Solution Manual for Managing Supply Chains A Logistics Approach International

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CHAPTER 2 ROLE OF LOGISTICS IN SUPPLY CHAINS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Understand the role and importance of logistics in private and public organizations.
• Discuss the impact of logistics on the economy and how effective logistics management
contributes to the vitality of the economy.
• Understand the value-added roles of logistics on both a macro and micro level.
• Explain logistics systems from several perspectives.
• Understand the relationship between logistics and other important functional areas in
an organization, including manufacturing, marketing, and finance.
• Discuss the importance of management activities in the logistics function.
• Analyze logistics systems from several different perspectives to meet
different objectives.
• Determine the total costs and understand the cost tradeoffs in a logistics system.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Introduction
Logistics is misunderstood and often overlooked with the excitement surrounding supply
chain management and all of the related technology that has been developed to support
the supply chain. The glamour associated with the e-supply chain, e-tailing, e-business,
and so on, seems to overshadow the importance of logistics in an organization and the
need for efficient and effective logistics support in a supply chain.
The concepts of supply chain management and logistics must be compared or, more
appropriately, related to each other. Supply chain management has been defined using a
pipeline analogy with the start of the pipeline representing the initial supplier and the
end of the pipeline representing the ultimate customer.

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 Role of Logistics in Supply Chains Chapter 2
What is Logistics?
The term logistics has become much more widely recognized by the general public in
the last 20 years. Television, radio, and print advertising have lauded the importance of
logistics. Another factor contributing to the recognition of logistics has been increased
customer sensitivity to not only product quality but also to the associated service quality.

Even with increased recognition of the term logistics, however, there is still confusion
about its definition. Some of the confusion can be traced to the fact that a number of
terms are used by individuals when they refer to what has been described as logistics.

For example, consider the following list of terms:

• Logistics management
• Business logistics management
• Integrated logistics management
• Materials management
• Physical distribution management
• Marketing logistics
• Industrial logistics
• Distribution

Logistics management is the most widely accepted term and encompasses logistics
not only in the private business sector but also in the public/government and nonprofit
sectors.

For the purposes of this text, the definition offered by the Council of Supply Chain
Management Professionals (formerly the Council of Logistics Management) is utilized:
“The art and science of management, engineering, and technical activities concerned with
requirements, design, and supplying and maintaining resources to support objectives,
plans, and operations.”

The logistics concept began to appear in the business-related literature in the 1960s under
the label of physical distribution, which had a focus on the outbound side of the logistics
system. During the 1960s, military logistics began to focus on engineering dimensions of
logistics—reliability, maintainability, configuration management, life cycle management,
and so on—with increased emphasis on modeling and quantitative analysis.

In the twenty-first century, logistics should be viewed as a part of management and

has four subdivisions:
• Business logistics: That part of the supply chain process that plans, implements, and
controls the efficient, effective flow and storage of goods, service, and related
information from point of use or consumption in order to meet customer requirements.
• Military logistics: The design and integration of all aspects of support for the
operational capability of the military forces (deployed or in garrison) and their equipment
to ensure readiness, reliability, and efficiency.

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 Role of Logistics in Supply Chains Chapter 2
• Event logistics: The network of activities, facilities, and personnel required to organize,
schedule, and deploy the resources for an event to take place and to efficiently withdraw
after the event.
• Service logistics: The acquisition, scheduling, and management of the facilities/ assets,
personnel, and materials to support and sustain a service operation or business.

Value-Added Roles of Logistics

Five principle types of economic utility add value to a product or service. Included are
form, time, place, quantity, and possession. Generally, production activities are credited
with providing form utility; logistics activities with time, place, and quantity utilities; and
marketing activities with possession utility. Each will be discussed briefly.

Form Utility: Form utility refers to the value added to goods through a manufacturing or
assembly process.

Place Utility: Logistics provides place utility by moving goods from production
surplus points to points where demand exists.

Quantity Utility: Today’s business environment demands that products not only be
delivered on time to the correct destination but also be delivered in the proper quantities.

Possession Utility: Possession utility is primarily created through the basic marketing
activities related to the promotion of products and services.

Logistical Activities
The responsibility of the logistics manager includes a number of activities. The
number and importance of these activities to the business varies according to the
particular emphasis placed on the logistics function.
• Traffic and Transportation involves the physical movement or flow of raw materials
or finished goods and involves the transportation agencies that provide service to the
firm.
• Warehousing and Storage involves two closely related activities: inventory
management and warehousing. A direct relationship exists between transportation and
the level of inventory and number of warehouses required. It is important to examine
the trade-offs related to the various alternatives in order to optimize the overall
logistics system.
• Industrial Packaging involves the necessary packaging needed to move the product to
the market. Logistics managers must analyze the tradeoffs between the type of
transportation selected and its packaging requirements.
• Materials Handling is important to efficient warehouse operation and concerns the
mechanical equipment for short-distance movement of goods through the warehouse.
• Order Fulfillment consists of the activities involved with completing customer
orders. Order fulfillment concerns the total lead time from when the order is placed
to actual delivery in satisfactory condition.

