Unit 5

Compositional Layers of Earth

Table of Contents

Table of Contents 1

Compositional Layers of Earth 3

Essential Questions 4

Review 4

Lesson 5.1: Overview of the Layers of Earth 5

Objectives 5
Warm-Up 5
Learn about It 6
Key Points 11
Web Links 12
Check Your Understanding 12
Challenge Yourself 13

Lesson 5.2: The Crust 15

Objectives 15
Warm-Up 15
Learn about It 16
Key Points 20
Web Links 20
Check Your Understanding 21
Challenge Yourself 22

Lesson 5.3: The Mantle 23

Objectives 23
Warm-Up 23
Learn about It 24
Key Points 28
Web Links 28
Check Your Understanding 29
Challenge Yourself 30
Lesson 5.4: The Core 31
Objective 31
Warm-Up 31
Learn about It 32
Key Points 34
Web Links 35
Check Your Understanding 35
Challenge Yourself 38

Laboratory Activity 39

Performance Task 40

Self Check 42

Key Words 42

Wrap Up 43

Photo Credits 44

References 44

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EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE | GRADES 11/12

Unit 5
Compositional Layers of
Earth

Earth is a unique planet which serves as our home in this vast universe. Earth is
composed of about 70% water and the rest is comprised of land formation, which is
covered by the atmosphere. These land formations and water bodies contain great
biodiversity. Moreover, Earth has several subsystems which enable life possible in
our planet.

However, Earth is more than what you can see on the surface. There are several
human activities that involve the excavation of the surface to obtain certain
resources. Have you ever wondered how far did human dig to reach the deepest
part of Earth? Yet, these explorations only involve the certain portion of Earth’s
interior. Nevertheless, researchers utilized a more sophisticated way to study the
layers of Earth’s internal structure. Have you ever wondered what’s within Earth’s
internal structure? How do these internal layers affect the natural occurrences
observed at the surface?

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 Essential Questions

At the end of this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions.
● How do we classify the layers of Earth?
● What are the unique characteristics of the different layers of Earth?
● How do seismic waves help in understanding the internal structure of Earth?

Review

● Earth is our home planet which contains several subsystems and it is

composed of distinct layers. Together, these characteristics make life
possible on earth.
● There are four primary subsystems of Earth’s external structure, namely:
atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
○ The atmosphere is made up of various gaseous elements.
○ The geosphere is composed of all the soil, rocks, and minerals from
the surface of Earth up to its interior.
○ The hydrosphere includes all form of water bodies on Earth.
○ The biosphere includes all living things on Earth.
● The layers of Earth from outermost to innermost is crust, mantle, and core.

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 Lesson 5.1: Overview of the Layers of Earth

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● determine the layers of Earth based on chemical composition;
and
● describe the layers of Earth based on physical properties.

Studying the internal structure of Earth is like understanding the characteristics of a

person. For instance, the behavior of a person can be understood by examining
his/her intrapersonal characteristics such as preferences, dislikes, and personal
endeavors. Knowing these characteristics provide better understanding of a
person’s overall identity. Similarly, understanding natural phenomena like
earthquakes, volcanic eruption, plate movement, and activities related to the
magnetic field of Earth could be further understood by studying Earth’s internal
structures. Have you ever wondered how do we classify the layers of Earth?

Warm-Up

Thinking of My Dearest Earth

Materials:
● bond paper
● pencil
● coloring materials

Procedure:
A.
1. You need to revisit the different Earth’s external structure, namely:
geosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere.
2. Illustrate an environment which contains the four Earth’s external structure.
3. Label each subsystem.

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B.
1. Read and analyze the following paragraph.

Typhoon Yolanda is the strongest and deadliest typhoon in the Philippines. It is a

Category 5 typhoon which have a maximum sustained wind of 315 kph. There are
6300 dead, 1 061 missing and 28 689 injured. The most affected area is Tacloban
in the province of Leyte. Aside from the strong typhoon, one of the culprits of the
high death toll is the occurence of storm surge, the abnormal increase of water
level in seashores due to the strong storm winds.

2. Identify the processes that occurs in each Earth’s external structure and
explain the interaction between each structure.

Guide Questions:
1. Based on your illustration in Part A, how does each Earth’s external structure
interact to one another? Explain in 4 to 5 sentences.
2. In Part B, what are the processes and characteristics in each Earth’s external
structure?
3. In Part B, how does each Earth’s external structure interact with one
another?

Learn about It

Earth is a dynamic planet composed of interacting subsystems, namely:

atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and the biosphere. The internal structure of
Earth can be classified into compositional layers and mechanical layers. The
compositional layers include the crust, mantle, and core. These layers are
differentiated in terms of the material it is made of.. Meanwhile, the layers based
on physical properties differentiate each layer based on physical state. These layers
are the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core.
Regardless of the basis of classification, the layers based on physical properties are
aligned with the layers based on composition.

Compositional Layers of Earth

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The layers of Earth can be classified into mechanical and compositional. The
compositional layers of Earth include crust, mantle and core.
Crust
The crust is the outermost layer of Earth. Its thickness range from 5 to 80 km and
mainly composed of granites and basalts. Granites and basalts are igneous rocks
formed by the cooling of magma which is a mixture of molten or semi-molten rocks
found beneath Earth’s surface. There are two types of crust, namely: the
continental crust and the oceanic crust. The continental crust is composed mainly
of granites. Plate tectonics drives the formation of continental crust through the
process of orogenesis or mountain building. The temperature in this layer varies
based on the temperature of the air at the surface to around 870 °C at innermost
region. Meanwhile, the oceanic crust extends at about 5 to 10 km beneath the
ocean floor. It consists mostly of basalts that was constantly formed through the
tearing (or divergence) of tectonic plates and releasing of molten material along the
ridge. Oceanic crust can also be destroyed through the process of subduction at the
trench present below the ocean.

