DR.

ARMAN TABASSUM
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

FEDERAL URDU UNIVERSITY OF ARTS, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

GULSHAN-E-IQBAL CAMPUS
KARACHI
 M. SC (P) SEMESTER I
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
CHEM-521

Unit: Water & Waste Water treatment for Industrial

Purposes

Topic: COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

Date: 08-December-2020
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
 Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a measure of the dissolved combined content of all
inorganic and organic substances present in a liquid in molecular, ionized, or micro-granular
(colloidal sol) suspended form.
 TDS concentrations are often reported in parts per million (ppm).
 Water TDS concentrations can be determined using a digital meter.
 The operational definition is that the solids must be small enough to survive filtration through a
filter with 2-micrometer (nominal size, or smaller) pores.
 Total dissolved solids (TDS) is the term used to describe the inorganic salts and small amounts of
organic matter present in solution in water. The principal constituents are usually calcium,
magnesium, sodium, and potassium cations and carbonate, hydrogencarbonate, chloride,
sulfate, and nitrate anions.
 The presence of dissolved solids in water may affect its taste (1).
 The palatability of drinkingwater has been rated by panels of tasters in relation to its TDS level as
follows: excellent, less than 300 mg/litre; good, between 300 and 600 mg/litre; fair, between 600
and 900 mg/litre; poor, between 900 and 1200 mg/litre; and unacceptable, greater than 1200
mg/litre (1). Water with extremely low concentrations of TDS may also be unacceptable
because of its flat, insipid taste.
 TDS in water supplies originate from natural sources, sewage, urban and agricultural run-off, and
industrial wastewater.
 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
 They cannot pass through a sieve of 2 micrometers and yet are indefinitely suspended in
solution.
 It is the dry-weight of suspended particles, that are not dissolved, in a sample of water that
can be trapped by a filter that is analyzed using a filtration apparatus.
 Most suspended solids are made up of inorganic materials, though bacteria and algae
can also contribute to the total solids concentration.
 are a significant factor in observing water clarity 3. The more solids present in the water, the
less clear the water will be.
 The term settleable solids refers to material of any size that will not remain suspended or
dissolved in a holding tank not subject to motion, and excludes both TDS and
TSS.[3] Settleable solids may include larger particulate matter or insoluble molecules.
 TSS is the most visible indicator of water quality.
 TSS (FURTHER MORE),
 High TSS can block light from reaching submerged vegetation in water (for example,
ocean).
 If light is completely blocked from bottom dwelling plants, the plants will stop
producing oxygen and will die.
 High TSS can also cause an increase in surface water temperature, because the
suspended particles absorb heat from sunlight. This can cause dissolved oxygen levels
to fall even further (because warmer waters can hold less DO), and can harm aquatic
life in many other ways.
 Measurement of Total Suspended Solids:
 To measure TSS, the water sample is filtered through a pre-weighed filter. The residue
retained on the filter is dried in an oven at 103 to 105° C until the weight of the filter no
longer changes. The increase in weight of the filter represents the total suspended
solids.
 TSS can also be measured by analyzing for total solids and subtracting total dissolved
solids.
 Groundwater and surface water contain both dissolved and
suspended particles.
Suspended
 Suspended particles vary in source, charge, particle size,
shape, and density.
solids
 Suspended solids in water have a negative charge and since
they have the same type of surface charge, they repel each
other when they come close together. Therefore, suspended
solids will remain in suspension and will not clump together
and settle out of the water.
 SS are colloids since phase separated mixture in which one
substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble or
soluble particles is suspended throughout another substance
are called colloids.
 The size of colloids is 0.01-1 micrometer. • Force of gravity on each
 [Note: Gravity can be negligible for low-density particles with component is not high
diameters considerably smaller than 1 microgram. However, if enough to pull them down.
the density of the colloidal particles is high, as in the case of
colloidal gold, gravity can become a significant driving force
for particle transport to the surface, even for particles with
diameters much smaller than 100 nm.]
 Turbidity
 Turbidity is an optical determination of water clarity.
 Turbid water will appear cloudy, murky, or otherwise colored, affecting the physical look of the
water.
 Suspended solids and dissolved colored material reduce water clarity by creating an opaque,
hazy or muddy appearance.
 Turbidity measurements are often used as an indicator of water quality based on clarity and
estimated total suspended solids in w
 The turbidity of water is based on the amount of light scattered by particles in the water sample.
 The more particles that are present, the more light that will be scattered. As such, turbidity and
total suspended solids are related.

