackets is either
allowed to go waste or re-circulated after being evaporative. The two types of open-
type cooling systems are schematically as shown in the following Figure 2.2.
The waste water system is used where water is available in sufficient quantity.
In the evaporated cooling system, some water is added to compensate for evaporation.
The main limitation of open cooling systems is that minerals may be deposited in the
water jackets, which may cause corrosion and also affect heat transfer capability. In
the closed cooling system, the hot water from the water jackets is cooled in a heat
exchanger and re-circulated. The heat exchanger can be of two types as shown in the
following Figure 2.3.

(i) Water-to-air type (radiator)

(ii) Water-to-water type

The radiator-type cooling system is used in automotive and stationary

installations. In this system, the heat of water is transferred to air directly. The water
to water type heat exchanger system is used in marine and industrial diesel engines.
The secondary water is drawn from the sea or river in the heat exchange, the
water system and, after receiving heat from the primary water in the heat exchanger,
the water allowed going waste. In case of recirculated water systems, the secondary
water is recirculated after evaporating water in a cooling tower or spray pond. The
main advantage of the closed system over the open system is that pure or chemically
 11

treated water can be used in the primary circuit so that there is no scale deposits in the
water jackets of the engine.

Figure 2.2. Open-Type Cooling System

Figure 2.3. Closed-Type Cooling System [88Joh]

2.3.2.1. Types of water cooling system

Various methods are used for circulating the water around the cylinder and
cylinder head. These are:
(i) Thermosyphon cooling system
(ii) Pump circulation cooling system
(iii)Evaporative cooling system
 12

(iv) Pressure cooling system

(v) Bypass recirculation cooling system
Nowadays, types of pump circulation cooling system and bypass recirculation
cooling system are used for circulating the working fluid around the cylinder and
cylinder head in automotive cooling system. They are explaned as following articles.

2.3.2.2. Pump circulation cooling system

This system is used in a large number of automobiles like buses and even
heavy trucks. Here, flow of water from radiators to water jackets is by convection
assisted by a pump.

Engine Air
Pump

Radiator

Figure 2.4. Pump Circulation Cooling System [88Joh]

The main principle of this system is explained with the help of a block
diagram as shown in Figure 2.4. The water or coolant is circulated through jackets
around the parts of the engine to be cooled, and is kept in motion by a centrifugal
pump which is driven from the engine. The water is passed through the radiator where
it is cooled by air drawn through the radiator by a fan and by the air flow developed
by the forward motion of the vehicle. A thermostat is used to control the water
temperature required for cooling.

2.3.2.3. Bypass recirculation cooling system

Most modern cooling systems embody a thermostatic device which prevents
the water in the engine jackets from circulating through the radiator for cooling until
its temperature has reached a height suitable for efficient engine operation. The
location and detailed functioning of these devices vary with different designs, but the
principle of operation is the same in each case. Figure 2.5 (a) shows schematically one
design where the water from the engine water jackets is sent back to the pump for
 13

recirculation when the engine is first started and is cold. When the thermostat valve is
closed, the flow of water to the radiator through the inlet hose blocks off. This causes
the pump to build up enough pressure to open the spring-loaded bypass valve and
allow the water to re-enter the pump through the bypass (some designs use a fixed
bypass opening without a valve). This causes the water to circulate between the pump
and the water jackets and become heated rather quickly.
As the water warms up, the heated water causes the thermostat valve to open
and allow the water to circulate through the radiator. This normal circulation shown in
Figure 2.5. (b), relieves the pressure on the bypass valve (or fixed bypass opening)
which closes by spring action and so prevents recirculation. The amount of water
circulated through the radiator depends on the temperature of the water, which
governs how far the thermostat valve opens. The thermostat valve is set to open
admitting the water to the radiator at a certain temperature (usually about 155 °F). At a
pre-determined higher temperature (about 173 °F) the thermostat valve is fully open.

