What is materials science?

• Information Technology - Materials

It involves investigating the relationships informatics
that exist between the structures and properties of
materials. Four Components of Materials Science
What about materials engineering?
On the basis of these structure–property
correlations, designing or engineering the structure
of a material to produce a predetermined set of
properties.
Materials Development
1. Stone Age (beginning life – 3000 BC)
- using naturally occurring materials with
only changes in shape
2. Bronze Age (3000 BC – 1200 BC)
– Copper and Tin Alloy
- Ability to modify materials by refining
(using heat), chemical modifications (alloying) and
mechanical deformation (cold working)
3. Iron Age (1200 BC – Present)
- Casting and alloying weren’t perfected
until 16th century Mastery of Steel (Iron alloy)
technology enables Industrial Revolution in the
18th and 19th century Ability to heat treat at high
temperature, control microstructure at different
length scale and ability to design specific
microstructures for specific properties
4. Plastic Age (1940 – Present)
- Discovery of polymers, and the ability to
synthesize and process polymers.
5. Silicon Age (1950 - Present)
- Commercialization of silicon technology
(integrated circuits, electronic devices, etc...) leads
to the information age, which gives boost to human
productivity
- Ability to control alloying accurately,
ability to make thin films.
6. Future
• Nanotechnology - Synthesis and TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
characterizations of nanomaterials and refers to the group of materials that are used
nanostructure in the construction of manmade structures and
• Biotechnology - biomimetics and components.
biomaterials
• Energy/Environmental - Next generation Two Classifications:
energy conversion ● Metallic-those material that exhibits
electrical and thermal conductivity. Play a
 most significant role in the industrial
operations with which the engineer is
concerned
● Non-metallic-include wood, stone, brick,
cement, resins (plastics), rubber, leather,
ceramics and so forth
Metals
- normally combinations of metallic element
Ceramics
- compounds between the non-metallic and
non-metallic elements chemically bonded together
Polymers
- include familiar plastics and rubber
materials
Composite materials
- Mixture of two or more materials
- Consists of selective filler or reinforcing
material and a compatible resin binder to obtain
specific and properties desired
- Examples are Fiberglass and Plywood
Semiconductor materials
Solid or liquid material which is able to
conduct electricity at room temperature more
readily than an insulator but less easily than a metal
Biomaterial
Employed in components into the human
body for replacement of diseased or damage body
parts
• Bone plates
• Joint replacements
• Bone cement
• Artificial ligaments and tendons
• Dental implants for tooth fixation
• Blood vessel prostheses
• Heart valves
• Skin repair devices (artificial tissue)
• Cochlear replacements
• Contact lenses
• Breast implants
Nanoengineered Materials
materials of which a single unit is sized (in
at least one dimension) between 1 and 1000
nanometers (10−9 meter) but is usually 1—100 nm.
Materials with structure at the nanoscale often have
unique optical, electronic, or mechanical properties.
Properties and Characteristics of Materials
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
● Density
Density implies the weight of a
material, with higher density rates implying
heavier materials.
● Porosity of Materials
When material is in melting
condition, it contains some dissolved gasses
within the material. When material
solidifies, these glasses evaporate and leave
behind voids. Porosity of materials
represents the quantity of voids in solid
materials.
● Melting Point
Melting point of the material is the
minimum required temperature for a solid
material to change into liquid.
● Color
Color is the reflective property of a
material.
● Boiling point
Boiling point is the minimum
required temperature for a liquid material to
change into gas. The boiling point of water
in standard condition is 100C or 212F.
● Size and shape
Dimensions of any metal reflect
shape and size of material, length, width,
height, depth etc. Also, it determines
specific rectangular, circular, spherical, or
any other section.
