12-Galilei Galilei
Intro to Philosophy Reviewer
WEEK 1-2
(2500 years ago)
Gautama Buddha
- “Life is suffering”
- 4 Noble Truths:
a. Truth of suffering
b. Truth of the cause of suffering
c. Truth of the end of suffering
d. Truth of the path that leads to end of suffering
- Life is
a. series of challenges that you have to overcome if
you want to survive
b. feels like you are competing in a race
c. each challenge is a question or a bunch of
questions that you have to answer
Why am I feeling this way? – Cause
How can I overcome it? – Process
How will it affect my life and the people around me? –
Consequence
Philosophy= “Philos- Love” and “Sophia- Wisdom” = Love
of wisdom
 about questions and answers
 can be pursued passionately (Socrates died for the
truth)
 Philosophers- lovers of wisdom
 Big difference between lover of wisdom and receiver of
knowledge
What makes someone a Philosopher?
 Pilosopo as Philosopher
- Pilosopo- comical and annoying; plays with words;
twist common sensical reasonings to come across as
funny
 A Philosopher is not a pilosopo because he/she does
not play with words or twists reasonings for the fun of
it
 A Pilosopo is a philosopher if the intention in playing
with words is to view things in a different way
 A Philosopher is not a pilosopo if he/she raises
questions with the intent of showing he/she is smart or
inquisitive
 A pilosopo is a philosopher if the questions stem from
genuine confusion, astonishment, and wonder
Origin of Philosophy
 Greece- birthplace of Philosophy in the West
- Precisely, in the City of Meitus in Turkey
 Thales- first philosopher in the West
- Father of Philosophy in the Western Civilization
Notable Ancient Greek Philosophers
1. Pythagoras- formulated Pythagorean Theorem
- Established community of learners devoted to study
religion and philosophy
2. Heraclitus- proposed that everything exists based on
higher order- logos
- “No man ever steps in the same river twice”- change is
a permanent aspect
3. Democritus- devoted to causes of natural phenomena
- Proposed matter is composed of atoms
4. Epicurus- philosophy could enable man to live a life of
happiness
- Epicureanism- believes wisdom and simple living will
result in a life free of fear and pain
5. Socrates- foremost philosopher of ancient times
- Made contributions to field of ethics
- Philosophy could enable a man to live a life of virtue
- Socratic Method- examining topic by devising a series
of questions
6. Plato- writings and teachings were foundation of
western Philosophy
- Dialect- method of inquiry; 2 opposing ideas are
discussed in an attempt to arrive at a new knowledge
- Theory of Forms- everything exists based on an idea or
template that can only be perceived in the mind;
eternal and unchanging
7. Aristotle- prominent student of Plato
- Disagreed to theory of forms
- All ideas and views are based on perception and reality
is based on what we sense and perceive
- Introduced deductive reasoning
Greek Triumvirate: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
Philosophical Activity
a. philosophy involves the widest generalizations
b. philosophy is all about fundamentals
c. philosophy is driven by the desire to integrate things in
to a one coherent whole
Branches of Philosophy
- 3 Philosophical Questions
1. Where Am I?
- Metaphysics- study of the universe as a whole
 Ontology- existence as such
 Philosophical Anthropology- deals with
fundamental and essential characteristics of
human nature
2. How Do I Know It?
- Epistemology- nature and means of human knowledge
3. What Should I Do?
- Ethics (morality)- technology of philosophy
- How humans ought to function as human being
- code of values to guide man’s choices and actions
- values man ought to pursue
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- means to obtain virtue
- Politics- principles of proper social system
- Aesthetics- nature of art
 Cognitive Branch- description of existence and knowing
- Foundations of understanding
- “what is”
- Metaphysics and Epistemology- foundations of ethics
 Normative Branch- standard of good
- “ought to be”
- Ethics, Politics, and Aesthetics
Philosophical Tools and Process
- philosophy uses reason to arrive at a certain
knowledge or truth
1. Philosophical Questions
- Philosophy was born because of ignorance
- Once a person stops questioning, he ceases to become
a philosopher
- A philosopher is like a child who has an inquisitive mind
who never stops asking questions and finding answers
2. Logical Reasoning
- Reasoning- process of thinking about something in a
logical way in order to form a conclusion or judgement
- Philosophy- answering questions
- Reasoning- method in doing philosophy
- Deductive Reasoning- general- specific
- Inducive Reasoning- specific- general
Philosophical Reflection
- Reflection- activity required a person to examine
thoughts, feelings, and actions and learn from
experience
- See bigger picture
- Gabriel Marcel- giving time to think about meaning and
purpose of life
 Primary Reflection- think logically
 Secondary Reflection- look deeper into experiences
and see bigger picture of reality
WEEK 3-4
 There’s a BIG difference between what we feel is true
and what is really true
- If you want to know the truth; use thinking not
emotions
- To think is an act of choice and not always done
properly
Epistemology
- Discovery of proper method of acquiring and validating
knowledge
- Purpose:
a. How to acquire knowledge
b. Method of whether the knowledge acquired is
really knowledge
Nature of Knowledge
 Ayn Rand: knowledge is a mental grasp of reality
reached either by perceptual observation or process of
reason
 Knowledge is retained from awareness
How Do You Acquire Knowledge?
