WHAT IS VOCABULARY?

TASK 1: Discuss the following questions

1. What is vocabulary?

a. Does vocabulary involve only single words? What about groups of words like
perfectly OK, at once, in a minute, portable TV, take medicine?
b. Do you consider the names of people – Elizabeth, Phillip, Charles, Anne – to be
vocabulary? What about the names of products like Pepsi, Big Mac, Gillette, and
Toyota?

2. What are the major aspects of vocabulary that can be taught to students?
Match each category with the correct description. An example has been
provided to help you.

Categories Description Example

1. Pronunciation A. How a word is created [ti:]
2. Spelling B. Words that mean the opposite T-e-a
3. Grammar C. Words that serve as specific examples Ox-Oxen
of the same concept
4. Collocation D. Words that mean the same or nearly Make trouble but Do
the same wrong
5. Denotation E. The additional meaning that shows Nightfall: The close of the
people’s emotions and attitudes towards day
what the word refers to
6. Connotation F. Whether a word is appropriate to use Excuse in She made an
in certain contexts excuse for being late has
a negative meaning.
7. Formality G. What a word looks like Thank you - Thanks
8. Synonym H. The core meaning that refers the word Bright, Clever, Smart
to the real world
9. Antonym I. Restrictions on how words can be used Rich vs. Poor
together
10. Hyponym J. What a word sounds like Bus, car, lorry, van
11. World K. Change of form (especially if it is Sink sinkable
building irregular) unsinkable

Adapted from Ur, 1996

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Then, put the different categories under the correct headings of “form”,
“meaning”, and “usage”:

Form Meaning Usage

3. What aspect(s) of vocabulary does each of the following exercises deal with?

A. In English, which of the following can we peel, which can we shell, and which
can we skin? Tick √ the boxes.

Shell Peel Skin

Potatoes
Oranges
Eggs
Shrimps
Nuts
Tomatoes
Grapes
Fish

Hubbard et al 1989

B. Match the words and definitions. Loot at the phonetics. Say the words.

cartoon fun funny joke laugh witty

1. (1) Noun - a funny story, something which makes you laugh [dʒouk]
(2) Verb – say things which are not meant to be serious

2. to make sounds which show you are happy or amused [lɑ:f]

3. (1) a funny drawing that makes a joke, often about a current event
(2) a film using moving drawings, e.g. Donald Duck [kɑ:'tu:n]

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4. activity or person who gives enjoyment [fʌn]

5. (1) that makes you laugh or smile ['fʌni]

(2) strange or peculiar

6. clever and amusing with words ['witi]

English File Upper-Intermediate Student’s Book

C. Write the plurals of these words

1. birthday ……..birthdays……… 8. foot ……………………

2. man …………………… 9. tomato ……………………
3. glass …………………… 10. hero ……………………
4. tooth …………………… 11. woman ……………………
5. factory …………………… 12. box ……………………
6. child …………………… 13. banana ……………………
7. journey …………………… 14. sandwich ……………………

Lifelines Elementary Student’s Workbook

D. Find one word to classify each of the groups of words below. Then write it in
the box.

1. Arabic, Swedish, Dutch L A N G U A G E S

2. bracelet, ring, earring
3. theft, murder, robbery
4. lettuce, cauliflower, cabbage
5. 10/12/44, 1/9/58, 21/2/91
6. knife, fork, spoon
7. Africa, Asia, Europe
8. Grapes, pineapples, peaches
9. van, car, lorry

Adapted from Watcyn-Jones, 1992

E. Fill each of the sentences below with the correct form of the word in
CAPITALS at the end of it.

1. I don’t really think there is a ------------------to the problem; at least not on the
near future (SOLVE)
2. It’s --------------- arguing with her. She never listens to what you say (USE)

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3. We could hear the dog barking ----------------- from inside the house as we
knocked on the front door (ANGRY)
4. Do you want to go to the pub or the cinema tonight? You decide. It’s your ------
--------- (CHOOSE)
5. The accident was due to the bus driver’s ------------------------ (CARE)

Adapted from Watcyn-Jones, 1992

F. Underline the odd one out

1. clever smart bright dumb

2. sad amused delighted happy
3. decrease rise drop reduce
4. famous unknown renowned well-known
5. repair fix break mend

G. Circle the correct answer

Which word has a more positive meaning?

1. Our trip to the amusement park was _____. a) fine b) wonderful

2. We saw _____ animals in the animal house. a) fascinating b) weird
3. Some of the monkeys made _____ faces. a) hilarious b) amusing

Which word has a more negative meaning?