 [Note: However, turbidity is not a direct measurement of the total suspended materials in water.
Instead, as a measure of relative clarity, turbidity is often used to indicate changes in the total
suspended solids concentration in water without providing an exact measurement of solids.
 Turbidity can also include colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), fluorescent dissolved
organic matter (FDOM) and other dyes.]
 Coagulation:

 Coagulation is a process which involves gathering of colloidal particles so as to

converting into large sized particles which ultimately settle as a precipitate or float
on the surface.
 Thus the heavy particles so formed get settled due to their own weight under the
action of gravity.
 Lighter particles float on the surface.
 Coagulation is generally brought about by the addition of electrolytes. When an
electrolyte is added to a colloidal solution, the particles of the solution take up the
ions which are oppositely charged and thus get neutralized.
 The neutral particles then start accumulating to form particles of a larger size which
settle down.
  Hardy Schulze law
The quantity of the electrolyte which is required to  Coagulation:
coagulate a definite amount of a colloidal solution depends
upon the valency of the ion, having a charge opposite to
that of the colloidal particles.
 Coagulant chemicals with charges opposite those of the
suspended solids are added to the water to neutralize the
negative charges on non-settlable solids (such as clay
and color-producing organic substances).
 Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended
particles are capable of sticking together.
 Coagulation and flocculation are used to separate the
suspended solids portion from the water.
 In figure, after coagulation, stable colloid become
unstable and get sedimented.

https://www.quora.com/What-is-coagulation-in-
chemistry#:~:text=Coagulation%20is%20a%20process%20which,by%20the%20addition%20of%20electrolytes.
 Coagulation:
How Coagulation occurs
 Mechanism of Coagulation:
In figure,
 A fixed layer of +ve ions (counter-ions) from coagulant around negative charged ions (colloids) is formed. It
is concentrated, called stern layer.
 Very next to stern layer another layer is developed that has lesser concentration of +ve ions than in stern
layer. It is moveable and called diffused (slippery) layer.
 These two layers form double layer.
 Surface between two layers is called shear surface.
 The electrical potential at the two ends of shear surface creates Zeta-potential.
 Value of Zeta-potential measures the repulsive force of colloid with other colloids of same charge.
 Between two similarly charged colloidal particles, both a repulsive force as well as an attractive van der
Waal’s force work. If these repulsive and attractive forces are designated as VR and VA, respectively, then
the net interactive force or energy may be expressed as VR – VA. This is called an energy barrier of double-
layer interaction. The stability of the colloidal suspension basically depends on this net energy barrier.
 For destabilization, sufficient kinetic energy needs to be added to the colloidal system to overcome this
energy barrier.
 Counter-ions (+ve ions ) in Stern layer are however insufficient to neutralize the colloid hence, there creates
electric potential around the colloid.
Coagulants: Natural and chemical
 Coagulation of insoluble impurities by the action of such electrolytes are called Coagulant.
Coagulants: Natural and chemical
Coagulant & impurity reaction:
Parameters for Coagulation:
 Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of sticking
together. These slightly larger particles are called microflocs, and are not visible to the
naked eye.
 Water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be clear.
 If not, coagulation and some of the particles charge have not been neutralized. More
coagulant chemicals may need to be added.
 A high-energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse the coagulant and promote the particle
collisions to achieve good coagulation.
 Over-mixing does not affect coagulation, but insufficient mixing will leave this step
incomplete.
 Contact time in the rapid-mix chamber is typically 1 to 3 minutes.
 Flocculation:
 Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from
submicroscopic microfloc to visible suspended particles.
 Microfloc particles collide, causing them to bond to produce larger, visible
flocs called pinflocs.
 Floc size continues to build with additional collisions and interaction with
added inorganic polymers (coagulant) or organic polymers.
 Macroflocs are formed and high molecular weight polymers, called
coagulant aids, may be added to help bridge, bind, and strengthen the
floc, add weight, and increase settling rate.
 Once floc has reached it optimum size and strength, water is ready for
sedimentation.
Types of flocculators:
Types of flocculators:
Shapes of flocculators:

Examples of rotating blade flocculators: Left: vertical paddle (courtesy Amwell); Center:
horizontal (reel) paddle (courtesy WesTech); Right: axial flow (courtesy top-right: Anco; bottom-
right: Philadelphia Mixers)
Varieties of Mixing Chambers:
Varieties of Mixing Chambers:
Varieties of Mixing Chambers:
Flowsheet of the process
Flowsheet of the process in industry:
Calculation:
Assignment:

 Differentiate between Coagulation and Flocculation.

 A 0.85 KW mixer units is used to mix chemicals in a water flow of 85

L/sec. the detention time in tank is 20 seconds. The water
temperature is 20 degree C and µ = 1.06 x 10 to the power -3
N.sec/sq meter. Calculate the velocity gradient.
 References:
 https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/tds.pdf
 https://www.mrwa.com/WaterWorksMnl/Chapter%2011%20Aeration.pdf
 http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/FECAL/info/TSS.html
 https://www.whitman.edu/chemistry/edusolns_software/TSSBackground.pdf
 https://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/turbidity-total-
suspended-solids-water-
clarity/#:~:text=Total%20suspended%20solids%20(TSS)%20are,found%20in%20the%20water%20colu
mn.&text=These%20solids%20include%20anything%20drifting,contribute%20to%20the%20TSS%20con
centration.
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/diffuse-double
 https://www.quora.com/Why-isnt-milk-affected-by-gravity-Is-it-a-colloid-or-a-suspension
 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11446780/
 http://hydro-land.com/e/ligne-en/doc/Coagulation.html