 Using senses (Empiricism) -John Locke
- Mind is a tabula rasa (empty tablet/blank sheet)
- Write and store ideas based on experiences and learn
from experiences
- Can acquire knowledge thru: sensation and reflection
 Thinking with the use of mind (Rationalism)- Rene
Descartes
- Reason as chief source of knowledge and important
element in acquisition of knowledge
- Person is born with innate a priori (theoretical
knowledge)
Thinking is half of knowing; involves content
To think is to think of something; can’t think about nothing
Sense perception comes- feeds our minds with data from
outside world
First part of epistemology: The process of Acquiring
Knowledge
1. Reality- to know is to know something
- existence is everything there is
- everything we perceive and everything in our heads
existence is all there is to know
2. Perception- Senses; knowledge begins with perceptual
knowledge
- senses gives us knowledge of things or entities
- aware of qualities, quantities, relationships, and actions
- Aristotelian Categories can’t be separated from entities
that have it. (red can’t be separated from red objects)
3. Concept- begin to notice things that are similar to other
things
- abstract/generic idea generalized from particular instances
- First Level concepts (elementary concepts)
- From first concepts, we form higher concepts through
abstraction from abstractions
- Two types of abstraction from abstractions:
 Wider generalization- forming wider concepts
o Juan= Man, Dog= Animal; Both organisms
o As we go up to these progressive widenings
our knowledge increases
 Subdivisions- identifying finer distinctions
o Man= profession, race, gender
o As we go down, progressive narrowing
increases knowledge
o Results to hierarchy base on sense perception
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- Further; more abstract
- Closer; more concrete
4. Proposition- statement expressing assertion or denial
that an existent belongs to a class or possess certain
attribute
- Usually expressed in declarative sentence
- Men are mortal= assertion (affirmative); Men are
immortal= denial/negative (negative statement)
- Truth and falsity are 2 possible truth values of the
statement
5. Inference
- Argument- provide support for, or reason to believe one of
the others
- Example: All men are mortals (premises- justification,
evidence, and proof)
Socrates is a man.
Therefore Socrates is mortal (conclusion- wants to be
proven)
How do we know if something is true?
 Truth- central study of Philosophy
 person’s quest for truth is the reason why philosophy
exists
 truth is relative to the kind of standard one adheres to
Nature of Truth: Second Part of Epistemology- Validating
One’s Knowledge
 Reduction (reverse engineer)- one used to acquire
knowledge is the same step one use to validate it
- Heraclitus: The way up is the way down
- A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through
the use of one’s senses
 Some beliefs or ideas need a “multi-step process of
validation called proof
- proof rests ultimately on sense perception
- Statements based on sense perception are factual
 Consensus: majority agrees that a statement is true
then it is true
 Action: testing
Truth Vs Opinion
 Truth- knowledge validated and based on facts
- Facts of reality- independent of thoughts, feelings, and
preferences
- Facts, confirmed with sources, independent of one’s
interpretation, preferences, and biases
 Opinion
- Based on emotions
- Open to interpretation
- Can’t be confirmed
- Inherently biased
Truth- proposition believed to be absolute reality
Fact- information having objective reality acknowledged by
the greater whole
Opinion- judgement based on personal convictions, which
may or may not be truthful or false
Theories of Truth- used to know the truth or falsity of
statement
1. Correspondence Theory of Truth- corresponds to the
way things are based on facts
- Ideas that corresponds with reality is true; otherwise
false
- If what we believe/ say corresponds to the way things
are based facts
- Fact- set of circumstances; can’t be true or false
- Belief- opinion about those facts; capable of being true
or false
- One evidence based on reality; Checking
- The sky is blue, then I looked outside and saw that it is
indeed blue, then my statement is true
- leaves us in the lurch when we are confronted with
statements such as “I am lying” or “What I am saying
here is false.”