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 Role of Logistics in Supply Chains Chapter 2
• Demand Forecasting involves the prediction of inventory requirement and materials
and parts essential to effective inventory control.
• Production Planning concerns the determination of the number of units necessary to
provide market coverage. The integration of production planning into logistics has
become increasingly popular in large companies to effectively forecast and control
inventory.
• Purchasing concerns the availability for production of needed parts, components, and
materials in the right quantity, at the right time, at the right place, and at the right
cost including within the logistics area if it more effectively coordinates and lowers
costs for the firm.
• Customer Service levels play an important part in logistics by ensuring the
customer gets the right product, at the right time and place. Logistics decisions
about product availability and inventory lead time are critical to customer service.
• Plant and Warehouse Site location is concerned with creating the time and place
relationships between plants and markets, or between supply points and plants.
Site location impacts transportation rates and service, customer service, inventory
requirements, and possible other areas.
• Parts and Service Support is concerned with maintaining an adequate channel to
anticipated repair needs.
• Salvage and Scrap Disposal deals with reverse logistics systems and channels in
order to effectively and efficiently dispose of containers and other scrap at the end of
the distribution channel.

Logistics in the Economy: A Macro Perspective

The overall, absolute cost of logistics on a macro basis will increase with growth in the
economy. In other words, if more goods and services are produced, logistics costs will
increase. To determine the efficiency of the logistics system, total logistics costs need to
be measured in relationship to gross domestic product (GDP), which is a widely
accepted barometer used to gauge the rate of growth in the economy.

Some additional understanding of logistics costs can be gained by examining the three
major cost categories included in this cost—warehousing and inventory costs,
transportation costs, and other logistics costs.

The declining trend for logistics cost relative to GDP is very important to recognize.

In addition to the managerial focus on managing inventory and transportation

more efficiently, the total logistics system has received increased attention.

Logistics in the Firm: The Micro Dimension

Another dimension of logistics is the micro perspective that examines the relationships
between logistics and other functional areas in an organization—marketing,
manufacturing/operations, finance and accounting, and others. Logistics, by its nature,
focuses on processes that cut across traditional functional boundaries, particularly in

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 Role of Logistics in Supply Chains Chapter 2
today’s environment with its emphasis on the supply chain. Consequently, logistics
interfaces in many important ways with other functional areas.

Logistics Interfaces with Operations/Manufacturing: Length of the production run is a

classic interface area between logistics and manufacturing management. Other
operational areas of interface include the effects of product seasonal demand, supply-
side interfaces, protective packaging, and foreign and third-party alternative sources of
production inputs.
Logistics Interfaces with Marketing: Logistics is often referred to as the other half of
marketing and plays an important role through the physical movement and storage of
goods in selling a product. Interfaces with marketing are discussed in terms of price,
product, promotion, and place elements of the marketing mix. Logistics pricing decisions
concern carrier pricing, matching discount schedules to transportation rates, and volume
relationships affecting the ability to move and store products.
Price: From a logistics perspective, adjusting quantity prices to conform to shipment sizes
appropriate for transportation organizations might be quite important.

Product: Another decision frequently made in the marketing area concerns products,
particularly their physical attributes.

Promotion: Firms often spend millions of dollars on national advertising campaigns and
other promotional practices to improve sales. An organization making a promotional effort
to stimulate sales should inform its logistics manager so that sufficient quantities of
inventory will be available for distribution to the customer. Marketing can either “push”
the product through the distribution channel to the customer or “pull” it through.

Place: The place decision refers to the distribution channels decision, and thus involves
both transactional and physical distribution channel decisions.

Recent Trends: Perhaps the most significant trend is that marketers have begun to
recognize the strategic value of place in the marketing mix and the increased
revenues and customer satisfaction that might result from excellent logistics service.

While manufacturing and marketing are probably the two most important internal,
functional interfaces for logistics in a product-oriented organization, there are other
important interfaces. The finance area has become increasingly important during the
last decade.

Logistics in the Firm: Factors Affecting the Cost and Importance of Logistics
This section deals with specific factors relating to the cost and importance of logistics.
Emphasizing some of the competitive, product, and spatial relationships of logistics can
help explain the strategic role of an organization’s logistics activities.

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random and unrelated content:
facts of magneto-electric induction by motion to be explained, or even
expressed?

Various philosophers attempted to answer this question. Perhaps the

form in which the answer has obtained most general acceptance is that in
which it was put by Lenz, who discoursed on the subject to the Academy
of St. Petersburg in 1833. 27 His general rule is to this effect: when a wire
moves in the neighborhood of an electric current or a magnet, a current
takes place in it, such as, existing independently, would have produced a
motion opposite to the actual motion. Thus two parallel forward currents
move towards each other:—hence if a current move towards a parallel
wire, it produces in it a backward current. A moveable wire conducting a
current downwards will move round the north pole of a magnet in the
direction N., W., S., E.:—hence if, when the wire have in it no current,
we move it in the direction N., W., S., E., we produce in the wire an
upward current. And thus, as M. de la Rive remarks, 28 in cases in which
the mutual action of two currents produces a limited motion, as attraction
or repulsion, or a deviation right or left, the corresponding magneto-
electric induction produces an instantaneous current only; but when the
electrodynamic action produces a continued motion, the corresponding
motion produces, by induction, a continued current.
27
Acad. Petrop. Nov. 29, 1833. Pogg. Ann. vol. xxxi. p. 483.

