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EE 308 ELECTRIC DRIVES

EE308 ELECTRIC DRIVES L-T-P-C 3-0-0-3
Text books
1. Bimal K. Bose “Modern power electronics and AC drives” Pearson Education, Asia 2003
2. Dubey G. K. “Power semiconductor control drives” Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 1989
References:
1. Dewan S.B. , G. R. Slemon, A. Strauvhen, “Power semiconductor drives”, John Wiley and sons
2. Dr. P. S. Bimbra “Power electronics”, Khanna publishers
3. J. M. D. Murphy “Thyristor control of AC drives”
4. N. K. De, P. K. Sen “Electric drives” Prentice Hall of India 2002
5. Ned Mohan, Tore m Undeland, William P Robbins, “Power electronics converters applications
and design”, John Wiley and Sons.
6. Pillai S. K. “A first course on electric drives”, Wieley Eastern Ltd, New Delhi
7. Vedam Subrahmanyam, “Electric Drives”, MC Graw Hill Education, New Delhi
8. W. Shepherd, L. N. Hulley and D. T. Liang, “Power Electronocs and motor control”,
Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Mod Contents
I Introduction to electric drives – Block diagram – advantages of electric drives – Dynamics of
motor load system, fundamental equations, and types of load – classification of load torque,
four quadrant operation of drives. Steady state stability. Introduction to closed loop control
of drives.(7hrs)
II DC motor drives- constant torque and constant power operation, separately excited dc
motor drives using controlled rectifiers, single phase semi converter and single phase fully
controlled converter drives. Three phase semi converter and fully controlled converter drives.
Dual converters, applications of dual converter for speed control of DC motor. Closed
loop control of separately excited dc motor drive. DC series motor drive for traction
application.(7hrs)
III Chopper controlled DC drives. Analysis of single quadrant chopper drives. Regenerative
braking control. Two quadrant chopper drives. Four quadrant chopper drives.
Cycloconverters for drive applications – different types – basic principle.(7hrs)
IV Three phase induction motor speed control. Using semiconductor devices. Stator voltage
control – stator frequency control - Stator voltage and frequency control (v/f). Rotor
chopper speed control - slip power recovery control schemes – sub synchronous and
super synchronous speed variations.(hrs)
V Voltage source inverter fed induction motor drives, Current source inverter fed induction
motor drives. Concept of space vector – Basic transformation in reference frame theory –
field orientation principle.(7hrs)
VI Synchronous motor drives – introduction to v/f control. Permanent Magnet
synchronous motor drives – different types – control requirements, converter circuits,
modes of operation. Microcontroller based permanent magnet synchronous motor drives
(schematic only).(7hrs)
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ELECTRIC DRIVES
Systems employed for motion control are called drives.
Prime movers shall be diesel or petrol engine, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, electric
motors etc for supplying mechanical energy for motion control.
Drives employing electric motors are called electrical drives.

Source may be a dc or ac (1-phase or 3-phase) source.

Power modulator converts the electrical energy of the source in the form suitable for the
motor. For example, if the source is dc and the motor is induction motor, then power modulator
converts dc into a variable frequency ac. Power modulator also limits the current within permissible
values during transient operations like starting and braking.
Power modulator is usually a power electric converter like controlled rectifier, chopper,
inverter, ac voltage controller, cyclo-converter, matrix converter etc. Control unit produces the
gate/base signals for the converters.
PARTS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
Major parts are i) Electrical Motor ii) Power Modulator iii) Source iv) Load & v) Control Unit.
ELECTRICAL MOTORS
i) DC motors – separately excited dc motor, shunt motor, series motor and compound motor
ii) Induction Motors – Squirrel Cage Induction Motor, Slip Ring Induction Motor, Linear
Induction Motor
iii) Synchronous Motors – Wound field Synchronous Motor (cylindrical rotor type or salient pole
type) & Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
iv) Brushless DC Motor
v) Stepper Motor
vi) Switched Reluctance Motor