Mantle
The mantle which is about 84% of Earth’s volume extends up to 2 900 km thick. It is
composed of ultramafic (rich in magnesium and iron) silicates materials that are
composed of silicon and oxygen atoms. Moreover, the mantle is composed of
other types of minerals such as magnesium oxide (periclase) and iron oxide
(wustite). It also contains elements such as iron, calcium, aluminum, and carbon.
The temperature in this layer ranges from 500 to 900°C in the upper portion, while
up to 4 000°C near the core. Convection currents are present in the mantle which
are products of rising and sinking of materials due to differences in temperature
and composition.

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 Fig. 1. Layers of Earth.
Core
The core is the innermost layer of Earth which is around 3 480 km thick. Its
composition is thought to be mainly 85% iron, 5% nickel, and other trace amounts
of oxygen and sulfur.

Mechanical Layers of Earth

The mechanical layers of Earth are lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer
core and inner core.

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 Fig.2. Compositional and mechanical layers of Earth.

Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the rigid outermost layer of Earth that is composed of crust and
the uppermost layer of the mantle. It extends from 70 to 150 km in depth.

Asthenosphere
Underneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere which is the plastic layer of the
mantle. It lies between 70 to 660 km beneath Earth’s surface. At this layer, plastic
deformation occurs where materials can ‘flow’ or change shape without breaking in
response to stress. This allows the rigid lithosphere to move in response to
slab-pull forces, which drives plate tectonics. Convection currents occur in this layer
due to its plasticity and temperature gradients. Phase changes of ultramafic rocks
mark several different sub-layers, including the ‘transition zone’ which marks
increasing seismic velocities from 410 to 660 km. The asthenosphere is also the

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only layer of the mantle which contains melt (albeit only a miniscule amount), which
is primary composition of the magma.

Mesosphere
The mesosphere is the semi-solid layer below the asthenosphere. It is a region
with high temperature and pressure that is located within the boundary of the
mantle and the core, thus the term mesosphere which means in the middle of. The
mesosphere extends up to 2 900 km in terms of thickness.

Outer Core
On the other hand, the outer core is a liquid innermost layer of Earth. The
temperature in this layer is very high causing iron and nickel to melt. It is about
2300 km thick.

Inner Core
Lastly, the inner core is the innermost solid layer.
The pressure in this region is enough for the material
to stay solid. Its thickness is around 1 200 km.

Scientists have been able to hypothesize what is

underneath Earth through the study of seismic
waves produced by earthquakes. Scientists utilize the
information from the seismograph to examine the
Earth’s interior.

Andrija Mohorovičić, a Croatian meteorologist, and

seismologist was the first to discover Earth’s interior.
In 1909, using a seismograph, he found a seismic
discontinuity during a destructive earthquake in the
Kulpa Valley in Croatia. He observed that certain
seismic waves produced anomalies upon moving
towards Earth’s center. He noted that one type of wave propagated at the different
rate as it moves from one media to another. He then hypothesized that different
densities of rocks caused the waves to bend or refract and that a boundary existed
between the lighter crust and the denser mantle. This boundary was subsequently
called as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or simply Moho discontinuity which is
located between the mantle and the crust.

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 Fig. 4. Mohorovičić discontinuity

Key Points

● The compositional layers of Earth are crust, mantle, and core.

○ The crust is the outermost layer of Earth which is primarily composed
of granitic and basaltic igneous rocks. It can either be classified into

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 continental crust and oceanic crust.
○ The mantle is about 84% of Earth’s volume which is mainly composed
of silicates.
○ The core is innermost layer of Earth which is mainly composed of iron
and nickel.
● The mechanical layers of Earth are lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere,
outer core, and inner core.
○ The lithosphere is the rigid outermost layer composed of crust and
the uppermost mantle.
○ The asthenosphere is the plastic layer of the mantle which enables
the movement of slabs in the lithosphere.
○ The mesosphere is a semi-solid layer below the asthenosphere.
○ The outer core is the liquid innermost layer of Earth.
○ The inner core is the solid innermost layer of Earth.

Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:

● This link gives a discussion about the compositional layers of

Earth.
Robertson, E.C. 2011. ‘The Interior of the Earth.’
https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/interior/

● This link discusses the different layers of Earth through a video.

Incorporated Research Institutions of Seismology. N.d. ‘Layers of the Earth.’
https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/animation/layers_of_the_earth

● Do you want to interactively explore the internal structure of

Earth? Check this link.
Annenberg Learner. 2017. ‘Earth’s Structure.’
http://www.learner.org/interactives/dynamicearth/structure/

Check Your Understanding

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A. Write true if the statement is correct. Otherwise, write false.
1. The crust is mainly composed of granite and basalt which are classified as
sedimentary rocks.
2. Mantle comprises almost 8/10 of Earth’s volume.
3. The rocks found in the continental crust is lighter in color than those in the
oceanic crust.
4. Silicate materials are mostly found at the layer beneath the outermost layer
of Earth.
5. Lithosphere is the same as the crust.
6. The outer core is more fluid than the inner core.
7. The center of Earth is mainly composed of metals.
8. Lithosphere, asthenosphere, and mesosphere are layers of Earth based on
materials where this layer was made of.
9. Asthenosphere is the plastic layer of Earth located below the uppermost
mantle.
10. Mesosphere is a very rigid layer of Earth found above the core.