Radiator Radiator

Inlet hose Inlet hose

Thermostat valve Thermostat valve

Spring-loaded
Spring-loaded
bypass valve
bypass valve

Water
jackets Water
jackets

Pump Pump
Outlet hose Outlet hose

(a) Bypass Re-circulation (b) Normal Circulations

during Warm-up
Figure 2.5. Bypass Recirculation of Cooling System [88Joh]

2.4. Components of Engine Cooling System

The essential components of the cooling system are water jackets, water
pumps, engine fans, drive belts, electric fans, radiator, expansion tank, thermostat,
 14

coolant bypass passage, and pressure cap. This engine cooling system components are
shown in the following Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6. Components of Engine Cooling System [99Ran]

2.4.1. Water Jacket

The cylinder block and cylinder head have internal passages or water jackets
that surround the cylinders and combustion chambers. The coolant flows from the
water pump through the water jackets. As the coolant passes the hot metal parts
inside the water jacket, some of the heat transfers to the lower temperature coolant.
This cools the metal parts and heats the coolant. The circulating coolant then carries
the heat to the radiator. Airflow through the radiator removes the excess heat from the
coolant which lowers its temperature.

2.4.2. Water Pump

Water pumps are centrifugal pumps that use an impeller to move the coolant.
The water pump attaches to the front of the engine and is usually driven by a drive
belt from the crankshaft pulley. Instead of using a drive belt, some water pumps are
gear driven from the engine crankshaft.
 15

The water pump circulates as much as 7500 gallons (28390L) of coolant per
hour when the thermostat is open. Then as the impeller rotates, its blades draw coolant
from the bottom of the radiator. They force the coolant from the pump outlet, through
the engine water jackets, and back to the radiator. Figure 2.7 shows the typical water
pump geometry in engine cooling system.

1. Bolts pump to block 11. V-belt

2. Bolts fan to pulley 12. dust seal
3. Pumps shaft 13. seal spring
4. Hub 14. fan
5. water outlet 15. water inlet
6. bypass 16. hose
7. pump housing 17. block
8. seal 18. bearing race
9. ball bearing 19. impeller
10. pulley
Figure 2.7. Typical Water Pump [79Kho]
 16

2.4.3. Engine Fan

The outside air are drawn through the radiator by the forward motion of the
vehicle which provides all the cooling needed by the radiator at higher vehicle speeds.
When the vehicle is moving slowly, the radiator may need additional outside airflow
through it to prevent engine overheating. The engine fan or cooling fan pulls or
pushes the additional air through the radiator.

2.4.4. Mechanical Fan

Engine mounted longitudinally in rear-drive vehicles usually has a
mechanical fan that mounts to the water-pump shaft. The fan is made of sheet steel or
molded plastic. It has four to seven blades and turns with the water –pump impeller.
To increase the efficiency of the fan, a fan shroud around the fan directs the airflow.

2.4.5. Drive Belt

A drive belt is a continuous loop of reinforced rubber used to transmit power
between two shafts. Three types of belts are used to drive the water pump and other
engine accessories. These are the V belt, the ribbed or serpentine belt, and the toothed
belt.

2.4.6. Electric Fan

Transverse engines in front-drive vehicles usually have an electric fan. An
electric motor turns the blades. A thermostatic switch turns the fan on when the
coolant temperature reaches 200F [93 °C]. When the coolant temperature drops, the
switch turns the fan off. Turning on the air conditioning bypasses the thermostatic
switch so the fan runs as long as the air conditioner is on. In vehicles with electronic
engine control, the engine or powertrain control module turns the fan on and off as
needed. Most fans, mechanical and electric, are pull-type fans. They mount behind the
radiator and pull air through it. Some vehicles also have a push-type fan. It mounts in
front of the radiator and pushes air through it.

2.4.7. Radiator
In the cooling system, the radiator is a heat exchanger that removes the heat
from the coolant passing through it. The radiator holds a large volume of coolant in
close contact with a large volume of air so heat will transfer from the coolant to air.
 17

The components of a radiator are as follows:

(i) CORE-The center section of the radiator made up of tubes and cooling fins.
(ii) TANKS-The metal or plastic ends that fit over core tube ends to provide
storage for coolant and fittings for the hoses.
(iii)FILLER NECK-The opening for adding coolant. It also holds the radiator cap
and overflow tube.
(iv) OIL COOLER-The inner tank for cooling automatic transmission or transaxle
fluid.
(v) PETCOCK-The fitting on the bottom tank for draining coolant.
Fins are placed around the outside of the tubes to improve heat transfer. Air
passes between the fins. As the air passes by, it absorbs heat from the coolant.
A transmission oil cooler is often placed in the radiator on vehicles with
automatic transmissions. It is a small tank enclosed in one of the main radiator tanks.
Since the transmission fluid is hotter than engine coolant, heat is removed from the
fluid as it passes through the radiator and cooler.
It mainly consists of an upper tank and lower tank and between them is a core.
The upper tank is connected to the water outlets from the engines jackets by a hose
pipe and the lover tank is connected to the jacket inlet through water pump by means
of house pipes.
There are two types of cores:
(i) Tubular type
(ii) Cellular type
When the water is flowing down through the radiator core, it is cooled
partially by the fan which blows air and partially by the air flow developed by the
forward motion of the vehicle.