28
Traité de l’Electricité, vol. i. p. 441 (1854).

Looking at this mode of stating the law, it is impossible not to regard

this effect as a sort of reaction; and accordingly, this view was at once
taken of it. Professor Ritchie said, in 1833, “The law is founded on the
universal principle that action and reaction are equal.” Thus, if voltaic
electricity induce magnetism under certain arrangements, magnetism
will, by similar arrangements, react on a conductor and induce voltaic
electricity. 29
29
On the Reduction of Mr. Faraday’s discoveries in Magneto-electric
Induction to a General Law. Trans. of R. S. in Phil. Mag. N.S. vol. iii. 37, and
vol. iv. p. 11. In the second edition of this history I used the like expressions.
 There are still other ways of looking at this matter. I have elsewhere
pointed out that where polar properties co-exist, they are 620 generally
found to be connected, 30 and have illustrated this law in the case of
electrical, magnetical, and chemical polarities. If we regard motion
backwards and forwards, to the right and the left, and the like, as polar
relations, we see that magneto-electric induction gives us a new
manifestation of connected polarities.
30
Phil. Ind. Sc. B. v. c. ii.

Diamagnetic Polarity.

But the manifestation of co-existent polarities which are brought into

view in this most curious department of nature is not yet exhausted by
those which we have described. I have already spoken (chap. vii.) of Dr.
Faraday’s discovery that there are diamagnetic as well as magnetic
bodies; bodies which are repelled by the pole of a magnet, as well as
bodies which are attracted. Here is a new opposition of properties. What
is the exact definition of this opposition in connexion with other
polarities? To this, at present, different philosophers give different
answers. Some say that diamagnetism is completely the opposite of
ordinary magnetism, or, as Dr. Faraday has termed it for the sake of
distinction, of paramagnetism. They say that as a north pole of a magnet
gives to the neighboring extremity of a piece of soft iron a south pole, so
it gives to the neighboring extremity of a piece of bismuth a north pole,
and that the bismuth becomes for a time an inverted magnet; and hence,
arranges itself across the line of magnetised force, instead of along it. Dr.
Faraday himself at first adopted this view; 31 but he now conceives that
the bismuth is not made polar, but is simply repelled by the magnet; and
that the transverse position which it assumes, arises merely from its
elongated form, each end trying to recede as far as possible from the
repulsive pole of the magnet.
31
Faraday’s Researches, Art. 2429, 2430.
 Several philosophers of great eminence, however, who have examined
the subject with great care, adhere to Dr. Faraday’s first view of the
nature of Diamagnetism—as W. Weber, 32 Plücker, and Mr. Tyndall
among ourselves. If we translate this view into the language of Ampère’s
theory, it comes to this:—that as currents are induced in iron and
magnetics parallel to those existing in the inducing magnet or battery
wire; so in bismuth, heavy glass, and other diamagnetic bodies, the
currents induced are in the contrary 621 directions:—these hypothetical
currents being in non-conducting diamagnetic, as in magnetic bodies, not
in the mass, but round the particles of the matter.
32
Poggendorf’s Ann. Jou. 1848.

Magneto-optic Effects and Magnecrystallic Polarity.

Not even yet have we terminated the enumeration of the co-existent

polarities which in this province of nature have been brought into view.
Light has polar properties; the very term polarization is the record of the
discovery of these. The forces which determine the crystalline forms of
bodies are of a polar nature: crystalline forms, when complete, may be
defined as those forms which have a certain degree of symmetry in
reference to opposite poles. Now has this optical and crystalline polarity
any relation to the electrical polarity of which we have been speaking?

However much we might be disposed beforehand to conjecture that

there is some relation between these two groups of polar properties, yet
in this as in the other parts of this history of discoveries respecting
polarities, no conjecture hits the nature of the relation, such as
experiment showed it to be. In November, 1846, Faraday announced the
discovery of what he then called “the action of magnets on light.” But
this action was manifested, not on light directly, but on light passing
through certain kinds of glass. 33 When this glass, subjected to the action
of the powerful magnets which he used, transmitted a ray of light parallel
to the line of magnetic force, an effect was produced upon the light. But
of what nature was this effect? When light was ordinary light, no change
in its condition was discoverable. But if the light were light polarized in
any plane, the plane of polarization was turned round through a certain
angle while the ray passed through the glass:—a greater angle, in
proportion as the magnetic force was greater, and the thickness of the
glass greater.
33
Silicated borate of lead. See Researches, § 2151, &c. Also flint glass, rock
salt, water (2215).