B. Identify the following.

1. Which layer is responsible for the plate movement?
2. What layer of Earth accounts for the magnetic field of Earth?
3. Which layer of Earth occupies the largest volume of Earth?
4. Which layer of Earth is composed of dark-colored igneous rocks?
5. Which layer of Earth is liquid in form?
6. What kind of heat transfer mainly happens in the mantle?
7. What kind of deformation happens in the asthenosphere?
8. What method was used to determine the layers of Earth?
9. What layer of Earth has a temperature which causes metals to melt?
10. Who was the first to discover the presence of layers of Earth?

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following question. Limit your answer to 3 to 4 sentences.

1. What are the differences between the layers of Earth regarding its main
composition, depth, and parts? Make a summary table to show your answer.
2. Why is studying Earth’s internal structure important?
3. How long have the layers of Earth existed? How did the scientist determine

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 the length of its existence?
4. Was Earth’s internal structure homogenous? Why do you say so?
5. Aside from an egg, what food can be used to illustrate the layers of Earth?
Briefly explain the analogy.
6. Can you make a fan creatively with the different layers of Earth? You may use
the following link as a guide.

● Let us make a fan with Earth’s layers.

NASA Space Place. 2018. ‘Make a fan with Earth’s layers.’
https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/earth-fan/en/

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 Lesson 5.2: The Crust

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● identify the general characteristics of the crust; and
● differentiate continental crust and oceanic crust.

What comes to your mind when you hear the word crust? Perhaps, you may initially
think of food such as the crust of a pie known as the crunchy outer layer that all
people love to eat. To some extent, this is analogous to Earth’s crust which is the
outermost layer of Earth. What are the distinct features of Earth’s crust?

Warm-Up
Doodle those Words
Material:
● electronic gadget with internet connection

Procedure:
1. List all the words that you think are related to Earth’s crust. This will test your
familiarity regarding the main topic of this lesson.
2. Create a word art by using the provided link below. You can freely customize
your word art output.

● Create a word art!

WordArt.com.. 2018. ‘Word Cloud Art Creator.’
https://wordart.com

3. Present your in front of the class and explain.

Guide Questions:
1. What are the words that you chose?
2. Why did you pick those words?

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 Learn about It

General Characteristics of Crust

The crust is the outermost layer of Earth and is the only layer where organisms are
found. This layer makes up less than one percent of Earth’s total volume. This rigid
layer is in the constant process of destruction and renewal, wherein new crust is
formed in oceanic ridges while some are subducted through the mantle.

One of the parts of Earth’s tectonic plates is the crust. Tectonic plates are slabs of
the brittle lithosphere, which can able to move due to the plasticity of the
underlying asthenosphere. Most of the seismic activities including earthquakes
happen near the boundaries of these plates.The crust is divided into two parts: the
continental crust and the oceanic crust.

Fig. 5. Major tectonic plates of Earth.

Continental Crust
The continental crust makes up the land surface of Earth which is about 32 km
thick but may reach up to 70 km in mountainous areas. The composition is more
variable than oceanic crust but can be generalized as mostly granites. Granitic
rocks are generally light-colored igneous rocks which have a relatively low density
(2.6-2.9 g/cm3). The continental crust is located at higher elevations and above sea

16
level because of its greater thickness and lower density compared to oceanic crust.
It is also relatively older than oceanic crust. In fact, the oldest known grain found in
the continental crust is about 4 billion years old that is in contrast to the oldest
oceanic crust which only reaches 200 million years old. The continental crust can
form several continental features, which are grouped into two categories—
mountain belts and stable interiors.

Fig.6. The different kinds of Earth’s crust.

Mountain belts are uplifted regions of deformed rocks. These are formed through
orogenesis or mountain-building events. An example of a mountain belt is the
Himalayas that was formed by the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian
Plate. Interestingly, the highest peak of this mountain range is the Mt. Everest.

The stable interiors are older than mountain belts. Within these areas are
expansive and flat regions which are composed of deformed crystalline rocks called
shields. In some cases, areas of the stable interior with deformed rocks are
covered with thin layer of sedimentary rocks which are called stable platforms.

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 Fig. 7. Mountain belts and stable interiors.

Oceanic Crust
The oceanic crust is a thin layer averaging from 5 to 7 km thick. It is consists of
mafic rocks, which are made up of silicates, magnesium and iron. An example of
mafic rock is basalt. Basalts are rocks composed mainly of calcic plagioclase and
pyroxenes minerals that are usually dark in color. Oceanic crust is denser (2.9 to
3.1 g/cm3) than continental crust and occupies areas of lower elevation covered by
oceans. This difference in density is the reason why oceanic lithosphere subducts
upon collision with adjacent plates wherein the region of subduction produces
trench. Just like continents, the ocean floor also hosts some features including
canyons, trenches, and volcanoes.

Continental margins are the areas which separate continental and oceanic crust.
It include continental shelf, continental slope, and continental rise. The continental
shelf refers to the gently sloping platform extending seaward from the shore.
These are flooded extensions of the continents. The continental slope is the area
where the boundary between continent and ocean basin lies. It is a region where
the angle of descent becomes steeper and reaches up to 4 km in depth. The
continental rise is a gradual incline in regions where trenches do not exist.