In the past, induction and synchronous motors were employed mainly for constant speed applications.
Variable speed applications were dominated by dc series motors. Now, ac motors are also used for
variable speed applications because of the development of power electronic circuits & devices.
DC DRIVES & AC DRIVES – COMPARISON
DC DRIVES AC DRIVES
Commutator makes the motor bulky, costly & No commutator. Motors are inexpensive (mainly
heavy. squirrel cage induction motor)
Highest speed and design rating are limited due Speed & design rating have no upper limits.
to commutation.
Commutator requires frequent maintenance. Motor is reliable & requires less maintenance.
It can be used in all locations.
Sparking at brushes makes it environmentally
unsuitable in certain locations.
Power converter is simple & inexpensive. Power circuits of the converter & its control are
complex.
Small power/weight ratio Large power/weight ratio
Fast response, wide speed range, smooth control Response depends upon the type of control.
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Wound field & permanent magnet synchronous motors have higher full-load efficiency & power
factor compared to induction motors but cost, size and maintenance is more for same rating.
Brushless dc motor is almost similar to permanent magnet synchronous motors (but characteristics are
that of conventional brushed dc motor), but has lower cost and requires simpler and cheaper
converter. It is extensively used in high performance drives, computer disk drives, servo drives,
robotics, electric vehicles etc.
Stepper motor is popular for position control. A stepper motor rotates by a specific number of degrees
in response to an input electrical pulse.
Switched reluctance motors have saliency in both stator & rotor. The stator consists of salient poles
with excitation windings on them, and the rotor has salient poles with no windings. The torque is
produced by the tendency of the rotor pole to align with the stator pole to maximize the stator flux
linkage when the winding of the stator pole is excited by a current.
Switched reluctance motors (power capability 100W to 100kW) are now commercially available for
various applications, ranging from low-power servo motors to high-power traction drives.
POWER MODULATORS

i) AC to DC converters
Single quadrant (motoring) operation is possible with a semi-converter (controlled bridge rectifier
with half number of diodes and half number of thyristors).
Two quadrant (motoring & regenerative braking) operation is possible with a full converter
(controlled bridge rectifier with thyristors only)
Four quadrant operation is possible with a dual converter.
ii) DC to DC converters (Chopper)
Single quadrant, two quadrant and four quadrant choppers are used.
iii) AC to AC converters
AC voltage controllers can be used for the control of induction motors with stator voltage control at
constant frequency.
Cyclo-converters or matrix converters (single stage ac to variable frequency ac conversion) can be
used for variable voltage & variable frequency output for the speed control of induction motors using
stator frequency control.
At present, for variable frequency voltage, two stage conversion is used. AC is first converted to fixed
dc using a diode bridge rectifier and this fixed dc is converted to variable magnitude variable
frequency ac voltage by using an inverter.
iv) DC to AC converters (Inverters)
Fixed dc voltage is converted to variable magnitude variable frequency ac. It can be voltage source
inverter or current source inverter. For output voltage control and for the reduction of harmonics,
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) or space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM)
techniques are used.
SOURCES
In India, 1-phase or 3-phase 50Hz ac supplies are readily available. Low power drives are fed from 1-
phase source. Rest of the drives is fed from 3-phase source. Most of the motors are fed from 400V 3-
phase supply and large motors are operated with 3.3kV, 6.6kV or 11kV. For traction purposes, supply
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is 1-phase 25kV ac, but 1500V dc series motors are usually used. For aircraft & space applications,
400Hz ac supply is generally used to achieve high power to weight ratio for motors.
CONTROL UNIT
Controls for a power modulator are provided by the control unit.
NATURE & CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUES
i) Load torque may be constant at all speeds,
Example : Cranes during hoisting, compressor
Note: Load torque by compressor that supplies constant pressure system
may vary a little with variation of speed.