4. We bought _____ souvenirs at the amusement park. a) cheap b) inexpensive

5. Mike _____ us to go to the funny house. a) nagged b) reminded
6. It made me feel _____. a) uneasy b) annoyed

Which is better?

7. Which is worth more?

a) something old b) something antique
8. Which would you like to be called?
a) to be skinny b) to be slender
9. Which is more serious?
a) problem b) disaster
10. Which would you be if you hadn't eaten for several days?
a) hungry b) starving

(http://www.dowlingcentral.com/MrsD/assign/literature/POV/ConnandDet
Quiz.htm)

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H. Complete the letter with the appropriate words in the brackets.

------------------ (Hello/ Dear) Prof. Lee

------------------ (Thank you/ Thanks) very much for your email.
------------------ (Shall we/Let’s) meet Monday at 10 a.m.?
------------------ (Bye/ Regards) –Tom

TASK 2: Read this text and check your answers to Task 1.

VOCABULARY: WHAT NEEDS TO BE TAUGHT?

1. Form: Pronunciation and Spelling

The learner has to know what a word sounds like (its pronunciation) and what it
looks like (its spelling). These are fairly obvious characteristics, and one or the
other will be perceived by the learner when encountering the item for the first
time. In teaching, we need to make sure that both these aspects are accurately
presented and learned.

2. Grammar

The grammar of a new item will need to be taught if this is not obviously
covered by general grammatical rules. An item may have an unpredictable
change of form in certain grammatical contexts or may have some idiosyncratic
way of connecting with other words in sentences; it is important to provide
learners with this information at the same time as we teach the base form. When
teaching a new verb, for example, we might give also its past form, if this is
irregular (think, thought), and we might note if it is transitive or intransitive.
Similarly, when teaching a noun, we may wish to present its plural form, if
irregular (mouse, mice), or draw learners’ attention to the fact that it has no
plural at all (advice, information). We may present verbs such as want and enjoy
together with the verb form that follows them (want to, enjoy-ing), or adjectives
or verbs together with their following preposition (responsible for, remind
someone of).

3. Collocation

The collocations typical of particular items are another factor that makes a
particular combination sound “right” or “wrong” in a given context. So this is
another piece of information about a new item which may be worth teaching.

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When introducing words like decision and conclusion, for example, we may note
that you take or make the one, but usually come to the other; similarly, you throw a
ball but toss a coin; you may talk about someone being dead tired but it sounds odd
to say * dead fatigued.

Collocations are also often noted in dictionaries, either by providing the whole
collocation under one of the head-words, or by a note in parenthesis.

4. Aspects of meaning (1): denotation, connotation, appropriateness/ formality

The meaning of a word is primarily what it refers to in the real world, its
denotation; this is often the sort of definition that is given in a dictionary. For
example, dog denotes a kind of animal; more specifically, a common, domestic
carnivorous mammal; and both dank and moist mean slightly wet.

A less obvious component of the meaning of an item is its connotation: the

associations, or positive or negative feelings it evokes, which may or may not be
indicated in a dictionary definition. The word dog, for example, as understood by
most British people, has positive connotation of friendship and loyalty, whereas
the equivalent in Arabic, as understood by most people in Arab countries has
negative associations of dirt and inferiority. Within the English language, moist
has favorable connotations while dank has unfavorable; so that you could
describe something as “pleasantly moist “where “pleasantly dank” would sound
absurd.

A more subtle aspect of meaning that often needs to be taught is whether a

particular item is the appropriate one to use in a certain context or not. Thus it is
useful for a learner to know that a certain word is very common, or relatively
rare, or “taboo” in polite conversation, or tends to be used in writing but not in
speech, or is more suitable for formal than informal discourse, or belongs to a
certain dialect. For example, you may know that weep is virtually synonymous in
denotation with cry, but it is more formal, tends to be used in writing more than
in speech, and is in general much less common.

5. Aspects of meaning (2): meaning relationships

How the meaning of one item relates to the meaning of others. It is also useful to
teach. There are various such relationships: here are some of the main ones.

• Synonyms: items that mean the same, or nearly the same; for example,
bright, clever, smart may serve as synonyms of intelligent.
• Antonym: items that mean the opposite; rich is antonym of poor.

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 • Hyponyms: items that serve as specific examples of a general concept; dog,
lion, mouse are hyponyms of animal.
• Co-hyponyms or co-ordinates: other items that are the “same kind of
thing; red, blue, green and brown are co-ordinates.
• Superordinates: general concepts that “cover” specific items; animal is the
superordinate of dog, lion, mouse.
• Translation: words or expressions in the learners’ mother tongue that are
(more or less) equivalent in meaning to the item being taught.