 ● Specific Gravity of Materials
It is defined as the ratio of density of
material with respect to density of reference
material or substance. It does not have any
units. Sometimes it is also called relative
density. For gravity calculation water is
considered as a reference substance.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
● Tension Test
During this test, gradually increasing
tensile load is applied uniaxially along the
long axis of a specimen. Tensile stress (σt)
can be calculated using this formula:
● Compression Test
A compression test is conducted in a
manner similar to the tensile test, except that
the force is compressive and the specimen
contracts along the direction of the stress.
● Proportional Limit
It is the region in the strain curve
which obeys hooke's law i.e. within elastic
limit the stress is directly proportional to the
strain produced in the material. In this limit
the ratio of stress with strain gives us
proportionality constant known as young’s
modulus. The point OA in the graph is
called the proportional limit.
● Elastic Limit
It is the point in the graph up to
which the material returns to its original
position when the load acting on it is
completely removed. Beyond this limit the
material cannot return to its original
position and a plastic deformation starts to
appear in it. In the stress strain curve, from
point A to B, the material exhibits elastic
properties.
● Yield Point or Yield Stress Point
Yield point in a stress strain diagram
is defined as the point at which the material
starts to deform plastically. After the yield
point is passed there is permanent
deformation developed in the material
which is not reversible.
● Ultimate Stress/ Tensile Strength
It is the point corresponding to the
maximum stress that a material can handle
before failure. It is the maximum strength
point of the material that can handle the
maximum load. Beyond this point the
failure takes place. Point D in the graph is
the ultimate stress point.
● Fracture or Breaking Point
It is the point in the stress strain
curve at which the failure of the material
takes place. The fracture or breaking of
material takes place at this point. The point
E is the breaking point in the graph.
● Ductility
Ductility is a property of a solid
material which indicates how easily a
material gets deformed under tensile stress.
Ductility is often categorized by the ability
of material to get stretched into a wire by
pulling or drawing.
● Resilience
Resilience is the ability of material
to absorb the energy when it is deformed
elastically by applying stress and release the
energy when stress is removed.
● Toughness
It is the ability of material to absorb
the energy and get plastically deformed
without fracturing. Its numerical value is
determined by the amount of energy per unit
volume. Its unit is Joule/ m3 .
● Hardness
It is the ability of material to resist
permanent shape change due to external
stress. There are various measures of
hardness – scratch Hardness, indentation
hardness and rebound hardness.
 ● Hardenability
It is the ability of a material to attain
the hardness by heat treatment processing. It
is determined by the depth up to which the
material becomes hard.
● Brittleness
Brittleness of a material indicates
how easily it gets fractured when it is
subjected to a force or load.
● Malleability
Malleability is a property of solid
material which indicates how easily a
material gets deformed under compressive
stress.
● Creep and Slip
Creep is the property of material
which indicates the tendency of material to
move slowly and deform permanently
under the influence of external mechanical stress.
● Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakening of material
caused by the repeated loading of
material.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
● pH
pH is a measure of the acidity or
basicity of a solution. Solutions with a pH
less than 7 are said to be acidic and
solutions with a pH greater than 7 are said to
be basic or alkaline.
● Hygroscopy
Hygroscopy is the ability of a
substance to attract and hold water
molecules from the surrounding
environment through either absorption or
adsorption with the absorbing material
becoming physically 'changed,' somewhat,
increase in volume, stickiness, or other
physical characteristic changes of the
material as water molecules become
'suspended' between the material's
molecules in the process.
● Surface tension
Surface tension is a property of the
surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
external force. This property is caused by
cohesion of molecules, and is responsible
for many of the behaviors of liquids.
● Reactivity
Reactivity then refers to the rate at
which a chemical substance tends to
undergo a chemical reaction in time. In pure
compounds, reactivity is regulated by the
physical properties of the sample.
● Corrosion resistance
Some metals are more intrinsically
resistant to corrosion than others, either due
to the fundamental nature of the
electrochemical processes involved or due
to the details of how reaction products form.