ii) Load torque proportional to square of the speed

TL = ωm2
Example : Fans, Centrifugal pumps, propellers

iii) Load torque proportional to speed (this is an uncommon type of

load characteristics and is usually observed in a complex form
of load)
Example : Separately excited dc generator connected to constant load
resistance
For a separately excited dc generator,
P VI kωm × (kωm / R)
TL = = = ∝ ωm
ωm ωm ωm
iv) Load torque inversely proportional to the speed
1
TL ∝ or Tωm = constant (constant power at all speeds)
ωm
Example : Paper mill
Note: A fan drive operating at constant speed if, of course, developing
constant power. But in applications like paper mill it is desirable to develop
constant power over a range of speed.
Compressor, pump and fan type loads required operation in the first quadrant only since their
operation is unidirectional. They are one quadrant drive systems.
Transportation drives requires operation in both directions. It is a two quadrant drive system.
FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION
In hoist drives, four quadrant operation occurs.
A consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft. One end of the rope is tied to a cage
which is used to transport man or material from one level to another level. Other end of the rope has a
counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than the weight of an empty cage
but lower than a fully loaded cage.
Forward direction of motor speed will be one which gives upward motion of the cage.
The quadrant I operation of a hoist requires the movement of the loaded cage upward, which
corresponds to the positive motor speed which is in anticlockwise direction. Load torque will be
acting in clockwise direction since the difference between the weights of loaded cage and
counterweight is positive. Developed motor torque is always opposite to the load torque and hence the
motor torque will be in anticlockwise direction. Since the motor torque and speed are in same
direction (anticlockwise), power (equal to product of developed torque and speed) is positive.
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In the second quadrant the cage movement remains upwards. The empty cage is moving upwards.
Since the weight of the counter weight is greater than the weight of the empty cage, load torque is
acting in anticlockwise direction. Hence, motor torque will be in clockwise direction. Here, since the
direction of rotation is anticlockwise and developed torque is clockwise, power is negative.
Regenerative braking may occur limiting the speed of rotation. This is forward braking.
In the third quadrant, the direction of rotation reverses; the empty cage is lowered by the hoist. Motor
is rotating in clockwise direction and the load torque is acting anticlockwise. Hence, the developed
torque is clockwise. Since both direction of rotation and speed are clockwise, power is positive and
this operation is reverse motoring.
Similarly, since the loaded cage is moving downward, load torque is clockwise and developed torque
is anticlockwise. Power is negative and this operation is reverse braking.
FUNDAMENTAL TORQUE EQUATION
A motor genarally drives a load through some transmission system. While motor always rotates, the
load may rotate or may undergo a translational motion. Load speed may be different from that of
motor. But, it is convenient to represent the motor load system by an equivalent rotational system as
shown below.

J = Moment of inetia of motor-load system referred to the motor shaft, kg-m2

ωm = Instantaneous value of angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/sec
T = Instantaneous value of the torque developed by the motor, N-m
TL = Instantaneous value of the load torque referred to the motor shaft, N-m
For drives with constant inertia,
dωm
T = TL + J
dt
dωm dωm
Developed torque is counter balanced by the load torque TL and a dynamic torque J . J is
dt dt
present only during transient operations like starting, braking, speed change and speed reversal.
Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor.
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Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether T is greater or less than TL.

COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUES
Load torque can be divided into the following components :
i) Friction torque TF : Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of the
load. Friction torque can be resolved into three components. Friction at zero speed is
called stiction or static friction Ts. In order for drive to start, the motor torque should at
least exceed stiction. Since Ts is present only at standstill, it is not taken into account in
the dynamic analysis. Friction torque which varies linearly with speed is called viscous
friction and is given by Tv = Bωm . Friction torque which is independent of speed is called
Coulomb friction Tc.
ii) Windage torque TW: When a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion which
is known as windage torque and is given by Tw = Cωm2 .
iii) Torque TL required to do the useful mechanical work : Nature of this torque depends on
particular application. It may be constant or independent of speed.
In many applications, Tc + Cωm2 is very small compared to Bωm and negligible compared to TL.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TORQUES
Various load torques can be broadly classified into i) active load torque and ii) passive load torque.
Load torques which has the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions are called active
load torques. Such load torques usually retains their sign when the direction of the drive rotation is
changed. Example : torque due to gravity. In hoist, when a loaded cage is moving up, the active
torque due to gravity opposes the motion. Therefore, the driving motor has to generate extra torque to
overcome the torque due to gravity. On the other hand, when the loaded cage is going down, it is
driven by the torque due to gravity. The motor produces braking torque to limit the speed within the
safe values.
Load torques which always opposes the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion are
called passive load torques. Example : torque due to friction.
DYNAMIC CONDITIONS OF A DRIVE SYSTEM
Dynamic or transient conditions occur in electric drive systems, when the operating point changes
from one steady state condition to another, following a change introduced in the system variables.
These variables may be mechanical (speed, torque etc) or electrical (voltage, current etc).
These conditions generally exist during starting, braking and speed reversal of the drive. The dynamic
conditions arise in a variable speed drive when transition from one speed to another is required. The
drive may also have transient behavior if there are sudden changes of load, supply voltage or
frequency.
The energy storing elements (mechanical inertia J, electrical inductance L) in the drive system are
responsible for the delay in response following a disturbance.
Knowledge of dynamic behavior is essential for the design of control circuits, for the correct choice of
motors and for reducing losses during the starting and stopping of drives.
The dynamic behavior of a drive has a close relation to its stability. A drive is said to be stable if it
can go from one state of equilibrium to another following a disturbance in one of the parameters of
the system. Stability can be identified as either steady-state or transient.
The conditions of stability depend on the operating point.
Fundamental torque equation is given by
dω
T=J + Bω + TL
dt
Considering Bω also as part of the load torque, the torque equation is further simplified to
dω dω
T=J + Tl or J = T − Tl
dt dt
If the electromagnetic torque developed is greater than the load torque including the friction torque,
the motor accelerates.
Ie. if T > Tl ; dω > 0 ; ω increases
dt
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If the electromagnetic torque developed is less than the load torque including the friction torque, the
motor decelerates.
Ie. if T < Tl ; dω < 0 ; ω decreases
dt
If both torques are equal, the motor runs at constant speed.
Ie. if T = Tl ; dω = 0 ; ω = constant
dt