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 Fig.8. Parts of continental margin.

Meanwhile, deep ocean basins lie between continental margins and oceanic
ridges. Seamounts and abyssal plains are found in these regions. On the other
hand, oceanic ridges are composed of layers of igneous rocks that have been
uplifted. These are the site of formation of new oceanic crust.

Fig. 9. The different parts of oceanic crust.

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 Key Points

● The crust is the outermost rocky layer of Earth which is mainly composed of
granitic and basaltic igneous rocks. It can be classified as a continental crust
or oceanic crust.
● Continental crust is composed of granite wherein it can either be in the
form of mountain belts or stable interior
● Oceanic crust are composed of basaltic rocks and is denser than
continental. There are three parts of oceanic crust, namely: continental
margin, deep ocean basin, and oceanic ridge.
● Lithosphere makes up the tectonic plates which is composed of the crust
and the uppermost mantle.

Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:
● Still craving for more? Do you want to have added information
about the crust? This link provides supplementary information
about the crust.
National Geographic. n.d. ‘Crust.’
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/crust/

● How deep can you get in search of resources and the hunger
for knowledge? This video shows how far did human dig to
arrive at possible deepest part of Earth that human can reach.
Tech Insider. 2017. ‘Incredible Animation Shows how Deep Humans have Dug.’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tzhWVzyo4kI

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 Check Your Understanding

A. Modified true or false. Write true if the statement is correct. Meanwhile, If

it is incorrect, change the underlined word/s to make the statement right.
1. Continental crust is composed of dark-colored igneous rocks known as
granite.
2. Lithosphere is composed of the crust and the lower mantle.
3. Earthquakes occur at the boundaries of the lithosphere.
4. The collision of Indonesian plate and Eurasian plate results to the
formation of Himalayas.
5. The age of mountain belts are younger than the stable interiors.
6. Pyroxene are most likely found in oceanic crust.
7. Oceanic ridge is the subduction zone of plate collision.
8. Guyots are geographic features in the ocean floor which are similar to
canyons.

B. Provide the term needed in order to arrive at a correct statement in each item.

crust lesser continental slope mantle

oceanic plate continental margin lithosphere guyot

oceanic ridge asthenosphere continental plate continental rise

orogenesis continental shelf shields greater

canyon deep ocean basin core trench

1-5. The tectonic plates are made up of ___________________ which are able to
move because it lie above the ______________________. These tectonic plates
can interact with each other in several ways wherein one of which involves
the convergence of plates. When oceanic plate collides with an continental
plate then ___________________ dives under___________________ since it has
___________________ density.

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6-7. Continental crust has two parts, namely: mountain belts and stable interior.
Mountain belts is formed due to the process of _________________. On the
other hand, stable interior is composed of ______________ which is a flat
landform containing deformed crystalline structure.

8-12. In ocean floor topography, continental margin has a gradual inclined area
known as __________________. It also contains a continental shelf which is
____________________ located from the shore towards the sea. Additionally,
____________________ is the boundary between continents and ocean basins.
Moreover, ___________________ is located between continental margins and
oceanic ridge. Lastly, ___________________ is the location in the ocean floor
where molten material comes out.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions. For the essay, limit your answer to 3 to 4 sentences
only.
1. What are the differences between continental crust and oceanic crust in
terms of parameters, composition, density, average thickness, age of oldest
known crust, and features or parts? Make a summary table.
2. Why are rocks from continental crust older than the ones from the oceanic
crust?
3. Where can you find the oldest and youngest oceanic crust? Why is this their
location?
4. How do geographic features such as mountains, trenches, and oceanic ridges
are formed?
5. How can you differentiate crust from lithosphere?
6. What are the two mountain belts and two stable interiors? List four facts
about these land formations.
7. What is the lowest point of the ocean seafloor? List ten facts about it.

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 Lesson 5.3: The Mantle

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● describe characteristics and layers of mantle; and
● explain how seismic waves are used to differentiate layers of the
mantle.

The mantle occupies the largest volume of Earth’s internal structure. The raging
molten material which oozes during volcanic eruption originates from this layer.
Volcanism is just one of the natural phenomena which are associated with
processes happening in the mantle. Have you ever wondered, what are the
different layers of Earth’s mantle?

Warm-Up
Think! Think! Word-Jumble!
Materials:
● pen and paper

Procedure:
1. Divide the class into two.
2. Each group will write as many words that can be created from the letters of
the word M-A-N-T-L-E. Write it on the board.
3. After five minutes, each group will assign a checker to check the opponent’s
answer. The checker will cross-out the words that are similar to the other
group.

Guide Questions:
1. What are the words that are unique to your group?
2. What are the words that you think are related to mantle? Why do you think it
is related?

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 Learn about It

General Characteristics of Mantle

The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth’s total volume. It is located in between
the crust and the core which is about 2 900 km deep. The boundary between the
crust and the mantle is known as Mohorovičić discontinuity. Meanwhile,
Gutenberg discontinuity is located between the mantle and the core.

Furthermore, the composition of the mantle is mostly silicates. Silicates are

considered as the largest group of rock-forming minerals which contain different
ratios of silicon and oxygen. Examples of silicates include olivine, pyroxene, and
garnet. Other major types of mineral located in the mantle include periclase
(magnesium oxide) and wustite (iron oxide). In line with this, peridotite is the
igneous rock found in the mantle. In fact, peridotite xenolith was used to determine
the composition of Earth’s layers. As these rock forms, it collects samples from its
surrounding area; hence, as it goes up to the surface, it contains several minerals
and other fragments which are useful in tracing the characteristics of the areas
where it originated and passed through. Additionally, there are other processes
which help in analyzing the characteristics of Earth such as studying volcanoes and
hotspots. Hotspots are areas where a hot column of material from the mantle are
ejected.