2.4.7.1. Radiator with tubular and cellular type core

A tubular radiator consists of a number of round or flattened tubes, the ends of
which are securely soldered in the headers of the upper and lower tanks as shown in
Figure 2.8. The tubes are generally placed vertically. In the cross flow type of
radiator, the tubes are in a horizontal position. Such radiators are usually provided
with cooling fins which assist in the dissipation of the heat. Depending upon the
design of the radiator, the cooling fins may be of the continuous type as shown in
Figure 2.9, or may be mounted between the vertical tubes. The fins are soldered to the
 18

tubes and serve to strengthen the tubes and to carry the heat away from the tubes and
the water.

(a) Flat Tubes (b) Round Tubes

Figure 2.8. Two Types of Tubular Radiator [12Abd]

Figure 2.9. Cellular Type [12Abd]

A cellular radiator is constructed of pressed metal sections formed and

soldered together to provide a series of straight narrow passages through the core as
shown in Figure 2.9. The passages are open into the upper and lower tanks of the
radiator. The width of the passages is slightly less than the thickness of the radiator
core. The honeycomb pattern of the core employed in some cellular type radiators is
achieved by shaping the ends of the pressed metal sections so that when the sections
 19

are assembled to form the core, the air passages are hexagonal (six sided) in shape. In
other honeycomb radiators, the honeycomb pattern is obtained by the fin design. The
water used for cooling should be soft. If hard water is used, it forms sediments on
water jackets and tubes, which act as insulator and make the cooling inefficient. The
rounding of the bonnet front part in modern passenger cars and some trucks leads to
poorer cooling of the radiator by the air sucked in.

2.4.7.2. Working principle of radiator

The upper tank collects incoming coolant and, through the use of an internal
baffle, distributes it across the top of the core. The core is made up of numerous rows
of small vertical tubes that connect the upper tank and the lower tank. Sandwiches
between the rows of tubes are thin sheet metal fins. As the coolant passes through the
tubes to the lower tank, the fins conduct the heat away from it and dissipate this heat
into the atmosphere. The dissipation of the heat from the fins is aided by directing a
constant air flow between the tube and over the fins. The lower tank collects the
coolant from the core and discharges it to the engine through the outlet pipe. The
overflow tube provides an opening from the radiator for escape of coolant if the
pressure in the system exceeds the regulated maximum. This will prevent rupture of
cooling system components. This working principle of radiator can be seen in Figure
2.6.

2.4.7.3. Types of radiator

Radiators are classified according to the direction that the coolant flows
through them. The two types of radiators are
(i) Down flow radiator
(ii) Cross flow radiator
The down flow radiator has the coolant tanks on the top and bottom and the
core tubes run vertically. Hot coolant from the engine enters the top tank. The coolant
flows downward through the core tubes. After cooling, coolant flows out the bottom
tank and back into the engine. Down flow radiator tends to be taller than wider. They
were the standard radiator configuration for most older vehicle and will often fit better
in older applications; especially older trucks and street rods. The crossflow radiator is
a design that has the tanks on the sides of the core. The core tubes are arranged for
horizontal coolant flow. The tank with the radiator cap is normally the outer tank.
 20

Cross flow radiators are usually wider and then they work well in vehicle with low
profile hoods with limited vertical space. In down flow radiators, the transmission oil
cooler is located in the lower tank. In a cross flow radiator, it is located in the tank
having the radiator cap. Both tanks are coolant outlet tanks.
However, if down flow and cross flow radiators are made out of the same
materials, using the same build methods and using the same core dimensions, then
they will provide the same level of cooling, regardless of their position. Down flow
radiators rely on gravity to move the coolant from the top tank to the bottom tanks
while cross flow radiators rely on the characteristics of fluid to seek it’s own level.
Figure 2.10 shows the down flow type radiator gemoetry.