THERMAL PROPERTIES
● Heat Capacity or specific heat
Heat capacity (usually denoted by a
capital C, often with subscripts) is a
property that is indicative of a material’s
ability to absorb heat from the external
surroundings; it represents the amount of
energy required to produce a unit
temperature rise.
● specific heat capacity, often called
simply specific heat, denoted by a
lowercase c, which is the heat
capacity per unit mass of a material
and has various units of J/kg-K,
cal/gK and BTU/lbm oF.
● molar heat capacity, which is the
heat capacity per mole of a pure
substance (J/mol-K).
● Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion is a material
property that is indicative of the extent to
which a material expands upon heating, and
has units of reciprocal temperature.
● Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity, k, is the
property that characterizes the ability of a
material to transfer heat.
 ● Thermal Stresses
Thermal stresses are stresses induced
in a body as a result of changes in
temperature.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Electrical Conduction
● Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law relates the current (I) or
time rate of charge passage to the applied
voltage (V). This can be expressed as:
𝑉 = 𝐼R.
R= resistance of material through which
the current passes.
l = distance between the two points at
which the voltage is measured A =
cross-sectional area perpendicular to the
direction of the current.
● Electrical Conductivity (σ)
Electrical conductivity indicative of
the ease with which a material is capable of
conducting an electric current.
● Electrical resistivity
Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal
of electrical Conductivity.
● Capacitance (C)
When a voltage is applied across a
capacitor, one plate becomes positively
charged and the other negatively charged,
with the corresponding electric field
directed from the positive to the negative
plates.
● Permittivity
Permittivity is the measure of how
much resistance is encountered when
forming an electric field in a medium.
● Dielectric Constant
The relative permittivity is often
called a dielectric constant.
● Dielectric Strength
The dielectric strength, sometimes
called the breakdown strength, represents
the magnitude of an electric field necessary
to produce breakdown.
● Ferroelectricity
The group of dielectric materials
called ferroelectrics exhibit spontaneous
polarization— that is, polarization in the
absence of an electric field.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
● Magnetism
Magnetism is the phenomenon by
which materials exert an attractive or
repulsive force or influence on other
materials.
● Magnetic dipoles
Magnetic dipoles are found to exist
in magnetic materials, which, in some
respects, are analogous to electric dipoles.
● Magnetic field strength (H)
Magnetic field strength is the
externally applied magnetic field.
● Magnetic flux density (B)
Magnetic flux density or magnetic
induction represents the magnitude of the
internal field strength within a substance
that is subjected to an H field.
● Permeability
Permeability is a property of the
specific medium through which the H field
passes and in which B is measured.
● Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is a very weak form
of magnetism that is nonpermanent and
persists only while an external field is being
applied.
● Paramagnetism
For some solid materials, each atom
possesses a permanent dipole moment by
virtue of incomplete cancellation of electron
spin and/or orbital magnetic moments.
● Ferromagnetism
Certain metallic materials possess a
permanent magnetic moment in the absence
of an external field and manifest very large
and permanent magnetizations.
 ● Antiferromagnetism
Magnetic moment coupling between
adjacent atoms or ions also occurs in
materials other than those that are
ferromagnetic.
● Ferrimagnetism
Some ceramics also exhibit a
permanent magnetization.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
● Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is
considered to be wavelike, consisting of
electric and magnetic field components that
are perpendicular to each other and also to
the direction of propagation.
LIGHT INTERACTIONS WITH SOLIDS
● Radiation intensity
Radiation intensity expressed in
watts per square meter, corresponds to the
energy being transmitted per unit of time
across a unit area that is perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.
● Transparent
Materials that are capable of
transmitting light with relatively little
absorption and reflection, one can see
through them. Electrically Insulating
materials can be made to be transparent.
● Translucent
Materials are those through which
light is transmitted diffusely; that is, light is
scattered within the interior to the degree
that objects are not clearly distinguishable
when viewed through a specimen of the
material.