2. Coherence Theory- A belief is true when we are able to
confirm it with reality
- Checking if statement/belief agrees with the way
things really are
- Tested as a Larger complex set of ideas
3. Pragmatic Theory- statement is true if it has a useful
application
To verify if statement is true:
 Determine if they correspond to facts
 Cohere with the rules of system
 Result to useful application
WEEK 5
Philosophers believe that reason is the road to wisdom
Methods of Philosophizing;
1. Dialectic Method- Socrates
- achieve what he called the good life based on the
proper care of one’s soul
- Soul can be properly taken care of if we make it good as
possible
- Soul’s activity is to know
- Disciplined conversation (compared to Intellectual
Midwife)- dialectic
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- Intellectual Midwifery- not to tell people what the  Fallacies- arguments that are erroneous/based from
truth is, but rather to help them get out the truths that faulty reasoning
are already inside them
o eliciting the definition of a certain word from a Fallacy Description Example
Attacking the Hitting person How can we
person who appears to be familiar
Person below the belt; believe him
o points out the imperfections of the
(Argumentum not focusing on when he talks
understanding of the person through series of ad Hominem) issue about social
questions distancing, he’s a
o desires to realize ignorance and contradictions lawyer
o Socrates died for the truth Appeal to Force Use of threat or 24 oras is the
- Socratic Method was modernized by George Wilhem (Argumentum force best news
Hegel ad Baculum) program. If you
o Believed that people are social beings; don’t agree, I will
influenced by other people’s ideas not let you
o Spirit- collective consciousness of a society watch the TV.
Appeal to Pity Use of Forgive me
o Spirit is constantly changing and evolving
(Argumentum emotion/pity officer, there are
o Thesis- idea about the world
ad lot of boarders
o Antithesis- natural characteristics of having Misercordiam) here. Only the
error owner has
o Synthesis- new idea comprised of the quarantine pass,
essentials of both the thesis and the antithesis and we do not
2. Pragmatic Method- John Dewey have food so we
- beliefs about human beings and his relationship to the went out.
world Bandwagon Exploit people’s 80% of people in
- make philosophy relevant by solving real life problems Fallacy vanity, desires, your class has
- philosophy of method; not substance (Argumentum etc. iPhone, im sure
ad Populum) you want to have
- successful experience is the verification of truth
one too.
3. Phenomenological Method- Edmund Husserl
Appeal to Advancing an All of us from
- Science prompted
Tradition idea since it has our ancestors
- Husserl: science bring naturalistic attitude; Naturalism (Argumentum been practiced are Catholic, it is
(everything explained by matter or physical) ad Tradition) for a long time only right that
- Since man is not only physical, Husserl returned to the you are baptized
thinking self (one’s immediate experience) as Catholic.
4. The Primary and Secondary Reflections Begging the Colcusion is God exists
- Reflection emerge when something valuable is at stake Question taken for granted because bible
- Primary reflection- thinking; separation of the self and (Petitio Principii) in premises said so. The Bible
the world is inspired,
- Secondary Reflection- to think about thinking; more therefore God
expansive view of the self until it embraces the world exists.
5. Analytic Method Appeal to Whatever According to
- clarify how philosophers used words through an Ignorance proven false Zecharia Sitchin,
(Argumentum must be true and Adam is the first
analysis of language
ad Ignorantian) vice versa test tube baby.
- words had multiple functions depending on the context
Nobody proves
to which it occurs; “Tools in a Tool Box” otherwise,
- analyze language in the way actual people used it in therefore it is
ordinary situations true.
Hasty Reaching Our neighbor is a
Fallacies Generalization generalization police officer
 Philosophizing- gift of speech and the gift of based on who’s convicted
insufficient of being a drug
intelligence
evidence dealer. All police
- enable us to reason out and detect the falsity or
officers must be
truthfulness of a statement
drug dealers.
 When one reasons out, he/she expresses his opinion Cause and Effect Assuming the My teacher did
and when others disagree, then argument begins effect is related not collect our
to a cause assignments two
12-Galilei Galilei

because both weeks in a row  For Science, we came from an Ape under the Class:
occurred one when my friend Mammalia
after another was absent.  3 Components: SOUL, MIND, and SPIRIT
Therefore my
friend being 2 General Kinds to Distinguish a Human Person
absent is the
reason why she a. Cognitive Self (Something within and cannot be
did not collect physically seen)
our homeworks. - Essential components of a human person
Fallacy of Something is You are good in - Deals with “WHAT” of person
Composition true of a part is math. Your - Beliefs, dreams, intentions
true of a whole whole family b. Physical Self (Something can be seen in physical
must be good at appearance)
math. - Essential features of the human way of life
Fallacy of True of a whole You are a family - “WHO”
division must also be of doctors, you - Body type, strength, appearances
true of a part must also be a
doctor. What is Embodied Spirit?