Inlet from
Inlet Tank Engine

Air Fins Radiator Cap

Radiator
Core

Outlet to
Tubes engine
Transmission Oil Cooler

Outlet Tank
Figure 2.10. Down Flow Type Radiator [94Wil]

2.4.7.4. Advantages of cross flow radiator

In modern vehicles with an aerodynamically shaped hood, there simply isn’t
enough room to accommodate a tall down-flow radiator. So cross flow radiators are
used to accommodate body design. They’re shorter but wider than a comparably sized
down flow radiator. Because the pressure cap can be located on the low pressure tank,
the design prevents opening the premature pressure cap when a high flow water pump
runs at high engine RPMS. Because cross flow radiators are wider, they are often
cheaper to build, owing to the fact that this design requires fewer tubes and thus fewer
weld/solder joints. If the cross flow radiator can be mounted so the pressure cap is
 21

higher than the engine, the radiator is self bleeding. However, if the radiator is placed
lower than the engine, a surge tank or bleed line is required.

2.4.7.5. Disadvantages of cross flow radiator

The biggest disadvantage of a cross flow radiator is its width, making it a bit
more difficult to fit in an engine compartment. Designers must ensure that enough
outside air enters the grille area and distributes to the extreme ends of the cross flow
radiator. In addition to the space limitation, cross flow radiators often have less
coolant capacity than a down flow radiator. A cross flow radiator takes up more side
to side space, while a vertical flow radiator requires more height. Because cross flow
radiators rely on a fluid’s ability to seek its own level, cross flow radiators often have
a higher temperature differential between the inlet and outlet sides. That higher
temperature differential can cause joints on the radiator to break and leak or allow air
into the system.

2.4.7.6. Advantages of down flow radiator

They are narrower than a comparably sized cross flow radiator. If width and
height of the radiator are known, a down flow radiator may be define as the best
option.

2.4.7.7. Disadvantages of down flow radiator

Aside from its taller height, the single biggest disadvantage of a down flow
radiator is the fact that the pressure cap is always located on the top tank. This is the
hottest part of the radiator with the highest internal pressure. At high engine RPMS,
the combination of high heat and high pressure can force the pressure cap to open and
bleed pressure and coolant into the recovery tank.

2.4.8. Expansion Tank

Most cooling systems have a separate plastic reservoir or expansion tank. It is

partly filled with coolant and connected by an overflow or transfer tube to the radiator
filler neck. As the engine heats up, the coolant expands and flows through the transfer
tube into the expansion tank. When the engine is turned off and cools, the coolant
contracts. This creates a partial vacuum in the cooling system. Then the vacuum
 22

siphons coolant from the expansion tank back through the transfer tube and into the
radiator.
The cooling system with an expansion tank is a closed system. Coolant can
flow back and forth between the radiator and the expansion tank as the engine heats
and cools. This keeps the cooling system filled for maximum cooling efficiency. The
expansion tank also removes air bubbles from the coolant. Coolant without air
bubbles can handle more heat.

2.4.9. Pressure Cap

Most cooling systems are sealed and pressurized by a pressure cap in the
radiator filler neck. Sealing reduces coolant loss from evaporation and allows the use
of an expansion tank. Pressurizing raises the boiling temperature of the coolant,
increasing cooling efficiency. The pressure cap also has a vacuum-relief valve. This
protects the system from developing a vacuum that could collapse the radiator. When
the engine is shut off and begins to cool, the coolant contracts. Cold coolant takes up
less space than hot coolant. As the volume of coolant decreases, a vacuum develops in
the cooling system. This causes the vacuum valve to open. Coolant from the
expansion tank then flows bank into the cooling system through the pressure cap.

2.4.10. Coolant Bypass Passage and Thermostat

A bypass passage is required to permit coolant to circulate within the engine
itself when the engine is cold. However, the heating engine must close or become
restricted. Otherwise, the coolant would continue to circulate within the engine and
too little would go to the radiator for cooling. One bypass system uses a small, spring-
loaded valve.
The valve is forced to be opened by coolant pressure from the pump when the
thermostat is cooled. As the thermostat opens, the coolant pressure drops within the
engine, and the bypass valve closes. Another widely used system has a blocking
bypass thermostat as shown in Figure 2.11. This thermostat operates like others
already described, but it also has a secondary valve. When the primary valve is
closed, the circulation to the radiator is shut off. However, at that time the secondary
valve is open, permitting coolant to circulate through the bypass. But when the
primary valve opens, permitting coolant to flow to the radiator, the secondary valve
 23

closes, blocking off the engine bypass. Therefore, working principles of coolant
bypass passage and thermostat are shown in the following Figure 2.11.