● Opaque
Materials that are impervious to the
transmission of visible light.
● Refraction
Refraction is the phenomenon in
which light that is transmitted into the
interior of transparent materials experiences
a decrease in velocity, and, as a result, is
bent at the interface.
● Reflection
When light passes from one
transparent medium to another having a
different index of refraction, some of it is
reflected at the interface.
● Absorption
Pure nonmetallic materials are either
intrinsically transparent or opaque. Light
radiation is absorbed in this group of
materials by two basic mechanisms that also
influence the transmission characteristics of
these nonmetals.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS COMPOSITION
Atomic Structure
Each atom consists of a very small nucleus
composed of protons and neutrons, which is
encircled by moving electrons.
Both electrons and protons are electrically
charged with the charge magnitude being 1.60 x
10-19 C, which is negative in sign for electrons,
positive for protons, and neutrons are electrically
neutral.
Each chemical element is characterized by
the number of protons in the nucleus or the atomic
number (Z). For an electrically neutral or complete
atom, the atomic number also equals the number of
electrons. This atomic number ranges in integral
units from 1 for hydrogen to 92 for uranium, the
highest of the naturally occurring elements.
The atomic mass (A) of a specific atom may
be expressed as the sum of the masses of protons
and neutrons within the nucleus.
The atomic weight of an element
corresponds to the weighted average of the atomic
masses of the atom’s naturally occurring isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons.
CHEMICAL BONDING
Primary Interatomic Bonds
● Ionic Bonding
Also called electrovalent bond
It is bond between atoms where
electrons are mostly transferred from one
atom to another
It is always found in compounds that
are composed of both metallic and
nonmetallic elements
The less equal the sharing of the
electrons, the more ionic character the bond
has.
The metal atom transfers its
electrons to the non-metal atom. Therefore,
the metal atom becomes a positively
charged cation and the non-metal atom
becomes a negatively charged anion.
● Covalent Bonding
is a bond where there are electron
between the atoms that are shared fairly
equally
The more equally they are shared,
the more covalent character the bond has
It occurs between two nonmetals or a
non-metal and a metalloid but it is most
commonly found between two nonmetals.
There are two types of covalent bonding
which are polar and non-polar.
If electronegativity is greater than or
equal to 0.5, it is polar. If electronegativity
is less than 0.5, it is non-polar.
● Metallic Bonding
Occurs among metal atoms or
between metals and alloys
In most cases, the outermost electron
shell of each of the metal atoms overlaps
with a large number of neighboring atoms.
Metallic elements have low
electronegativity, which means that they
hold onto their valence electrons loosely.
Examples of metallic bonding are
alkali metals (sodium and potassium),
alkaline earth metals (calcium and
magnesium), transition metals (copper and
zinc), and alloys (bronze and stainless steel)
Secondary Bonding
are weak in comparison to the primary or
chemical ones; bonding energies are typically on
the order of only 10 kJ/mol (0.1 eV/atom).
Secondary bonding exists between virtually all
atoms or molecules, but its presence may be
obscured if any of the three primary bonding types
is present. Secondary bonding is evidenced for the
inert gasses, which have stable electron structures,
and, in addition, between molecules in molecular
structures that are covalently bonded.
● Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
Bonds are the only intermolecular
force that is present in non-polar molecules
due to the movement of electrons around the
nucleus of an atom.
A dipole may be created or induced
in an atom or molecule that is normally
electrically symmetric; that is, the overall
spatial distribution of the electrons is
symmetric with respect to the positively
charged nucleus.
Examples are HF, OH, and H2O
● Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds
Also known as dipole-induced dipole
attraction
Permanent dipole moments exist in
some molecules by virtue of an
asymmetrical arrangement of positively and
negatively charged regions
A weak attraction that results when a
polar molecule induces a dipole in an atom
or in a nonpolar molecule by disturbing the
arrangement of electrons in the nonpolar
species.