Fig. 10. The mantle convection

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Moreover, the temperature of Earth’s interior increases with depth. The rate of
increase in temperature with respect to the depth is called the geothermal
gradient. At the first 100 km, the gradient is around 15° to 30°C/km. This
temperature gradient drops off through the mantle and increases quickly at the
base of the mantle.

Additionally, there are different processes which happen in the mantle. The process
by which the mantle moves as it transfers heat from the core to the lithosphere is
called mantle convection. This involves convection currents formed from the
upward and downward motions of the materials caused by the difference in
temperature. In convection, warm material rises while cold material sinks due to
the density difference. Convection currents transfer the heat to the lithosphere
through hot spots and move other denser and cooler materials coming from the
lithosphere to the core boundary through the process of subduction.

With this, it can be inferred that Earth has a heat engine due to mantle convection,
wherein heat is released to the ridges and collected at the subduction zone. The
force that causes the warm and less dense material to force itself up through a
ridge is known as the ridge push, while slab-pull is a pulling force which causes the
oceanic plates to move downward at subduction zones due to difference in density
as well as the effect of gravity. These forces facilitate material cycling in the mantle
through the help of mantle convection.

Fig.11. The mechanism of ridge push and slab pull.

Layers of the Mantle and Seismic Waves

Mantle is subdivided into different layers as revealed by seismic wave velocity
studies. Body waves are seismic waves that can travel through Earth’s interior and
can be categorized into two. The primary or p- waves can travel both in solids and

25
liquids, Meanwhile, secondary or s-waves is limited to solids media only.
Additionally, the mechanical properties of the medium directly affect the wave
velocity. Compact and rigid material propagate waves faster and softer material
causes waves to slow down. Refer to the given diagram to visualize how waves are
affected by the phases of rocks as it travel towards Earth’s interior. This implies
several phase changes in the rock (i.e. modification of mineral structures) as the
external conditions change with depth.

Fig. 12. Seismic wave velocities of p-waves and s-waves in Earth’s interior.

In Fig. 12, both p-wave and s-wave increased in velocity as they pass through tightly
compressed rocks in the mantle. Notice that p-wave slowed down, and the s-wave
stopped upon reaching the outer and inner core. Secondary wave was not able to
penetrate the outer core since it is in liquid form. Investigations in the velocity of
these waves as they travel towards Earth’s interior showed that there was a
decrease in velocity on the upper part of the mantle and an increase in velocity on
the lower part. These findings suggest that the mantle could be divided into upper
plastic and lower solid regions.

The upper part of the mantle is not uniform. Its rigid uppermost layer is similar to
the crust. Together with the crust, this layer makes up called the lithosphere. The
asthenosphere is the denser part of the mantle located below the lithosphere. In
this layer, the materials are more plastic and flow slowly. The temperature in the
asthenosphere is very high (> 1280 oC), causing the softening and partial melting of
the rocks. This allows the asthenosphere to exhibit the ability to flow slowly in
response to stress which is associated with ductile (or plastic) deformation. Seismic

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velocities are reduced by this weaker layer, resulting in the Low-velocity zone (LVZ)
at the boundary of the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

A transition zone is a region where rocks undergo a complete change. Instead of

being melted, the rocks’ crystalline structure change, and the rocks become denser.
At the base of the transition zone, the extremely strong mineral perovskite forms,
and marks the start of the mesosphere.

Fig. 13. The transition zone below the asthenosphere.

The mesosphere is referred to as the lower mantle which lies below the
asthenosphere. In this region, the materials are semi-solid. Perovskite, periclase,
magnesiowustite, stishovite, ilmenite, and ferrite are the major minerals found in
this layer. Additionally, the boundary between the asthenosphere and the
mesosphere is the 660 km discontinuity.

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 Key Points

● Mantle makes up about 84% percent of Earth’s volume and is mainly

composed of silicates.
● Mohorovičić discontinuity is the boundary between the crust and the
mantle.
● Gutenberg discontinuity is located between the mantle and the core.
● Convection is the process of sinking cold material and rising hot material
due to the difference in density. Additionally, mantle convection is the
process of movement of materials in the mantle which is driven by heat from
the core.
● Seismic waves, specifically the body waves, are used to differentiate the
layers of the mantle through the refraction of waves as it moves from two
media of different density.
● Lithosphere is composed of the crust and the uppermost mantle.
● Asthenosphere is the plastic layer which enables the movement of
lithosphere above it.
● Transition zone is a region where rocks undergo a complete change
wherein the crystalline structure of rocks changes.
● Mesosphere is a semi-solid region which is usually referred as the lower
mantle.

Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:

● If you still want to know more information about the mantle,

you can check this link.
National Geographic. n.d. ‘Mantle.’
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/mantle/

● Click this link to deepen your knowledge about the mantle.