Fallacy of Using the same Humans walk
Equivocation term in different with their legs. - Animating core living within each of us
situation Tables gas legs. - Driving force behind what we actually think, do, or, say
Tables must walk - Reflections of our total being
with its legs. - Usual connotation of embodied- “became
flesh/materialized”
- In Christian; inseparable union of human body and soul;
FACT OPINION
body and soul work together at all times
proven true or false may or may not be backed
up by facts, but cannot be What Defines Human Person as an Embodied Spirit?
proven true or false
Objective Subjective 1. Self-awareness
Discovered Created
States reality Interprets reality - Clear perception of oneself
Can be verified Can’t be verified - Thoughts, identity, and actions
- Look inward; presence of a self
- “I amness”
WEEK 6 - Experience inner world
- Self represents man’s interiority (focused to one’s inner
Human Person as an Embodied Spirit
life)
Man- entire human race - Deeper awareness driven by rationality or human
thought
Human- classifications and species - Aware of his/herself and surroundings
- Human person is an active participant
Human being- separate man from other classification

Person- possess self-awareness, self-determination, rational

mind, and capacity to interact with other
Personhood- state of being a person w/ unique, sacred, and
ethical status
Human Nature- deepest natural behavior; collective traits;
very essence of humanity
What is a Human Person?
 classified origin of species and persons with birth rights
 exact origin of his/her classification
 From the biblical perspective, we came from Adam and
Eve
2. Self-determination
- Not determined by others
- We direct the course of our life
- Capability to make choices and decisions
- We act and we are aware of our actions
- Elements of Human Action:
o Freewill- do actions whenever we want to and
make self-determination possible
 capacity to choose a course of action
from various alternatives
 act willfully, control his/her actions,
and recognize himself/herself as the
source of action
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o Consequence- result or effect of an action or
condition
 a person acts freely and with due
regard for the consequences of
his/her action
o Morality- goodness or badness
 Human action- reveals a person’s true
nature
3. Externality- capability to reach out and interact with
others
- Person never exists in isolation
4. Dignity- value and importance
- no amount of money can equal the value of a human life
- individual rights are absolute
- rights- “inalienable” because it cannot be separated from
our humanity
Human Transcendence
- Ability to surpass your limits
- Able to transcend limits through physical and mental
abilities
Buddha- “Life is Suffering”
- 4 noble truths and 8 fold paths
Eightfold Paths
1. Right View- correct understanding of nature of
truth
2. Right intention- eliminating thoughts of
attachment, detestation, and harmful intent
3. Right speech- abstaining from verbal offenses
4. Right Action- refraining from physical offenses
5. Right Livelihood- evading trades that
directly/indirectly damage others
6. Right Effort- forsaking undesirable states of mind
7. Right Concentration- single-mindedness
8. Right Mindfulness- consciousness of body,
feelings, thought, and phenomena
 These values are what human needs to succeed
 If you do the eightfold paths, you can transform
yourself to transcend to what you desire.
WEEK 7-8
Human Person in the Environment
 The world is changing for the worse; humanity is
responsible
I. Environmental Philosophy
- moral relationship of human beings with the
environment and its non-human contents
- we interact not only with our fellow human beings, but
also with other living and non-living elements in our
environment
- 3 Views of Philosophical Enbironment:
o Anthropocentrism- significant role of
humankind in the world; considers nature by
which humans meet their needs
 humans are the most important
species on the planet; free to
transform nature and use its
resources
 Effects: Global Warming, Famine, etc.
o Biocentrism- all other organisms have
inherent value and should be protected
 Ethical treatment of animals
 R.A. 8485 (Animal Welfare Act of
1998)- protect the welfare of animals;
prohibits acts of cruelty towards
animals
o Ecocentrism- great value on ecosystems and
biological communities
 humankind is a part of a greater
biological system; have a significant
role as stewards of nature
 order and balance in nature brings
about stability and beauty
II. Environmental Aesthetics
- Maintaining order
- Bring out natural beauty
- Contribute to well-being of people
III. Sustainable Development
- Development meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs
- reconciling human activities and economic advances
while protecting our environment
- Principles of Sustainability
o Environmental Integrity- any human activities
should not unduly disrupt the environment
and human communities located in the area
o Economic Efficiency- there is minimum to zero
waste in using our natural resources
o Equity- conserving our natural resources so
that the future generations will still be
able to use it
IV. Theories of Radical Ecological Philosophy
- Deep Ecology- all living things possess equal value and
intrinsic worth regardless of their usefulness or utility
to other beings
- Social Ecology- ecological problems can be traced to
social problems; economic classes use their authority to
dominate natural resources and exploit the
environment for profit and self-interest
- Ecofeminism- male-centered view of nature is the root
cause of ecological problems; a society that tolerates
the oppression of women is directly linked with its
12-Galilei Galilei

tendency to tolerate the abuse of the environment and

the degradation of nature
V. Prudence and Frugality
- Prudence- capacity to direct and discipline one’s
activities and behavior using reason; cautious; keeps
from any risks (4 Cardinal virtues includes, justice,
fortitude, and temperance); regulates one’s
action/behavior
- Frugality- being thrifty; careful supervision of resources