A power in some respects of this kind, namely, a power to rotate the

plane of polarization of a ray passing through them, is possessed by
some bodies in their natural state; for instance, quartz crystals, and oil of
turpentine. But yet, as Dr. Faraday remarks, 34 there is a great difference
in the two cases. When polarized rays pass through oil of turpentine, in
whatever direction they pass, they all of them have their 622 plane of
polarization rotated in the same direction; that is, all to the right or all to
the left; but when a ray passes through the heavy glass, the power of
rotation exists only in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic line, and its
direction as right or left-handed is reversed by reversing the magnetic
polarity.
34
Researches, Art. 2231.

In this case, we have optical properties, which do not depend on

crystalline form, affected by the magnetic force. But it has also been
found that crystalline form, which is so fertile a source of optical
properties, affords indications of magnetic forces. In 1847, M. Plücker, 35
of the University of Bonn, using a powerful magnetic apparatus, similar
to Faraday’s, found that crystals in general are magnetic, in this sense,
that the axes of crystalline form tend to assume a certain position with
reference to the magnetic lines of force. The possession of one optic axis
or of two is one of the broad distinctions of the different crystalline
forms: and using this distinction, M. Plücker found that a crystal having
a single optic axis tends to place itself with this axis transverse to the
magnetic line of force, as if its optic axis were repelled by each magnetic
pole; and crystals with two axes act as if each of these axes were repelled
by the magnetic poles. This force is independent of the magnetic or
diamagnetic character of the crystal; and is a directive, more properly
than an attractive or repulsive force.
35
Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, vol. v.

Soon afterwards (in 1848) Faraday also discovered 36 an effect of

magnetism depending on crystalline form, which at first sight appeared
to be different from the effects observed by M. Plücker. He found that a
crystal of bismuth, of which the form is nearly a cube, but more truly a
rhombohedron with one diagonal a little longer than the others, tends to
place itself with this diagonal in the direction of the lines of magnetic
force. At first he conceived 37 the properties thus detected to be different
from those observed by M. Plücker; since in this case the force of a
crystalline axis is axial, whereas in those, it was equatorial. But a further
consideration of the subject, led him 38 to a conviction that these forces
must be fundamentally identical: for it was easy to conceive a
combination of bismuth crystals which would behave in the magnetic
field as a crystal of calcspar does; or a combination of calcspar crystals
which would behave as a crystal of bismuth does.
36
Researches, Art. 2454, &c.

37
Art. 2469.

38
Art. 2593, 2601.

And thus we have fresh examples to show that the Connexion of

coexistent Polarities is a thought deeply seated in the minds of the 623
profoundest and most sagacious philosophers, and perpetually verified
and illustrated, by unforeseen discoveries in unguessed forms, through
the labors of the most skilful experimenters.

Magneto-electric Machines.

The discovery that a voltaic wire moved in presence of a magnet, has a

current generated in it, was employed as the ground of the construction
of machines to produce electrical effects. In Saxton’s machine two coils
of wire including a core of soft iron revolved opposite to the ends of a
horseshoe magnet, and thus, as the two coils came opposite to the N. and
S. and to the S. and N. poles of the magnet, currents were generated
alternately in the wires in opposite directions. But by arranging the
connexions of the ends of the wires, the successive currents might be
made to pass in corresponding directions. The alternations or successions
of currents in such machines are governed by a contrivance which
alternately interrupts and permits the action; this contrivance has been
called a rheotome. Clarke gave a new form to a machine of the same
nature as Saxton’s. But the like effect may be produced by using an
electro-magnet instead of a common magnet. When this is done, a
current is produced which by induction produces a current in another
wire, and the action is alternately excited and interrupted. When the
inducing current is interrupted, a momentary current in an opposite
direction is produced in the induced wire; and when this current stops, it
produces in the inducing wire a current in the original direction, which
may be adjusted so as to reinforce the resumed action of the original
current. This was pointed out by M. De la Rive in 1843. 39 Machines
have been constructed on such principles by him and others. Of such
machines the most powerful hitherto known is that constructed by M.
Ruhmkorff. The effects of this instrument are exceedingly energetic.
39
Traité de l’Elect. i. 391.

Applications of Electrodynamic Discoveries.

The great series of discoveries of which I have had to speak have been
applied in many important ways to the uses of life. The Electric
Telegraph is one of the most remarkable of these. By wires extended to
the most distant places, the electric current is transmitted 624 thither in an
imperceptible time; and by means of well-devised systems of operation,
is made to convey from man to man words, which are now most
emphatically “winged words.” In the most civilised states such wires
now form a net-work across the land, which is familiar to our thoughts as
the highway is to our feet; and wide seas have such pathways of human
thought buried deep in their waves from shore to shore. Again, by using
the chemical effects of electrodynamic action, of which we shall have to
speak in the next Book, a new means has been obtained of copying, with
an exactness unattainable before, any forms which art or nature has
produced, and of covering them with a surface of metal. The Electrotype
Process is now one of the great powers which manufacturing art
employs.

But these discoveries have also been employed in explaining natural

phenomena, the causes of which had before been altogether inscrutable.
This is the case with regard to the diurnal variation of the magnetic
needle; a fact which as to its existence is universal in all places, and
which yet is so curiously diverse in its course at different places. Dr.
Faraday has shown that some of the most remarkable of these diversities,
and probably all, seem to be accounted for by the different magnetic
effects of air at different temperatures: although, as I have already said,
(Book xii.) the discovery of a decennial period in the diurnal changes of
magnetic declination shows that any explanation of those changes which
refers them to causes existing in the atmosphere must be very
incomplete. 40
40
Researches, Art. 2892.
B O O K X I V.