Besides these, there are other, perhaps looser, ways of associating meaning that
are useful in teaching. You can, for instance, relate parts to a whole (the
relationship between arm and body); or associate items that are part of the same
real-world context (tractor, farmer, milking and irrigate are all associated with
agriculture).

All these can be exploited in teaching to clarify the meaning of a new item, or for
practice or test materials.

7. Word formation

Vocabulary items, whether one-word or multi-word, can often be broken down

into their component "bits”. Exactly how these bits are put together is another
piece of useful information - perhaps mainly for more advanced learners.

You may wish to teach the common prefixes and suffixes: for example, if learners
know the meaning of sub, un and able, this will help them guess the meanings of
words like substandard, ungrateful and untranslatable. They should, however, be
warned that in many common words the affixes no longer have any obvious
connection with their root meaning (for example, subject, comfortable). New
combinations using prefixes are not unusual, and the reader or hearer would be
expected to gather their meaning from an understanding of their components
(ultra-modern, super-hero).

Another way vocabulary items are built is by combining two words (two nouns,
or a gerund and a noun, or a noun and a verb) to make one item: a single
compound word, or two separate, sometimes hyphenated words (bookcase,
follow-up, swimming pool). Again, new coinages using this kind of combination are
very common.
(Ur, 1996)

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 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING VOCABULARY

TASK 3: Discuss the following questions:

1. How do we learn vocabulary: by deliberately memorising a few words every

day or by doing communicative activities such as listening, reading, speaking,
and writing or in both ways?
2. Should we teach vocabulary when we teach the four skills or should we teach
it separately?
3. When dealing with new vocabulary in a reading or listening lesson, should we
teach every new word that occurs in the text?
4. What do you think is the optimum number of words that can be taught in a
lesson?
5. Should groups of words like absolutely fine, take medicine, in a minute, at once be
learnt as whole units or as separate words?
6. Should a word be taught in its spoken form before it is taught in its written
form? Why/ Why not?
7. Is the fact that students understand and can recognise a word guarantees that
they can use it?
8. How can we help learners to learn vocabulary effectively by themselves?

Now read the texts and check your answers

BACKGROUND TO THE TEACHING OF VOCABULARY

Like any other language feature, vocabulary can be developed through:

1. meaning-focused input: learning through listening and reading.

2. deliberate language-focused learning: learning from being taught.
3. meaning-focused output: learning by having to produce language in speaking
and writing.
4. fluency development: becoming quick and confident at listening, speaking,
reading, and writing.

There must be a balance in all the four learning opportunities and no

opportunity should overwhelm the others.

Learning from meaning-focused input:

Learning from meaning-focused input involves learning through listening and

reading. For vocabulary learning to occur in this strand, learners need to know
98% of the running words already (Hu and Nation, 2000). The unknown words
then can be learned through guessing from context.

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Deliberate learning:

Deliberate learning is sometimes called form-focused instruction, language-

focused learning, or language study. It involves paying deliberate attention to
vocabulary items that are isolated to be taught. Some of the deliberate learning
activities are:

-Having the meanings of words explained and examples of use provided.

-Learning prefixes and suffixes, and breaking words down to see their parts.

-Studying vocabulary on bilingual word cards.

-Learning and using mnemonic techniques.

-Practising spelling rules.

-Doing cloze exercises where the missing words in a text are recently met items.

-Building word families by adding prefixes and suffixes to a stem.

-Learning to use the vocabulary learning strategies such as using word cards,
guessing from context, using word parts, and using dictionary.

Learning from meaning-focused output:

Learning from meaning-focused output” involves learning through speaking and

writing where the learners’ main attention is on communicating messages. Using
vocabulary productively can strengthen learning and can push learners to focus
on aspects of vocabulary knowledge that they do not need to attend to when
listening and reading (Swain, 1985). For example, when having to say that
someone took their medicine, the speaker has to choose the right verb – do
people eat, drink, or take medicine? When listening and reading, no such decision
has to be learned.

Fluency development:

Vocabulary must not only be known, it must be readily available for use. Fluency
development activities aim at helping learners make the best use of what they
already know, so they should involve only known language items, should be
message-focused, should involve substantial quantities of input and output, and
should involve some pressure to perform faster than usual.

Below are some fluency activities:

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-A very basic listening fluency activity involves the learner pointing to or writing
numbers as the teacher quickly says them in an unpredictable order.

-At a slightly more advanced level, learners can listen to stories from graded
readers which are well within their vocabulary knowledge.

-Speaking fluency activities involve speaking on very familiar topics with some
pressure to speak faster as I 4/3/2 activity where the learners speak to one
listener for four minutes on a topic, then give exactly the same talk to a different
listener but in three minutes, and then to a different listener in two minutes.