SIGN CONVENTIONS
Inertia torque, J dω , has positive sign (opposes motion) during acceleration and negative sign (aids
dt
motion) during retardation. It exists during only dynamic condition.
T is positive during motoring. Tl is negative for passive torques during motoring.
dω
T − Tl = J
dt
If T − Tl is positive, acceleration takes place.
If the direction of motion is reversed, the equation becomes
dω
−T + Tl = − J or T − Tl = J dω
dt dt
dω
If Tl is an active torque, T − Tl = J when the potential energy due to Tl opposes T.
dt
dω when it aids T.
T + Tl = J
dt
In general, the equation of motion can be written as
dω
+T + Tl = J
dt
LOADS WITH ROTATIONAL MOTION
The load may be coupled to the shaft of the driving motor either directly or through a transmission
system comprising, gears, pulleys or belts. If the speeds of the motor and load are not same, it is
coupled to each other by means of gears or belts.
Consider a motor driving two loads one coupled directly to its shaft and other through a gear with N1
and N2 teeth.
Let the moment of inertia & friction of motor and load directly coupled to its shaft be Jo & Bo
respectively and motor speed and torque of the directly coupled load be ω1 and TL0 respectively.
Let the moment of inertia, friction, speed and torque of the load coupled through gear be J2, B2, ω2 and
TL2. The gear ratio is N1/N2.
ω2 N2
Gear tooth ratio is = =a
ω1 N1

If the losses of transmission are neglected, Since the kinetic energy remains unchanged,
1 1 1
J ω12 = J oω12 + J 2ω22 where J is the equivalent moment of inertia of both loads referred to motor
2 2 2
shaft
J 2 = J o + a 2 J 2 since ω2 = aω1

Similarly, B = Bo + a B2
2 2

Power at the loads and motor must be the same. If transmission efficiency of the gears be η, then
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TL1ω2
TLω1 = TL0ω1 +
η where TL is the equivalent torque referred to motor shaft.
aTL1
TL = TL0 +
η
Hence, the load torque referred to the motor shaft is
dω
T2 ' = J 2 ' 1 + B2 'ω1
dt

STEADY STATE STABILITY

A system is in equilibrium condition, if there is no disturbance. In the presence of a disturbance, the
equilibrium conditions are disturbed and the drive tries to take a new equilibrium position under the
new input conditions. The system is said to be stable if some time after the appearance of a
disturbance it attains a new equilibrium condition. The system is said to be unstable if it comes to rest
or has a continuous increase in speed following the disturbance i.e. the system is unable to take up a
new equilibrium position. The disturbances may be external or internal to the drive.
Stability studies can be easily done using the steady-state speed-torque curves assuming that in cases
of disturbances the operating point moves along these curves.
Consider the typical speed-torque curves of an induction motor.

Consider the operating point A. A small decrease in speed is followed by an increase in the motor
torque which accelerates the load and brings it back to the original equilibrium point A. The motor
successfully returns to its original point of equilibrium in case of a small increase in speed also. Hence
point A is a stable.
Consider the operating point B. A small decrease in speed decreases the motor torque below load
torque. Hence, the motor is further decelerated and since the process is cumulative, motor finally
comes to rest. If there is a small increase in speed, the developed torque is greater than the load
torque and the motor is further accelerated. The process is cumulative and the speed goes on
increasing. The motor does not return to its original operating point B. Hence point B is unstable.
At point C, with decrease in speed, the developed torque T is greater than load torque TL , motor is
accelerated and reaches its original point of operation C.
At point D, with decrease in speed, the torque developed decreases but since T > TL , motor is
accelerated and the motor reaches its original point of operation. Hence, point D is also stable.
Hence, the machine is STABLE if its speed-torque curves are such that
i) for a decrease in speed, the motor torque is greater than the load torque
ii) for an increase in speed, the load torque is greater than the motor torque.
Note : At equilibrium point, following condition should
be satisfied,
dTl dT
>
dωm dωm
For the figure shown, point A is unstable, B is stable, C is
stable and D is unstable.
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CALCULATION OF TIME IN TRANSIENT OPERATION

Starting, braking, speed change and speed reversal are transient operations. Time taken
during transient operation is calculated by solving the equation, T − Tl = J dω .
dt
ωm 2
J
t= ∫
ω T −T
dω
l
m
m1