CHEMISTRY.
 CHAPTER IX.

T E - T .

A MONG the consequences of the Electro-chemical Theory, must be

ranged the various improvements which have been made in the
voltaic battery. Daniel introduced between the two metals a partition
permeable by chemical action, but such as to allow of two different acid
solutions being in contact with the two metals. Mr. Grove’s battery, in
which the partition is of porous porcelain, and the metals are platinum
and amalgamated zinc, is one of the most powerful hitherto known.
Another has been constructed by Dr. Callan, in which the negative or
conducting plate is a cylinder of cast iron, and the positive element a
cylinder of amalgamated zinc placed in a porous cell. This also has great
energy.

The Number of Elementary Substances.

There have not been, I believe, any well-established additions to the

list of the simple substances recognized by chemists. Indeed the
tendency at present appears to be rather to deny the separate elementary
character of some already announced as such substances. Pelopium and
Niobium were, as I have said, two of the new metals. But Naumann, in
his Elemente der Mineralogie (4th ed. 1855), says, in a foot note (page
25): “Pelopium is happily again got rid of; for Pelopic Acid and Niobic
Acid possess the same Radical. Donarium had a still shorter existence.”

In the same way, when Hermann imagined that he had discovered a

new simple metallic substance in the mineral Samarskite from Miask, the
discovery was disproved by H. Rose (Pogg. Ann. B. 73, s. 449). 626

In general the insulation of the new simple substances, the metallic

bases of the earths, and the like,—their separation from their
combinations, and the exhibition of them in a metallic form—has been a
difficult chemical process, and has rarely been executed on any
considerable scale. But in the case of Aluminium, the basis of the earth
Alumina, the process of its extraction has recently been so much
facilitated, that the metal can be produced in abundance. This being the
case, it will probably soon be applied to special economical uses, for
which it is fitted by possessing special properties.
B O O K X V.

MINERALOGY.
B Y the kindness of W. H. Miller, Esq., Professor of Mineralogy in the
University of Cambridge, I am able to add to this part the following
notices of books and memoirs.

1. Crystallography.

Elemente der Krystallographie, nebst einer tabellarischen Uebersicht

der Mineralien nach der Krystallformen, von Gustav Rose. 2. Auflage.
Berlin, 1838. The crystallographic method here adopted is, for the most
part, that of Weiss. The method of this work has been followed in

A System of Crystallography, with its Applications to Mineralogy. By

John Joseph Griffin. Glasgow, 1841. Mr. Griffin has, however, modified
the notation of Rose. He has constructed a series of models of crystalline
forms.

Frankenheim’s System der Krystalle. 1842. This work adopts nearly

the Mohsian systems of crystallization. It contains Tables of the chemical
constitution, inclinations of the axis, and magnitude of the axes of all the
crystals of which a description was to be found, including those formed
in the laboratory, as well as those usually called minerals; 713 in all.

Fr. Aug. Quenstedt, Methode der Krystallographie, 1840, employs a

fanciful method of representing a crystal by projecting upon one face of
the crystal all the other faces. This invention appears to be more curious
than useful.

Dr. Karl Naumann, who is spoken of in Chap. ix. of this Book, as the
author of the best of the Mixed Systems of Classification, published also
Grundriss der Krystallographie, Leipzig, 1826. In this and other works
he modifies the notation of Mohs in a very advantageous manner. 628

Professor Dana, in his System of Mineralogy, New Haven (U.S.),

1837, follows Naumann for the most part, both in crystallography and in
mineral classification. In the latter part of the subject, he has made the
attempt, which in all cases is a source of confusion and of failure, to
introduce a whole system of new names of the members of his
classification.

The geometry of crystallography has been investigated in a very

original manner by M. Bravais, in papers published in the Journal of the
Ecole Polytechnique, entitled Mémoires sur les Systèmes formés par des
Points. 1850. Etudes Crystallographiques. 1851.

Hermann Kopp (Einleitung in die Krystallographie, Braunschweig.

1849) has given the description and measurement of the angles of a large
number of laboratory crystals.

Rammelsberg (Krystallographische Chemie, Berlin, 1855) has

collected an account of the systems, simple forms and angles of all the
laboratory crystals of which he could obtain descriptions.

Schabus of Vienna (Bestimmung der Krystallgestalten in Chemischen

Laboratorien erzeugten Producte, Wien, 1855; a successful Prize Essay)
has given a description, accompanied by measurements, of 90 crystalline
species from his own observations.