-Very elementary reading fluency activities can involve learners responding

orally to flash cards of words and phrases.

-Once learners have a vocabulary of around seven or eight hundred words, they
can do speed reading training using very easy graded readers or a speed reading
course with a controlled vocabulary.

-Reading lots of very easy graded readers for pleasure can develop reading
fluency.

Nation (2003)

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING VOCABULARY

1. Teach and practise words in their spoken form first, otherwise students will
try to pronounce the words as they are written.

2. Students will remember new vocabulary better if it is presented in a

memorable way to start with and then put to regular practice.

3. Always check your students have understood the new words, no matter how
they have been presented.

4. Unless you only want your students to have a passive knowledge of the lexical
items, you must put them into context and get the students to practise them.

5. As with teaching anything else, revision is essential; otherwise the new words
you have taught will be forgotten.

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6. High frequency words should be given more teaching time and attention than
low frequency words because they are more useful. They should be fluently
accessible for both receptive and productive use and become part of learners’
active vocabulary.

7. For people beginning to learn a language, a way of quickly developing fluency

is learning groups of words as units.

8. Learners should be trained in vocabulary learning strategies (using word

cards, learning by means of word association, guessing meaning from context,
using dictionary, etc.) for effective self-study.

Hubbard et al (1989); Nation (2003)

REFLECTION:

1. Which of the following activities for vocabulary learning can be classified as

(1) learning from meaning-focused input, (2) deliberate learning, (3) learning
from meaning-focused output, and (4) fluency development? Tick the correct
columns.

meaning- deliberate meaning- fluency

focused learning focused development
input output
Intensive reading
Learning word parts
Speed reading
Listening to stories
Listening to morning talks
Reading easy graded readers
Extensive reading
Prepared writing
Strategy training
Communication activities
with written input

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2. Read the two lesson extracts. Note the differences in the way the teachers
deal with new vocabulary in each lesson. Can you say what these differences
are? Why do you think there are such differences?

Extract 1: Low frequency word Extract 2: High frequency word

S: What does regurgitate means? S: What does punish means?

T: It means “repeat ideas from the book” T: That’s a useful word, although I hope it is
not needed on this class. See if you can guess
its meaning from these sentences: “He was
punished for eating in the class”, “She was
punished for coming home late” …

(Nation, 2003)

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 CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES AND TASKS

TECHNIQUES FOR PRESENTING NEW VOCABUALRY

TASK 4: Is “translation” the only one way to present new vocabulary? List
different ways in which vocabulary can be presented:

a. drawing pictures on the blackboard

b. ………………………………………………………………………………...................
c. ………………………………………………………………………………...................
d. ………………………………………………………………………………...................
e. ………………………………………………………………………………...................
f. ………………………………………………………………………………....................
g. ………………………………………………………………………………...................
h. ………………………………………………………………………………...................
i. ………………………………………………………………………………....................
j. ………………………………………………………………………………....................

Which do you think are the most useful techniques?

Now read the following techniques and match them with the correct names.

A. Picture B. Mime C. Realia D. Situation

E. Example F. Synonym/ antonym G. Translation H.
Combination

1. ………………………..

Example: Sneeze

T: Look – (mime someone sneezing). Atchoo! I’ve just sneezed. Sneeze. What have I
just done?

2. ………………………..

Example: Forget

T: “Forget” means “quên” in Vietnamese.

3. ……………………......

Example: Lazy

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T: Some people work hard. Other people don’t work hard – we say they are lazy.
Lazy. So what does “Lazy” mean? What’s the opposite of “Lazy”?

Example: Intelligent.

T: “Intelligent” is another word for “clever”.

4. ……………………….

Example: A watch

T: Look – this is a watch (pointing to his or her watch). A watch. What is it?

5. ……………………......

Example: A rabbit Example: A footballer

(A4 card or blackboard)

(Magazine picture)
T: Look – (showing the picture) this is a
rabbit. T: Look – (showing the picture) this is a
A rabbit. What is it? footballer. A footballer. Who is this?

6. ………………………

Example: smile

T: (Drawing a smiling face on the board) – Look, he’s smiling. Now look at me. I’m
smiling (showing facial expression). Smile. We smile when we are happy. Smile.
What does it mean in Vietnamese? (Ss give translation).

7. ……………………....

Example: Buildings

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T: Houses are buildings. This school is also a building. In big cities there are
many large buildings – there are hotels, and offices, and cinemas. They are all
buildings of different kinds. Give me another example of a building!