To radiator Primary To radiator Primary

valve valve

Secondary
valve
From Secondary
valve Engine
engine
bypass

Engine bypass From engine

(b) Coolant circulate through (a) Coolant do not circulate through
bypass system bypass system
Figure 2.11. Typical Thermostat [03Sei]

2.5. Working Fluids

Conventional working fluids are refrigerants, water, engine oil and ethylene
glycol, etc. Nowadays water and ethylene glycol have been used as a conventional
coolants in an automobile radiator for many years. Heat transfer efficiency can also be
improved by increasing the thermal conductivity of working fluid. Therefore, these
heat transfer fluids offer low thermal conductivity and poor heat transfer
characteristics. Nowadays, nanofluids are considered to be the next-generation heat
transfer fluids as they offer exciting new possibilities to enhance heat transfer
performance compared to pure liquids.

2.6. Characteristics of Nanofluids

With the recent improvements in nanotechnology, the production of particles

with sizes on the order of nanometers (nanoparticles) can be achieved with relative
ease. As a consequence, the idea of suspending these nanoparticles in a base liquid for
improving thermal conductivity has been proposed recently [93Mas, 95Cho]. Such
suspension of nanoparticles in a base fluid is called a nanofluid. Due to their small
size, nanoparticles fluidize easily inside the base fluid, and as a consequence,
clogging of channels and erosion in channel walls are no longer a problem. It is even
 24

possible to use nanofluids in microchannels [07Che, 07Lee]. When it comes to the

stability of the suspension, it was shown that sedimentation of particles can be
prevented by utilizing proper dispersants.

2.6.1. Particle Material and Base Fluid

Many different particle materials are used for nanofluid preparation. Al2O3,
CuO, TiO2, SiC, TiC, Ag, Au, Cu, and Fe nanoparticles are frequently used in nano-
particles are frequently used in nanofluid research. Carbon nanotubes are also utilized
due to their extremely high thermal conductivity in the longitudinal (axial) direction.
Base fluids mostly used in the preparation of nanofluids are the common
working fluids of heat transfer applications; such as, water, ethylene glycol and
engine oil. In order to improve the stability of nanoparticles inside the base fluid,
some additives are added to the mixture in small amounts.

2.6.2. Particle Size

Particle size is another important parameter of thermal conductivity of
nanofluids. Nanoparticles used in nanofluid preparation usually have diameters below
100 nm.

2.6.3. Particle Shape

There are mainly two particle shapes used in nanofluid research; spherical
particles and cylindrical particles. Cylindrical particles usually have a large length-to-
diameter ratio. Spherical particles are mostly used in nanofluids. However, rod-
shaped, tube shaped and disk-shaped nanoparticles are also used. On the other hand,
the clusters formed by nanoparticles may have fractal-like shapes.

2.7. Thermal Conductivity of Nanofluids

The studying of thermal conductivity of nanofluids showed that high
enhancements of thermal conductivity can be achieved by using nanofluids. It is
possible to obtain thermal conductivity enhancements larger than 20% at a particle
volume fraction smaller than 5% [05Cho, 06Li]. Such enhancement values exceed the
predictions of theoretical models developed for suspensions with larger particles. This
is considered as an indication of the presence of additional thermal transport
enhancement mechanisms of nanofluids.
 25