To these attempts made in other countries to simplify and improve

crystallography, I may add a remarkable Essay very recently made here
by Mr. Brooke, and suggested to him by his exact and familiar
knowledge of Mineralogy. It is to this effect. All the crystalline forms of
any given mineral species are derived from the primitive form of that
species; and the degree of symmetry, and the parameters, of this form
determine the angles of all derivative forms. But how is this primitive
form selected and its parameters determined? The selection of the kind
of the primitive form depends upon the degree of symmetry which
appears in all the derivative forms; according to which they belong to the
rhombohedral, prismatic, square pyramidal, or some other system: and
this determination is commonly clear. But the parameters, or the angles,
of the primitive form, are commonly determined by the cleavage of the
mineral. Is this a sufficient and necessary ground of such determination?
May not a simplification be effected, in some cases, by taking some
other parameters? by taking a primitive form which belongs to the proper
system, but which has some other angles than those given by cleavage?
Mr. Brooke has tried whether, for instance, crystals of the rhombohedral
system may not be referred with advantage to primitive rhombohedrons
which have, in all 629 the species, nearly the same angles. The advantage
to be obtained by such a change would be the simplification of the laws
of derivation in the derivative forms: and therefore we have to ask,
whether the indices of derivation are smaller numbers in this way or with
the hitherto accepted fundamental angles. It appears to me, from the
examples given, that the advantage of simplicity in the indices is on the
side of the old system: but whether this be so or not, it was a great
benefit to crystallography to have the two methods compared. Mr.
Brooke’s Essay is a Memoir presented to the Royal Society in 1856.

2. Optical Properties of Minerals.

The Handbuch der Optik, von F. W. G. Radicke, Berlin, 1839,

contains a chapter on the optical properties of crystals. The author’s chief
authority is Sir D. Brewster, as might be expected.

M. Haidinger has devoted much attention to experiments on the

pleochroism of minerals. He has invented an instrument which makes the
dichroism of minerals more evident by exhibiting the two colors side by
side.

The pleochroism of minerals, and especially the remarkable clouds

that in the cases of Iolite, Andalusite, Augite, Epidote, and Axinite,
border the positions of either optical axis, have been most successfully
imitated by M. de Senarmont by means of artificial crystallizations.
(Ann. de Chim. 3 Ser. xli. p. 319.)
 M. Pasteur has found that Racemic Acid consists of two different
acids, having the same density and composition. The salts of these acids,
with bases of Ammonia and of Potassa, are hemihedral, the hemihedral
faces which occur in the one being wanting in the other. The acids of
these different crystals have circular polarization of opposite kinds. (Ann.
de Chim. 3 Ser. xxviii. 56, 99.) This discovery was marked by the
assignation of the Rumford Medal to M. Pasteur in 1856.

M. Marbach has discovered that crystals of chlorate of soda, which

apparently belongs to the cubic or tessular system, exhibit hemihedral
faces of a peculiar character; and that the crystals have circular
polarization of opposite kinds in accordance with the differences of the
plagihedral faces. (Poggendorf’s Annalen, xci. 482.)

M. Seybolt of Vienna has found a means of detecting plagihedral faces

in quartz crystals which do not reveal them externally. (Akad. d.
Wissenschaft zu Wien, B. xv. s. 59.) 630

3. Classification of Minerals.

In the Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, B. . C. iii., I have

treated of the Application of the Natural-history Method of Classification
to Mineralogy, and have spoken of the Systems of this kind which have
been proposed. I have there especially discussed the system proposed in
the treatise of M. Necker, Le Règne Minéral ramené aux Méthodes
d’Histoire Naturelle (Paris, 1835). More recently have been published
M. Beudant’s Cours élémentaire d’Histoire Naturelle, Minéralogie
(Paris, 1841); and M. A. Dufresnoy’s Traité de Minéralogie (Paris,
1845). Both these works are so far governed by mere chemical views
that they lapse into the inconveniences and defects which are avoided in
the best systems of German mineralogists.

The last mineral system of Berzelius has been developed by M.

Rammelsberg (Nürnberg, 1847). It is in principle such as we have
described it in the history.

M. Nordenskiöld’s system (3rd Ed. 1849,) has been criticised by G.

Rose, who observes that it removes the defects of the system of
Berzelius only in part. He himself proposes what he calls a “Krystallo-
Chemisches System,” in which the crystalline form determines the genus
and the chemical composition the species. His classes are—

1. Simple Substances.

2. Combinations of Sulphur, Selenium, Titanium, Arsenic, Antimony.

3. Chlorides, Fluorides, Bromides, Iodides.

4. Combinations with Oxygen.

We have already said that for us, all chemical compounds are
minerals, in so far that they are included in our classifications. The
propriety of this mode of dealing with the subject is confirmed by our
finding that there is really no tenable distinction between native minerals
and the products of the laboratory. A great number of eminent chemists
have been employed in producing, by artificial means, crystals which
had before been known only as native products.
 BOOK XVI.

CLASSIFICATORY SCIENCES.
 BOTANY.