ThoughtCo. n.d. ‘6 Fascinating Facts about the Earth's Mantle.’
https://www.thoughtco.com/all-about-the-earths-mantle-1440906

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 Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the term described in each statement then find the term in the word
puzzle.
1. This is the composition of the tectonic plates.
2. This is kind of wave can only travel through solids.
3. This heat transfer allows the warm material to rise and cold to sink.
4. This kind of seismic wave was used to examine Earth’s interior.
5. This is the kind of deformation which occur at the layer below the
lithosphere.
6. This kind of gradient accounts the increase of temperature with depth
7. This a unique zone in the mantle which changes the crystalline structure of
minerals.
8. It is a slightly rigid layer of the mantle composed of periclase.
9. This Earth’s layer allows the movement of tectonic plates which lie above it.
10. It is an area which serve as passageway of hot mantle plume.

A B E D N O I T I S N A R T

V T H R B T E C T O N I C Q

A S T H E N O S P H E R E R

L U R G K H O H O T S P O T

B R A J M L P P L E K C I N

O C E M E S O S P H E R E S

D R O C K S E C O N D A R Y

Y P R I M A R Y M H G T U C

F I C I T S A L P G T E V O

G E O T H E R M A L A I O R

H N O I T C E V N O C M L E

29
B. Imagine that a given term can talk just like a person. Determine which term is
creatively described in each item.
1. I can handle stress with flexibility.
2. My location is between the plastic layer and the rocky layer of Earth.
3. Once a rock come into my area, I can change the orderly packaging of its
structure.
4. I am situated between the layer composed of silicates and layer which is
composed of granitic and basaltic igneous rock.
5. I am the composition of the slabs which could interact that could make
mountains.
6. I may be at the lowest point but I am hot.
7. I originated from the earthquake and can penetrate different types of
medium.
8. I am found between the solid metal ball and the molten layer of Earth.
9. I can lift you when you are warm and drag when you are cold.
10. I occupy the greatest volume of Earth’s internal structure.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. How did the scientists distinguish and differentiate the layers of Earth’s
mantle?
2. How did the scientists determine the composition of minerals found in the
mantle?
3. Convection is one of the processes in the mantle which drives the movement
of materials in this layer. How does it occur? What are the other real-life
application of convection?
4. What are the other minerals, aside from silicate-based minerals, are also
found in the mantle? Research information about these minerals.
5. The internal structure of Earth is composed of several layers and boundary. If
you are to choose one layer or boundary that you can relate with your life,
what would it be and why?

30
 Lesson 5.4: The Core

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● discuss the different layers of the core.

The core is defined as the center and most likely the foundation part of a certain
entity. Likewise, in geology, the core is the central layer of Earth that serve as the
base where other layers were established. Have you ever wondered what are the
unique characteristics of Earth’s core?

Warm-Up

Slicing Earth’s Layers. Let’s Explore!

Materials:
● paper strips containing the following words:
○ inner core, "heavy metal!" (1-3 strips)
○ outer core, "molten metal!" (4-5 strips)
○ deep mantle, "red hot rocks!" (7-8 strips)
○ asthenosphere, "rolling stones!" (9-11 strips)
○ lithosphere, "moving plates!" (11-15 strips)

Procedure:
1. Randomly pick a strip of paper prepared by your teacher.
2. Chant the word in your strip and look for people with the same strip of paper
then group together. Choreograph an appropriate movement while doing
the chant.
3. Each group must build a human model of planet Earth. Earth is a dynamic
self regulating system so make sure that it is reflected in the skit.

31
Guide Questions:
1. What are the characteristics of the part of Earth that your group picked?
2. How would you describe your choreography while doing the chant?

Learn about It

General Characteristics of the Core

The core is the innermost layer of Earth. It is considered as Earth’s center, with a
thickness of around 3 500 km extending from the Gutenberg discontinuity
(core-mantle boundary) to the center with thickness of 3 500 km. Earth’s core is
believed to be formed from sinking dense iron and nickel metals during the early
stages of Earth’s formation, an event known as the iron catastrophe. Iron is the
primary element in the core which comprises 85% of the layer. Smaller amounts of
nickel, about 5%, and other lighter elements, ranging from 8 to 10% are also
present.

Moreover, it is the hottest layer in Earth’s interior. However, the exact temperature
of this layer is difficult to know. Generally, the temperature of the core ranges from
4 000 °C to about 6000°C. There are several reasons why Earth’s core is still hot.
Most experts believe that it is due to the remnant of heat derived from the
formation of Earth. On the other hand, some scientists explain that internal heat of
Earth is due to the radioactive decay which releases a considerable amount of heat.
Moreover, the core is divided into two parts: the outer and the inner core.

Layers of the Core

The outer core is about 2 300 km thick and has a temperature that ranges from
4 500 °C to 5 500 °C. The velocity of the primary wave decreases dramatically as it
enters the outer core. In addition, secondary waves were terminated that the outer
core is liquid since this wave can only travel through solid medium.

On the other hand, the inner core is a solid ball of iron which has a radius of
1 200 km, and its temperature is about 5 000 to 5 200 °C. Despite its extremely high
temperature, the inner core remains to have solid form because of extremely high
pressure which is about 330 to 360 GigaPascals. The difference between the states
of matter of the inner and outer core is due to the intense pressure in the inner
core that prevents the iron from melting, even though its temperature is way too

32
high. With this, the inner core can keep its solid form. This extremely high pressure
is due to the piling of materials above the core wherein core is the densest part
which makes it to be positioned at the bottom. Additionally, the velocity of primary
wave increases dramatically as it enters the inner core due to the difference in
media.