Transient operation is considered to be over when 95% change in speed takes place. For
example, when speed changes from ωm1 to ωm2, time taken for the speed to change from ωm1
to ωm1+0.95(ωm2- ωm1) is considered to be equal to the transient time. For more accurate
estimation during speed reversal, it is better to take speed change from ωm1 to 0.95ωm2 for
time calculation.
Problem: Calculate the starting time of a drive with following parameters:- J=10kg-m2,
T=15+0.5ωm and Tl=5+0.6ωm.
Under steady conditions,
T-Tl=0
15+0.5ωm- (5+0.6ωm)=0
ωm =100rad/s
ωm2 = 0 + 0.95 x 100 = 95rad/s
ωm 2
10
t= ∫
ω 10 − 0.1ω m
dωm = 299.57s
m1

Problem: A drive has following parameters:- J=10kg-m2, T=100-0.1N and Tl=0.05N where N
is the speed in rpm. Initially the drive is operating in steady state. Now it is to be reversed.
For this motor characteristics is changed to T = -100-0.1N. Calculate the time of reversal.
Under steady conditions,
T-Tl=0
100-0.1N-0.05N=0
N1=666.7rpm
N2 = -0.95 x 666.7 = -6333.4rpm
N2
60 10
t=
2π ∫ 100 − 0.1N − 0.05N dN = 25.76s
N1

LOAD EQUALISATION
In some drive applications like rolling mills, pressing machine etc, load fluctuates widely within short
intervals of time. In pressing machine, a large torque of short duration is required during pressing
operation; otherwise the torque is nearly zero. The current drawn from the supply also varies widely.
It produces large voltage drops in the system. The process of smoothing out fluctuating loads is called
load equalization.
This involves storage of energy during light load periods which can then be given out during the peak
load so that the demand made on the supply remains approximately constant – the peak demand is
reduced to a great extent.
Load equalization is achieved by using a flywheel. During the light load, the flywheel is accelerated
and it stores the kinetic energy and at the time of peak load the flywheel slows down and the kinetic
energy stored is given out to the load. Hence, the demand of the load from the supply is reduced.
To calculate the moment of inertia of flywheel:
Let Tl = load torque at any instant, N-m
Tp= peak load torque, N-m
To = load torque on no load or light load
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T = motor torque (developed torque) at any instant

Tr = Rated torque of the motor, N-m
ωo = no load speed of the motor, rad/sec
ωr = rated speed of the motor, rad/sec
ω = speed of the motor at any instant, rad/sec
Pr = Rated power of the motor in watts
P
Tr = Rated torque of the motor, N-m = r
ωr
J = moment of inertia of the flywheel & motor Kg-m2
Tmax = Maximum motor torque at the end of peak load time tp
Tmin = Minimum motor torque at the beginning of peak load time tp

Assume linear speed-torque characteristics (drooping) for the motor.