F OR the purpose of giving to my reader some indication of the present

tendency of Botanical Science, I conceive that I cannot do better than
direct his attention to the reflections, procedure, and reasonings which
have been suggested by the most recent extensions of man’s knowledge
of the vegetable world. And as a specimen of these, I may take the labors
of Dr. Joseph Hooker, on the Flora of the Antarctic Regions, 41 and
especially of New Zealand. Dr. Hooker was the Botanist to an expedition
commanded by Sir James Ross, sent out mainly for the purpose of
investigating the phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism near the South
Pole; but directed also to the improvement of Natural History. The
extension of botanical descriptions and classifications to a large mass of
new objects necessarily suggests wider views of the value of classes
(genera, species, &c.,) and the conclusions to be drawn from their
constancy or inconstancy. A few of Dr. Hooker’s remarks may show the
nature of the views taken under such circumstances.
41
The Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H. M. Discovery Ships Erebus and
Terror, in the years 1839–40. Published 1847. Flora Novæ Zelandiæ. 1853.

I may notice, in the first place, (since this work is intended for general
rather than for scientific readers,) Dr. Hooker’s testimony to the value of
a technical descriptive language for a classificatory science—a
Terminology, as it is called. He says, “It is impossible to write Botanical
descriptions which a person ignorant of Botany can understand, although
it is supposed by many unacquainted with science that this can and
should be done.” And hence, he says, the state of botanical science
demands Latin descriptions of the plants; and this is a lesson which he
especially urges upon the Colonists who study the indigenous plants. 632

Dr. Hooker’s remarks on the limits of species, their dispersion and

variation, are striking and instructive. He is of opinion that species vary
more, and are more widely diffused, than is usually supposed. Hence he
conceives that the number of species has been needlessly and
erroneously multiplied, by distinguishing the specimens which occur in
different places, and vary in unessential features. He says that though,
according to the lowest estimate of compilers, 100,000 is the commonly
received number of known plants, he thinks that half that number is
much nearer the truth. “This,” he says, “may be well conceived, when it
is notorious that nineteen species have been made of the Common
Potatoe, and many more of Solanum nigrum alone. Pteris aquilina has
given rise to numerous book species; Vernonia cinerea of India to fifteen
at least. . . . . . . Many more plants are common to most countries than is
supposed; I have found 60 New Zealand flowering plants and 9 Ferns to
be European ones, besides inhabiting numerous intermediate countries. .
. . . . So long ago as 1814, Mr. Brown drew attention to the importance of
such considerations, and gave a list of 150 European plants common to
Australia.”

As an example of the extent to which unessential differences may go,

he says (p. xvii.,) “The few remaining native Cedars of Lebanon may be
abnormal states of the tree which was once spread over the whole of the
Lebanon; for there are now growing in England varieties of it which
have no existence in a wild state. Some of them closely resemble the
Cedars of Atlas and of the Himalayas (Deodar;) and the absence of any
valid botanical differences tends to prove that all, though generally
supposed to be different species, are one.”

Still the great majority of the species of plants in those Southern

regions are peculiar. “There are upwards of 100 genera, subgenera, or
other well marked groups of plants, entirely or nearly confined to New
Zealand, Australia, and extra-tropical South America. They are
represented by one or more species in two or more of those countries,
and thus effect a botanical relationship or affinity between them all
which every botanist appreciates.”

In reference to the History of Botany, I have received corrections and

remarks from Dr. Hooker, with which I am allowed to enrich my pages.
 “P. 359. Note 3. Nelumbium speciosum, the Lotus of India. The
Nelumbium does not float, but raises both leaf and flower several feet
above the water: the Nymphæa Lotus has floating leaves. Both enter
largely into the symbolism of the Hindoos, and are often confounded. 633

“P. 362. Note 5. For Arachnis read Arachis. The Arachidna of

Theophrastus cannot, however, be the Arachis or ground-nut.

“Pp. 388 and 394. For Harlecamp read Hartecamp.

“P. 394. For Kerlen read Kalm.

“P. 394. For Asbech read Osbeck.

“P. 386. John Ray. Ray was further the author of the present Natural
System in its most comprehensive sense. He first divided plants into
Flowerless and Flowering; and the latter into Monocotyledonous and
Dicotyledonous:—’Floriferas dividemus in D , quarum
semina sata binis foliis, seminalibus dictis, quæ cotyledonorum usum
præstant, e terra exeunt, vel in binos saltem lobos dividuntur, quamvis
eos supra terram foliorum specie non efferant; et M ,
quæ nec folia bina seminalia efferunt nec lobos binos condunt. Hæc
divisio ad arbores etiam extendi potest; siquidem Palmæ et congeneres
hoc respectu eodem modo a reliquis arboribus differunt quo
Monocotyledones a reliquis herbis.’

“P. 408. Endogenous and Exogenous Growth. The exact course of the
wood fibres which traverse the stems of both Monocotyledonous and
Dicotyledonous plants has been only lately discovered. In the
Monocotyledons, those fibres are collected in bundles, which follow a
very peculiar course:—from the base of each leaf they may be followed
downwards and inwards, towards the axis of the trunk, when they form
an arch with the convexity to the centre; and curving outwards again
reach the circumference, where they are lost amongst the previously
deposited fibres. The intrusion of the bases of these bundles amongst
those already deposited, causes the circumference of the stem to be
harder than the centre; and as all these arcs have a short course (their
chords being nearly equal), the trunk does not increase in girth, and
grows at the apex only. The wood-bundles are here definite. In the
Dicotyledonous trunks, the layers of wood run in parallel courses from
the base to the top of the trunk, each externally to that last formed, and
the trunk increases both in height and girth; the wood-bundles are here
indefinite.