8. ………………………

Example: Lazy

T: My brother is very lazy. He gets up late, and then he does nothing all day. I
say to him, don’t be so lazy! Do some work.

(Adapted from Doff, 1988)

TASK 5: Read the texts and answer the questions

1. How many ways are there to show the meaning of words visually?
2. What kinds of words can be presented with pictures? With realia? By miming?
3. How many ways are there to show the meaning of words contextually?
4. What kinds of words can be presented by using examples? By using
synonyms/ antonyms? By using situations?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using translation as a way of
presenting new vocabulary?
6. When presenting a new word, the teacher often repeats this word a few times
before asking students to repeat it. What is the purpose of this?
7. When presenting a new word, the teacher often asks questions using this
word. What is the purpose of this?
8. What are active vocabulary and passive vocabulary? Should we treat them in
the same or different way? Why?

TECHNIQUES FOR PRESENTING NEW WORDS

Showing the meaning of words visually

Using pictures: This can be done in two ways:

-By drawing a picture on the board.

-By showing a picture prepared before the lesson (a drawing or photograph)

Most concrete words can be presented in this way.

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Using realia: This is the way of using real objects to show the meaning of words.
We can use anything that is already in the classroom: furniture, clothes, parts of
the body, or anything that can be brought into the classroom: other items of
clothing (hats, ties, handkerchiefs), food, or small objects from the home (soap,
cups, keys, etc.). When presenting vocabulary with real objects, the teacher
simply points at them and says: “Look – this is/ these are …”.

Using mime: This is the way of using actions and facial expressions to show the
meaning of words. Most action verbs (sit, stand, open, write, etc.) and some
adjectives showing feelings and status (happy, worried, sick etc.) can be taught
using mime.

In general, for suitable vocabulary, showing the meaning of words visually is a

very effective method: it is direct, it is interesting, and it makes an impression on
the class. However, not all words can be presented in this way. Vocabulary
should only be presented visually if it can be done quickly, easily, and clearly.

Showing the meaning of words in context

Using examples, situations, or explanations is another way of showing what words

mean. Most abstract words (love, happiness, imagine, quality, impossible, etc)
can be taught effectively in context. There are some points to consider when
using these techniques:

-It is not necessary to give a complicated explanation; the meaning can be shown
by simple sentences. This can be done by making statements using the word we
are presenting (e.g. “Houses are buildings. This school is also a building”) or by
imagining an example (e.g. “I have a brother. He is very lazy. He gets up late,
and then he does nothing all day”).

-A good example should clearly show the meaning of the word to someone who
does not know it. So it is not enough just to say “My brother is lazy” – it doesn’t
show what “lazy” means. We need to add, e.g. “He gets up late, and then does
nothing all day”.

Using synonyms and/ or antonyms

This is a quick way to show the meaning of a word. However, this technique
should be used only when the synonyms/ antonyms of the new word are
already known to students.

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Translation

Showing the meaning of a new word by translating it into the students’ mother
tongue may be preferred by some teachers because it is quicker and so much
easier. It is also a useful technique in itself – it is often the simplest and clearest
way of presenting new vocabulary. However, if we only give a direct translation,
students cannot see how the word is used in an English sentence. So, it is often
more helpful if we use this technique along with other techniques, for example,
giving examples, explanations, and so on. In this way, instead of telling students
what the word means, we can give examples or explanations and then ask them
to give a translation to check that they have understood.

Combining different techniques

Very often, we combine different techniques (e.g. using pictures, mime,

examples, translation, etc.) to show what a word means. The most obvious
advantage of this way is that each technique can reinforce and support one
another, thus making the presentation clearer and more effective.

NOTE:
1. When presenting a new word, the teacher often repeats it a few times before
asking students to repeat it (e.g. “Look- this is a watch. A watch. A watch. Can
you say it?). This is to make sure students hear well how the word sounds.

2. When presenting a new word, the teacher often asks questions using the word
(e.g. for the word “market”: Does your mother goes to the market everyday?
What does she buy? Do you live near the market? What do they sell there?). This
is to make sure students understand the word, and give them more examples of
how the word is used and a chance to practise other language. The questions
using the new word should be simple and require only short answers.

3. We do not need to spend the same amount of time and care on presenting all
new vocabulary; some vocabulary will be more important to students than
others. In general, we can distinguish two types of vocabulary:

-Words which students will need to understand and also use themselves. We call
this active vocabulary. In teaching active vocabulary, it is usually worth
spending time giving examples and asking questions, so that students can really
see how the word is used.

-Words which we want students to understand (e.g. when reading a text or

listening to a talk), but which they will not need to use themselves. We call this
passive vocabulary. To save time, it is often best to present it quite quickly, with

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