ω − ωr
ω = ωo − o ×T
Tr
Differentiating with respect to t on both sides,
dω ω − ωr dT
=− o ×
dt Tr dt
Multiplying by J on both sides,
dω J (ωo − ωr ) dT dT where τ is the mechanical time constant of the motor. It is the
J =− × = −τ m × m
dt Tr dt dt
time required for the motor speed to change by ( ωo − ωr ) when motor torque is maintained constant at
rated value Tr.
By dynamic equation is,
dω
T=J + Tl
dt
dT
T = −τ m × + Tl
dt
dT
τm × + T = Tl
dt
Now, load torque is fluctuating between Tp and To during time tp and to respectively.
During peak load,
dT
τm × + T = Tp
dt
Taking laplace transforms,
T
τ m [ sT ( s ) − Tmin ] + T ( s ) = p
s
T
T ( s )[ sτ m + 1] − τ mTmin = p
s
Tp τ T
T ( s) = + m min
s( sτ m + 1) ( sτ m + 1)
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1/ τ m Tmin 1 1 Tmin
T ( s ) = Tp + = Tp ( − )+
s ( s + 1/ τ m ) ( s + 1/ τ m ) s ( s + 1/ τ m ) ( s + 1/ τ m )
T = Tp (1 − e−t /τ m ) + Tmin e− t /τ m
At t=tp, T=Tmax,
− t p /τ m − t p /τ m
Tmax = Tp (1 − e ) + Tmin e …………………. (1)
During no load or light load, t p < t < t p + to or 0 < t ' < to where t’=t-tp
dT
τm × + T = To
dt '
T = To (1 − e − t '/τ m ) + Tmax e − t '/τ m
At t’=to, T=Tmin,
Tmin = Tp (1 − e−to /τ m ) + Tmax e−to /τ m …………………. (2)
From equations (1) and (2),
Tr tp
J= ×
ωo − ω r T −T
ln( p min )
Tp − Tmax
Problem: A motor is equipped with a flywheel is to supply a load torque of 1000N-m for 10 sec
followed by a light load period of 200N-m long enough for the flywheel to regain its steady-state
speed. It is desired to limit the motor torque to 700N-m. What should be the moment of inertia of
flywheel? Motor has inertia of 10Kg-m2. Its no load speed is 500 rpm and the slip at a torque of
500N-m is 5%. Assume speed-torque characteristic of motor to be a straight line in the region of
interest.
Solution:
2π N o 2π × 500
ωo = = = 52.36rad / sec
60 60
ωr = (1 − s )ωo = (1 − 0.05) × 52.36 = 49.74rad / sec
Tr = 500N-m
Tp = 1000N-m
tp = 10sec
Tmax = 700N-m
Tmin = To = 200N-m
Tr tp 500 10
J= × = × = 1945.7 Kg − m 2
ωo − ωr T − T 52.36 − 49.74 ln(1000 − 200
ln( p min ) )
Tp − Tmax 1000 − 700
Moment of inertia of flywheel = 1945.7-10=1935.7Kg-m2.
Problem: A 3-phase, 100kW, 6-pole, 960 rpm slip ring induction motor drives a load whose torque
varies such that a torque of 3000N-m of 10sec duration is followed by a torque of 500N-m of duration
long enough for the motor to attain steady state speed. Calculate the moment of inertia of the
flywheel, if motor torque should not exceed twice the rated value. Moment of inertia of motor is
10Kg-m2. Motor has a linear speed torque curve in the region of interest.
Solution: ωr = 2π N r = 2π × 960 = 100.53rad / sec
60 60
2π N o 2π × 1000
ωo = = = 104.72rad / sec
60 60
P 100 × 1000
Tr = r ated = = 994.73 N − m
ωr 100.53
Tp = 3000N-m
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tp = 10sec
Tmax = 2 × Tr = 2× 994.73= 1989.46 N − m
Tmin = To = 500N-m
Tr tp 994.73 10
J= × = × = 2620.8 Kg − m 2
ωo − ω r Tp − Tmin 104.72 − 100.53 ln( 3000 − 500 )
ln( )
Tp − Tmax 3000 − 1989.5
Moment of inertia of flywheel = 2620.8-10=2620.7Kg-m2.
Problem: A 3-phase, 100kW, 950rpm squirrel cage induction motor has a constant load torque of
500N-m followed by a long interval when an additional torque of 2500N-m is applied for 20sec.
Determine the moment of inertia of the flywheel if the motor torque were not to exceed 1.5 times the
rated torque.
Solution: ωr = 2π N r = 2π × 950 = 99.48rad / sec
60 60
2π N o 2π × 1000
ωo = = = 104.72rad / sec
60 60
P 100 × 1000
Tr = r ated = = 1005.23 N − m
ωr 99.48
Tp = 3000N-m
tp = 20sec
Tmax = 1.5 × Tr = 1.5 × 1005.23 = 1507.84 N − m
Tmin = To = 500N-m
Tr tp 1005.23 20
J= × = × = 7434.6 Kg − m 2
ωo − ω r Tp − Tmin 104.72 − 99.48 ln( 3000 − 500 )
ln( )
Tp − Tmax 3000 − 1507.84
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL OF ELECTRIC DRIVES
In many applications where a constant speed is required, open-loop operation of motors may not be
satisfactory. In open-loop operation, if load torque changes, the speed also will change. In closed loop
system, the speed can be maintained constant by adjusting the motor terminal voltage as the load
torque changes.
The basic block diagram of a closed loop speed control system is shown below.
Power Supply
N* + Vc Vt
controller converter motor Load
- N

Feedback

If an additional load torque is applied, the motor speed momentarily decreases and the speed error
increases, which increases the control signal Vc. The control signal increases the converter output
voltage (the control signal decreases the firing angle if the converter is a phase-controlled rectifier or
increases the duty ratio if the converter is a chopper). An increase in the motor armature voltage
develops more torque to restore the speed of the motor.
Advantages of closed loop operation are greater accuracy, improved dynamic response and stability of
operation. In closed loop system, the drive characteristics can be made to operate at constant torque or
constant horsepower over a certain speed range. Circuit protection can also be provided in a closed
loop system.
In a dc motor, the armature resistance Ra and inductance La are small. The time constant (La/Ra) of the
armature circuit is also small. Consequently, a small change in the armature terminal voltage may
result in a quick and large change in the armature circuit, which may damage the solid-state devices
used in the converter. An inner current loop can be provided so that the motor current can be clamped
to a specified value.
Closed loop speed control system with inner current loop is shown below.
 13