“With regard to the Cotyledons, though it is often difficult to

distinguish a Monocotyledonous Embryo from a Dicotyledonous, they
may always be discriminated when germinating. The Cotyledons, when
two or more, and primordial leaves (when no Cotyledons are visible) of a
Monocotyledon, are alternate; those of a Dicotyledon are opposite.

“A further physiological distinction between Monocotyledons and 634

Dicotyledons is observed in germination, when the Dicotyledonous
radicle elongates and forms the root of the young plant; the
Monocotyledonous radicle does not elongate, but pushes out rootlets
from itself at once. Hence the not very good terms, exorhizal for
Dicotyledonous, and endorhizal for Monocotyledonous.

“The highest physiological generalization in the vegetable kingdom is

between Phænogama and Cryptogama. In the former, fertilization is
effected by a pollen-tube touching the nucleus of an ovule; in
Cryptogams, the same process is effected by the contact of a sperm-cell,
usually ciliated (antherozoid), upon another kind of cell called a germ-
cell. In Phænogams, further, the organs of fructification are all modified
leaves; those of Cryptogams are not homologous.” (J. D. H.)
 ZOOLOGY.

I have exemplified the considerations which govern zoological

classification by quoting the reflexions which Cuvier gives us, as having
led him to his own classification of Fishes. Since the varieties of
Quadrupeds, or Mammals (omitting whales, &c.), are more familiar to
the common reader than those of Fishes, I may notice some of the steps
in their classification; the more so as some curious questions have
recently arisen thereupon.

Linnæus first divides Mammals into two groups, as they have Claws,
or Hoofs (unguiculata, ungulata.) But he then again divides them into
six orders (omitting whales, &c.), according to their number of incisor,
laniary, and molar teeth; namely:—

Primates. (Man, Monkey, &c.)

Bruta. (Rhinoceros, Elephant, &c.)

Feræ. (Dog, Cat, Bear, Mole, &c.)

Glires. (Mouse, Squirrel, Hare, &c.)

Pecora. (Camel, Giraffe, Stag, Goat, Sheep, Ox, &c.)

Belluæ. (Horse, Hippopotamus, Tapir, Sow, &c.)

In the place of these, Cuvier, as I have stated in the Philosophy (On the
Language of Sciences, Aphorism xvi.), introduced the following orders:
Bimanes, Quadrumanes, Carnassiers, Rongeurs, Edentés, Pachyderms,
Ruminans. Of these, the Carnassiers correspond to the Feræ of Linnæus;
the Rongeurs to his Glires; the Edentés are a new order, taking the
Sloths, Ant-eaters, &c., from the Bruta of Linnæus, the Megatherium
from extinct animals, and the Ornithorhynchus, &c., from the new
animals of Australia; the Ruminans agree with the 635 Pecora; the
Pachyderms include some of the Bruta and the Belluæ, comprehending
also extinct animals, as Anoplotherium and Palæotherium.

But the two orders of Hoofed Animals, the Pachyderms and the
Ruminants, form a group which is held by Mr. Owen to admit of a better
separation, on the ground of a character already pointed out by Cuvier;
namely, as to whether they are two-toed or three-toed. According to this
view, the Horse is connected with the Tapir, the Palæotherium, and the
Rhinoceros, not only by his teeth, but by his feet, for he has really three
digits. And Cuvier notices that in the two-toed or even-toed Pachyderms,
the astragalus bone has its face divided into two equal parts by a ridge;
while in the uneven-toed pachyderms it has a narrow cuboid face. Mr.
Owen has adopted this division of Pachyderms and Ruminants, giving
the names artiodactyla and perissodactyla to the two groups; the former
including the Ox, Hog, Peccary, Hippopotamus, &c.; the latter
comprehending the Horse, Tapir, Rhinoceros, Hyrax, &c. And thus the
Ruminants take their place as a subordinate group of the great natural
even-toed Division of the Hoofed Section of Mammals; and the Horse is
widely separated from them, inasmuch as he belongs to the odd-toed
division. 42
42
Owen, Odontography.

As we have seen, these modern classifications are so constructed as to

include extinct as well as living species of animals; and indeed the
species which have been discovered in a fossil state have tended to fill
up the gaps in the series of zoological forms which had marred the
systems of modern zoologists. This has been the case with the division of
which we are speaking.

Mr. Owen had established two genera of extinct Herbivorous Animals,

on the strength of fossil remains brought from South America:—
Toxodon, and Nesodon. In a recent communication to the Royal
Society 43 he has considered the bearing of these genera upon the
divisions of odd-toed and even-toed animals. He had already been led to
the opinion that the three sections, Proboscidea, Perissodactyla, and
Artiodactyla, formed a natural division of Ungulata; and he is now led to
think that this division implies another group, “a distinct division of the
Ungulata, of equal value, if not with the Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla
at least with the Proboscidea. This group he proposes to call Toxodonta.
43
Phil. Trans., 1853.
 BOOK XVII.

PHYSIOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.