2.8. Heat Transfer Enhancement with Nanofluids

Increase in the thermal conductivity of the working fluid improves the
efficiency of the associated heat transfer process. When forced convection in tubes is
considered, it is expected that heat transfer coefficient enhancement obtained by using
a nanofluid is equal to the enhancement in thermal conductivity of the nanofluid, due
to the definition of Nusselt number. However, research about the convective heat
transfer of nanofluids indicated that the enhancement of heat transfer exceeds the
thermal conductivity enhancement of nanofluids. In order to explain this extra
enhancement, several models were proposed by reserarchers.
Nowadays, nanofluids are considered to be the next-generation heat transfer
fluids as they offer exciting new possibilities to enhance heat transfer performance
compared to pure liquids. Nanofluids have superior properties compared to
conventional heat transfer fluids, as well as fluids containing micro-sized metallic
particles. Large enhancement of heat transfer performance has been relative to the
small amount of material added to the system [07Wan].
The main reasons that contributed to this enhancement of heat transfer
performance are
(i) The suspended nanoparticles increase the surface area for heat transfer and
the heat capacity of the fluid.
(ii) The suspended nanoparticles increase the effective thermal conductivity of the
fluid.
(iii)The interaction and collision among particles, fluid and the flow passage
surface are intensified.
(iv) The mixing fluctuation and turbulence of the fluid are intensified.
(v) The dispersion of nanoparticles flattens the transverse temperature gradient of
the fluid [00Xua].
Many researchers have considered using nanofluids in heat exchange systems
to replace conventional thermal working fluids such as water, ethylene glycol (EG)
and engine oil. Nanofluid substantially increased thermal conductivities of
nanoparticles suspensions containing a small amount of metal or nonmetals. So,
nanofluids are used in heat exchanges systems because such working fluids have
relatively low thermal conductivitie when compared to the thermal conductivity of
solids as shown in Table 2.1. Then, metal with higher thermal conductivity when
compared to the convectional fluids could lead to increase in the overall heat transfer
 26

coefficient when added to the convectional fluids.

The enhancement of heat transfer performance of nanofluids are shown in the
following Figure 2.12.
Table 2.1. Comparison of Solids and Working Fluids Thermal Conductivity at
Room Temperature [05Eas]

Room Temperature
Material
Thermal Conductivity(W/m-K)

Metallic Solids: Silver 429

Metallic Solids: Copper 401
Metallic Solids: Aluminium 237

Nonmetallic Solids: Diamond 3300

Nonmetallic Solids: Silicon 148
Nonmetallic Solids: Alumina 40
Metallic Liquids: Sodium @ 644K 72.3
Nonmetallic Liquids: Water 0.613
Nonmetallic Liquids: Ethylene Glycol 0.253
Nonmetallic Liquids: Engine Oil 0.145

Heat transfer
in a pipe Nanoparticles
• Better
Nanoparticle dispersion
flow behavior
Surface • Less
Microparticles sink
atoms clogging and
Heat transfer
abrasion
in a pipe
• Much larger
surface area-
to-volume
ratio
The relative large mass of microparticles can
damage the pipe’s wall

Figure 2.12. The Behavior of Nanoparticles and Microparticles in a Pipe [05Eas]

 27

2.9. Thermophysical Properties of Nanofluids

Thermophysical properties of the nanofluids are quite essential to predict their
heat transfer behavior. It is extremely important in the control for the industrial and
energy saving perspectives. There is great industrial interest in nanofluids.
Nanoparticles have great potential to improve the thermal transport properties
compared to conventional particles fluids suspension, millimetre and micrometer
sized particles. In the last decade, nanofluids have gained significant attention due to
its enhanced thermal properties.
Experimental studies show that thermal conductivity of nanofluids depends on
many factors such as particle volume fraction, particle material, particle size, particle
shape, base fluid material, and temperature. Amount and types of additives and the
acidity of the nanofluid were also shown to be effective in the thermal conductivity
enhancement.
The transport properties of nanofluid: dynamic thermal conductivity and
viscosity are not only dependent on volume fraction of nanoparticle, also highly
dependent on other parameters such as particle shape, size, mixture combinations and
slip mechanisms, surfactant, etc. Studies showed that the thermal conductivity as well
as viscosity both increases by using nanofluid compared to base fluid. So far, various
theoretical and experimental studies was conducted and various correlations have
been proposed for thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity of nanofluids.
However no general correlations was established due to lack of common
understanding on mechanism of nanofluid.

2.10. Advantages of Nanofluids

The advantages of nanofluids are as follows;
(i) High specific surface area and therefore more heat transfer surface between
particles and fluids.
(ii) High dispersion stability with predominant Brownian motion of particles.
(iii)Reduced pumping power as compared to pure liquid to achieve equivalent
heat transfer intensification.
(iv) Reduced particle clogging as compared to conventional slurries, thus
promoting system miniaturization.
Adjustable properties, including thermal conductivity and surface wet ability
were analyzed by varying particle concentrations to suit different applications.