 ● Permanent Dipole Bonds
Are weak intermolecular forces of
attraction that arise between permanently
polar molecules.
Consists of regions of partial positive
charge and regions of partial negative
charge within the same molecule.
Van der Waals Bonding
A weak attractive force between atoms or
nonpolar molecules caused by a temporary change
in dipole moment arising from a brief shift of
orbital electrons to one side of one atom or
molecule, creating a similar shift in adjacent atoms
or molecules.(GALING LANG TO SA GOOGLE)
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF
MATERIALS
Crystalline material
-is one in which the atoms are situated in a
repeating or periodic array over large atomic
distances that is, long-range order exists, such that
upon solidification, the atoms will position
themselves in a repetitive three-dimensional pattern
where each atom is bonded to its nearest neighbor
atoms.
- Examples are sugar, salt, diamond, and
graphite
Non-Crystalline/Amorphous material
-do not crystallize and the long-range atomic
order is absent.
- It can result when you have complex
structures or you rapidly
cool from the liquid state to the solid state.
- Examples are rubber and glass
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Some of the properties of crystalline solids
depend on the crystal structure of the material, the
manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are
spatially arranged.
Unit Cells
- Small group of atoms form a repetitive
pattern
- Prisms having three sets of parallel faces
where one is drawn within the aggregate of spheres
which in this case
happens to be a cube.
- is the basic structural unit or building block
of the crystal structure and defines the crystal
structure by virtue of its geometry and the atom
positions within.
Metallic Crystal Structures
● Face-centered cubic
- It consists of atoms arranged in a
cube where each corner of the cube has a
fraction of an atom with six additional full
atoms positioned at the center of each cube
face.
- is one of the most stable crystal
structures and has the highest packing
density
- Aluminum, calcium, nickel, copper,
strontium, rhodium, palladium, silver,
ytterbium, iridium, platinum, gold, lead,
actinium, and thorium all have an FCC
structure
● Body-centered cubic
- Atoms located at all eight corners
and a single atom at the
- is nearly close-packed and has great
stability because of its high number of
nearest neighbors and next-nearest
neighbors.
examples are iron, chromium,
tungsten, tantalum, and molybdenum.
 ● Hexagonal close packed
- A crystal structure with 1 atom per
lattice point at each corner of the hexagonal
prism, and 3 inside the prism.
- One of the most stable crystal
structures and has the highest packing
density.
IMPERFECTIONS OF SOLIDS
POINT DEFECTS
• Vacancies
• Self-interstitials
• The simplest of the point defects is a
vacancy, or vacant lattice site, one normally
occupied but from which an atom is missing
• A self-interstitial is an atom from the
crystal that is crowded into an interstitial site which
is a small void space that under ordinary
circumstances is not occupied.
Impurities in Solids
• The addition of impurity atoms to a metal
results in the formation of a solid solution and/or a
new second phase depending on the kinds of
impurity, their concentrations, and the temperature
of the alloy.
Solid Solution
• It forms when, as the solute atoms are
added to the host material, the crystal structure is
maintained and no new structures are formed. It is
also compositionally homogeneous when the
impurity atoms are randomly and uniformly
dispersed within the solid.
• If two liquids that are soluble in each other
(such as water and alcohol) are combined, a liquid
solution is produced as the molecules intermix, and
its composition is homogeneous throughout.
Dislocation
- A dislocation is a linear or
one-dimensional defect around which some of the
atoms are misaligned that may cause deformation
- Line defects can weaken or strengthen
solids.
Types of dislocation
● Edge Dislocation
- An extra portion of a plane of
atoms, or half-plane, the edge of which
terminates within the crystal
- It is a linear defect that centers on
the line that is defined along the end of the
extra half-plane of atoms
- Dislocations more commonly
originate during plastic deformation, during
solidification, and as a consequence of
thermal stresses that result from rapid
cooling. Edge dislocation arises when there
is a slight mismatch in the orientation of
adjacent parts of the growing crystal.