The boundary between outer and inner core is known as Lehmann discontinuity
as named after its discoverer, Inge Lehmann, who is a woman scientist. Since the
outer core is on its liquid form, it separates the inner core from the rest of Earth’s
layers. This allows the inner core to rotate faster than Earth’s surface, leading to an
extra speed rotation every 1 000 years.

Fig. 14. The rotation of Earth’s inner core.

Scientists believe that the inner core rotates opposite the direction of the flow of
the outer core, creating a geodynamo effect that generates Earth’s magnetic
field. This magnetic field is very important in protecting Earth from the charged
particles emitted by the solar winds. Without Earth’s magnetic field, the solar wind
will strip off the ozone layer from Earth’s atmosphere. The ozone layer prevents
and protects Earth’s inhabitants from the harmful ultraviolet rays.

33
 Fig. 15. Earth’s magnetic field or magnetosphere.

Key Points

● The core is the innermost layer of Earth which is mainly composed of iron
and nickel.
● Outer core is the innermost liquid layer of Earth.
● Inner core is the innermost solid layer of Earth.
● Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the mantle and the core.
● Lehmann discontinuity is located between the outer and inner core.

34
 Web Links
For further information, you can check the following web links:
● Want to know more about the solid metal ball center of
Earth? For further readings about the core, you can use this
link.
National Geographic. n.d. ‘Core.’
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/core/

● Click this link to watch a short video clip discussing how

Earth’s magnetic field is measured.
Markings, S. 2018. ‘5 Facts about the Earth's Inner Core.’
https://sciencing.com/5-earths-inner-core-13761.html

● Magnetosphere plays a significant role in protecting our

earth. If you are curious about it. You can check these links.
National Aeronautics and Space Agency. 2017. ‘Hidden Portals in Earth’s Magnetic
Field.’
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/news/mag-portals.html

Check Your Understanding

A. Write true if the statement is correct while write false if the statement is
incorrect.
1. The core is composed of iron, nickel, silicon, and oxygen.
2. Inge Lehmann utilized information from seismograph to study the internal
structure of Earth
3. Inner core rotates in clockwise direction.
4. Primary wave could be able to pass through fluids.
5. The outer core is located 5 200 km from the surface.
6. The exact temperature in the core is immeasurable.
7. Secondary wave is the initially recorded by the seismograph.
8. Earth’s geodynamo protects us from harmful solar radiation.
9. Body waves are seismic waves which can travel to different kinds of media.
10. Transition zone is observed between the outer-core-inner-core boundary.

35
B. Answer the given word hunt puzzle but you need to first determine the term
describe in each number.
1. It is the innermost solid layer of Earth.
2. This boundary is found between the core and mantle.
3. Despite the extremely high temperature in Earth’s center, _____________it
remains solid because of ______________.
4. It is the kind of seismic wave which can penetrate the outer core.
5. Aside from iron, it is one of the primary components of Earth’s center.

36
 C. Answer the following crossword puzzle.
Across
3. It is the boundary found
between the innermost solid
and liquid layer of Earth
4. It is the innermost liquid layer
of Earth
5. It is the protective layer from
solar winds.
Down
1. This event lead to the
formation of the core.
2. It is produced due to the
rotation of the innermost solid
and liquid layer of Earth
37
 Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. How did the core of Earth form?
2. The core is thousands of kilometers away from where we live. How did
scientist know about the composition of this layer?
3. Research on the discontinuities separating the layers of Earth. What are
these discontinuities? How were they discovered, and by whom?
4. If you are going to make an acrostics on the word core, what would it be? An
acrostic is poem, word puzzle, or other composition wherein letters in each
line form a word or words.
5. The core is the center which served as the foundation part of a certain entity.
In view of human personality, core values are the fundamental beliefs which
serves as guide in life. Have a time to reflect. What are your three core
values? Briefly explain each value.

38
 Laboratory Activity

Activity 13.1
Eartheriffic: Investigating Earth’s Internal Structure

Objectives
At the end of this laboratory activity, the students should be able to:
● create an interactive 2D model of the internal layers of Earth; and
● illustrate the path traveled by seismic waves in each layer of Earth.

Materials and Equipment

● paper folder
● coloring materials
● colored paper
● scissors
● split pin
● ruler
● pencil

Procedure
Part A. Spin it! To Know it!
1. Make a circle cut-out which is 8 inches in diameter. Make two pieces of this
circle cut out. Label the circles as Circle A and B, respectively
2. Divide the each circle into four equal parts.
3. In Circle A, cut one of the quarter parts.
4. Place Circle A on top of Circle B
5. In the portion of Circle B which is aligned with the quarter cut you made in
Step 3, design this portion with the compositional layers of Earth.
6. For the three remaining quarters of Circle B, design each quarter with certain
layer of Earth and provide description as well as interesting facts about the
given layer.
7. Design also Circle A.
8. After designing both Circle A and B, place Circle A on top of Circle B.
9. At the middle of these circles, make a small hole and place the split pin.
10. For each quarter turn of Circle B, it is expected that three out of four turns
contain information about a specific compositional layer of Earth.

39
Part B. Let’s Determine your Path
1. Refer to the given figure. The
largest circle represents Earth. The
circles inside represent the layers of
Earth.
2. Identify each layer of Earth.
3. The black dot on the edge of the
circle represents an Earthquake
site.
4. Using your knowledge of the
behavior of waves and the
mechanical properties of Earth’s
layers, draw lines that will represent
the primary and secondary waves
as they travel through the interior.
Use different colors of the pen to
differentiate the primary and the
secondary waves.