The output of the speed controller represents a torque command. Because torque is proportional to
armature current, the output of the speed controller also represents the current command Ia*, which is
then compared with the actual current Ia. A limit on the output of the speed controller will therefore
clamp the value of the motor current Ia.
The speed controller and current controller can have P or PI control. The selection depends on the
requirements of the drive performance.
DC MOTOR DRIVES
DC motors can be classified into i) separately excited DC motor ii) shunt motor iii) series motor and
iv) compound motor.

In separately excited DC motor, the armature and field are excited by independent voltage sources. In
a dc shunt motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature, both of which are
supplied from the same source. In series motors, the armature and field are connected in series and are
supplied from the same source. In compound motor, both series and shunt fields are present. The
performance of the motor is determined by the relative strengths of the series or shunt field.
In a separately excited motor, it is possible to control both armature voltage and field current, so as to
control the speed over a wide range in the smooth manner. Speeds ranging from zero to base speed
may be obtained at constant torque by armature voltage control. Speeds above base speed are possible
at constant power output by weakening of the flux.
Under steady state,
E = KeΦωm
V = E + I a Ra
T = KeΦI a
where T = torque developed by the motor, Φ = flux per pole, Ia = armature current, V = armature
voltage, ωm = motor speed, Ra = armature resistance, Ke = motor constant
V I R V Ra
ωm = − a a = − T
KeΦ KeΦ KeΦ ( KeΦ)2
For separately excited DC motor or shunt motor,
K = Ke Φ
 14

E = Kω m
T = KI a
V Ra
ωm = − T
K K2
For DC series motor,
Φ = K f Ia
T = Ke K f I a 2
E = Ke K f I aωm
V I R V 1 R
ωm = − a a = − a
Ke Φ Ke Φ Ke K f T Ke K f
For series motor, speed is almost inversely proportional to the square root of the torque. A high torque
is obtained at low speed and a low torque is obtained at high speed. Series motors are therefore used
where large starting torques are required, as in cranes, traction, hoists etc.
Problem 1: A 200V, 10.5A, 2000rpm shunt motor has the armature and field resistances of 0.5 and
400Ω respectively. It drives a load whose torque is constant at rated motor torque. Calculate motor
speed if the source voltage drops to 175V.
Solution:
175
Φ2 = Φ1 = 0.875Φ1
200
For constant torque, Φ1I a1 = Φ2 I a 2
Φ1I a1 10.5
Ia2 = = = 11.4 A
Φ2 0.875
E1 = V1 − I a1Ra = 200 − 10.5 × 0.5 = 195V
E2 = V2 − I a 2 Ra = 175 −11.4 × 0.5 = 169.3V
E1 Φ1 N1
=
E2 Φ2 N2
E2 Φ1 169.3 1
N2 = N1 = × × 2000 = 1984.5rpm
E1 Φ2 195 0.875
CONSTANT TORQUE AND CONSTANT POWER OPERATIONS
The strategy adopted in practice to control of DC motors is t divide the speed range of interest into
two regions, with the motor’s rated (base) speed separating the two regions. In the first region, the
field excitation is fixed at its rated value and speed adjustments are made by decreasing the armature
voltage below rated value. This region is called the constant-torque or armature voltage control
region. Above base speed, field weakening is employed and this is called the field control or constant
power region. Normally, the latter region extends to twice the base speed.
 15

CONSTANT TORQUE REGION

In this region, the output torque is required to be
maintained constant over the speed range from zero to
base speed ωb. The field flux is kept constant at its rated
value throughout the region.
Va − E
Armature current, I a =
Ra
Since back emf is proportional to speed, Va is varied in
proportion to the speed, so that armature current and
hence torque is constant.
Since power output is Po = EI a , it increases in
proportion to the motor speed.
CONSTANT POWER REGION
For the region where motor speed exceeds the base
speed ωb, armature voltage control cannot be used, since
full rated voltage is applied to the armature terminals.
Here, the armature voltage Va is maintained at its rated
value and the field control is applied. In this region,
power output is maintained constant by weakening the
field by reducing the voltage applied to the field.
Since power output is Po = Kφ f ωm I a , product of flux and
speed is kept constant. Back emf and armature current
remains constant.
BRAKING IN DC MOTORS
1. REGENERATIVE BRAKING
Va − E
Armature current, I a =
Ra
A negative torque is developed if armature voltage is less than
induced emf E.
For a source of fixed voltage, regenerative braking is possible
only for speeds higher than rated speed.
With a variable voltage source, regenerative braking is possible
below rated speeds.
Regenerative braking is possible only when there are loads
connected to the line and they are in need of power more or equal
to the regenerated power.
In series motor, as speed increases, armature current and hence flux decreases. Induced emf cannot be
greater than the applied voltage and hence the current is not reversed. Consequently regenerative
braking is not possible in series motors.