● Screw Dislocation
- This dislocation may be thought of
as being formed by a shear stress that is
applied to produce the distortion.
- From the figure, the upper front
region of the crystal is shifted one atomic
distance to the right relative to the bottom
 portion. The atomic distortion associated
with a screw dislocation is also linear and
along a dislocation line at line AB.
- The screw dislocation derives its
name from the spiral or helical path or ramp
that is traced around the dislocation line by
the atomic planes of atoms.
● Mixed Dislocation
- Most dislocations found in crystalline
materials are probably neither pure edge nor pure
screw but exhibit components of both edge and
screw dislocation.
Interfacial Defects
- are boundaries that have two dimensions
and normally separate regions of the materials that
have different crystal structures and/or
crystallographic orientations. These imperfections
include external surfaces, grain boundaries, phase
boundaries, and twin boundaries.
External Surfaces
-Surface atoms are not bonded to the
maximum number of nearest neighbors and are
therefore in a higher energy state than the atoms at
interior positions.
-The bonds of these surface atoms that are
not satisfied give rise to a surface energy, expressed
in units of energy per unit area (J/m2 or erg/cm2).
-To reduce this energy, materials tend to
minimize, if at all possible, the total surface area.
Grain Boundaries
-A grain boundary is represented
schematically from an atomic perspective at the
figure. Within the boundary region, There is some
atomic mismatch in a transition from the crystalline
orientation of one grain to that of an adjacent one.
-Presence of slight disorder of atoms
Phase Boundaries
- Phase boundaries exist in multiphase
materials, in which a different phase exists on each
side of the boundary.
- Furthermore, each of the constituent
phases has its own distinctive physical and/or
chemical characteristics. Phase boundaries play an
important role in determining the mechanical
characteristics of some multiphase metal alloys.
Twin Boundaries
- A twin boundary is a special type of grain
boundary across which there is a specific mirror
lattice symmetry where atoms on one side of the
boundary are located in mirror image positions to
those of the atoms on the other side.
- The region of material between these
boundaries is appropriately termed a twin. Twins
result from atomic displacements that are produced
from applied mechanical shear forces (mechanical
twins) and also during annealing heat treatments
following deformation (annealing twins).

Microscopic Techniques
-With optical microscopy, the light
microscope is used to study the microstructure;
optical and illumination systems are its basic
elements.
-For materials that are opaque to visible
light (all metals and many ceramics and polymers),
only the surface is subject to observation, and the
light microscope must be used in a reflecting mode.
-Contrasts in the image produced result from
differences in reflectivity of the various regions of
the microstructure. Investigations of this type are
often termed metallographic because metals were
first examined using this technique.
- The image on the screen, which may be
photographed, represents the surface features of the
specimen
Scanning Probe Microscopy
- The field of microscopy has experienced a
revolution with the development of a new family of
scanning probe microscopes. It is used to create
images of nanoscale surfaces and structures or
manipulate atoms to move them in specific patterns.

Electron Microscopy
- Technique for obtaining high resolution
images of biological and non-biological specimens
- The upper limit to the magnification
possible with an optical microscope is
approximately 2000. Consequently, some structural
elements are too fine or small to permit observation
using optical microscopy.
- Examples: investigation of cells, large
molecules, and biopsy samples

Transmission Electron Microscopy

- The image seen with a transmission
electron microscope (TEM) is formed by an
electron beam that passes through the specimen.
- Utilizes energetic electrons to provide
morphologic, compositional and crystallographic
information on samples.
Scanning Electron Microscopy
- A more recent and extremely useful
investigative tool is the scanning electron
microscope (SEM).
- The surface of a specimen to be examined
is scanned with an electron beam, and the reflected
(or back-scattered) beam of electrons is collected
and then displayed at the same scanning rate on a
cathode ray tube