Performance Task

Once Upon a Time… The Story of Earth’s Internal Structure

Goal
● Your goal is to make pop-up story book.

Role
● You are a story book designer and author.

Audience
● Your audiences are elementary students, age 8-10.

Situation
● The context you find yourself in is the conduct an outreach program. One of
its parts is educating children with the internal structure of Earth through a
pop-up story book.

40
Product, Performance, and Purpose
● You will create a pop-up story book. Your output should be able to narrate a
story that embeds information about the internal structure of Earth.

Standard and Criteria for Success

● Your output should include:
1. The characteristics of each layer of Earth, both the compositional and
mechanical layer, should be integrated in the story.
2. The presentation of the information should clear, concise, and
accurate.
3. There should be a logical flow of the events in the story.
4. Simple and understandable words should be used so that 8-10 years
old children could comprehend the story. Nevertheless, be sure that
you can avoid misconceptions derived from in translating and
simplifying words.
5. The story book should be visually pleasing and creatively designed.

The following table shows the rubric in grading your output.

Successful Exemplary
Below Expectations, Needs Improvement
Criteria 0% to 49% 50% to 74%
Performance Performance
75% to 99% 100%

Content The information The information The information The information

provides very minimal attempts to provided is mostly provided are
knowledge and provide correct correct. adequate and
contains knowledge. correct.
misconception.

Presentation The presentation of The presentation The presentation of The presentation

story is occasionally of story is story is generally of the story is
understandable, somewhat easy to easy to understand, very easy to
clear, and understand, clear, clear, and understand,
appropriate to the and appropriate to appropriate to the clear, and
audience. the audience.It has audience.It generally appropriate to
It does not have minimal logical has logical the audience.It
logical presentation presentation of presentation of has a very logical
of ideas. ideas. ideas. presentation of
ideas.

41
Originality The story book is The story book is The story book is The story book is
occasionally unique. somewhat unique generally unique exceptionally
and
The output is very and contains and contains details. unique and
creativity similar to those details. The output It contains some contains
usually found in the attempts to show creative techniques significant
internet. It contains developing ideas and is neatly amount of
minimal details and yet lacks accomplished. details. It
slight neatness is originality. It is contains varied
observed. somewhat neatly creative
accomplished. techniques and is
very neatly
accomplished.

Self Check

At the end of this unit, you must be more knowledgeable of the compositional
layers of Earth. Check the box if you agree on each statements.

Check I can…

differentiate the layers of Earth’s internal structure.

identify the discontinuity between layers of Earth.

explain how seismic waves is used to distinguish layers of Earth.

Key Words

660 km discontinuity This is the boundary between the asthenosphere and

mesosphere.
Asthenosphere It is plastic layer of the mantle located below the
lithosphere.
Core It is the innermost layer of Earth which is mainly
composed of nickel and iron. It is divided into a liquid
outer core and a solid inner core.

42
Crust It is the outermost rocky layer of Earth which can either
be continental crust, mostly composed of basaltic rocks,
or oceanic crust, mostly composed of granitic rocks.
Gutenberg This is the boundary that separates mantle from the
discontinuity core.
Lehmann This is boundary between the outer and inner core.
discontinuity
Lithosphere It is composed of the crust and the uppermost mantle.

Low velocity zone It is the discontinuity between the asthenosphere and the
lithosphere.
Mantle It occupies the largest percentage of Earth’s volume and
is mainly composed of silicates.
Mesosphere It is the semi-solid layer below the asthenosphere.

Mohorovičić This is the boundary between crust and mantle.

discontinuity

Wrap Up
Layers of Earth

43
 Photo Credits

Unit Photo. Blue Marble by Robert Simmon and Reto Stöckli is licensed under
public domain via the National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Fig. 3. Photo of Andrija Mohorovičić by Davorka Herak and Marijan Herak Public
Domain via Wikimedia Commons.

References

Borneman, Elizabeth. 2014. Geography of Himalayas. Geolounge. Accessed February

18, 2017. https://www.geolounge.com/geography-himalayas/.

The Canadian Encyclopedia. 2012. Physiographic Regions. Last modified March 4,

2015. Accessed February 18, 2017.
http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ physiographic-regions/.

Earle, Steven. 2014. Physical Geology. British Columbia Campus Open Textbook
Project. British Columbia.

Hefferan, Kevin and O’Brien, John. 2010. Earth Materials.John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.,
Publication. United Kingdom.

Nace, Trevor. 2016. Layers of the Earth: What Lies Beneath the Earth’s Crust. Forbes
Science. Accessed February 17, 2017.
http://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2016/01/16/layers-
of-the-earth-lies-beneath-earths-crust/#650a3fb458e6

Naik, Abhijit. Continental Shelf: A Labeled Diagram and Some Interesting Facts. Buzzle.
Last modified August 30, 2016. Accessed February 11, 2017.
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/
facts-about-the-continental-shelf-with-diagram.html

44
Oceans Alive. Looking at the Sea Physical Features of the Ocean. Accessed February
18, 2017. http://legacy.mos.org/oceans/planet/features.html

Tarbuck, Edward J. and Lutgens, Frederick K. 2015. Earth Science. 14th edition.
Pearson Education Inc. USA.

Williams, Matt. 2015. What are the Earth’s layers? Universe Today Phys.org. Accessed
February 17, 2017. https://phys.org/news/2015-12-earth-layers.html

Witze, Alexandra. 2013. Spinning the Core. Science News. Accessed February 17,
2017. https:// www.sciencenews.org/article/spinning-core

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