2. DYNAMIC BRAKING
m

T
(a) Fixed RB
 16

In this braking method, armature terminals are disconnected from the supply and are connected to a
braking resistance RB. When it is disconnected from the supply with field supply remaining on, the dc
machine will acts as a generator and converts kinetic energy stored in its moving parts to electrical
energy, which is dissipated as heat in the braking resistance RB and armature resistance Ra.
−E
Armature current, I a =
Ra + RB
For good rate of retardation, RB is decreased in steps so that average armature current and hence
braking torque remains constant.

If a series motor is connected across a resistance, without any change in configuration, then it does not
produce braking torque. As motor’s current tends to reverse, it tries to produce negative flux, which
ultimately causes demagnetization. Dynamic braking is achieved by reversing field connection before
the motor is connected to a braking resistance. Hence, the armature current is reversed but current
through the field winding is in the same direction as in case of motoring, therefore, there is no
demagnetization.
3. PLUGGING

For plugging, the supply voltage of a separately excited DC motor is reversed so that the armature
−V − E
current is reversed. Armature current, I a =
Ra + RB .
A braking resistance RB is connected in series with the armature to limit the current.
Since torque is not zero at zero speed, the supply must be disconnected when the speed is close to
zero.

For plugging of a series motor, armature alone is reversed.

 17

CONTROLLED RECTIFIER FED DC DRIVES

Controlled rectifiers are used to get variable dc voltage from an ac source of fixed voltage. Controlled
rectifiers can be classified into i) 1-phase fully-controlled rectifier ii) 1-phase half-controlled rectifier
iii) 3-phase fully-controlled rectifier and iv) 3-phase half-controlled rectifier. Fully-controlled
rectifiers can be operated in two quadrants whereas half-controlled rectifiers can be operated in only
one quadrant.
Controlled rectifier fed dc drives are widely used in applications requiring a wide range of speed
control and/or frequent starting, braking, and reversing. Some prominent applications are in rolling
mills, paper mills, printing presses, mine winders, machine tools.
SINGLE-PHASE FULLY-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER CONTROL OF DC SEPARATELY
EXCITED DC MOTOR
A single-phase fully controlled rectifier fed separately
excited DC motor is shown below. Field supply is not
shown. When field control is required, field is fed from a
controlled rectifier, otherwise from an uncontrolled
rectifier.
When armature current does not flow continuously, the
motor is said to operate in discontinuous conduction.
When current flows continuously, the conduction is said to
be continuous.

In continuous conduction mode, armature voltage va, armature current ia and source current is are
shown in figure below.
From ωt=α to π+α, thyristors T1
and T2 are conducting. Armature
voltage va is same as the source
voltage vs and source current is is
same as the load current ia.

At ωt=π+α, T3 and T4 are turned ON. T1 and T2 are turned OFF automatically by the reverse
voltage applied due to the turning ON of T3 and T4. During ωt=π+α to 2π+α, armature
voltage, va = -vs and source current, is = - ia.
 18

Figure shows the armature voltage

va, armature current ia and source
current is waveforms assuming the
armature current is continuous and
ripple free (ia = Ia).

In continuous conduction mode, average armature voltage, Va is given by

π +α
2V
Va = ∫ Vm sin ωtd (ωt ) = m cos α
α π
When α < 90° , average armature voltage is positive and when α > 90° , average armature
voltage is negative.
In discontinuous conduction mode, armature voltage va, armature current ia and source current is are
shown in figure below.
From ωt=α to β, thyristors T1 and T2 are
conducting. Armature voltage va is
same as the source voltage vs and
source current is is same as the load
current ia. At ωt=β, armature current ia
decreases to zero and T1 and T2 are
turned OFF since its anode current falls
to zero. Hence, during ωt=β to π+α, all
the devices are OFF. Since armature
current is zero, armature voltage is
same as the back emf E.
At ωt=π+α, T3 and T4 are turned ON.
Armature voltage, va = -vs and source
current, is = - ia.

Since armature current ia is not perfect dc, the motor torque fluctuates. Since torque
fluctuates at a frequency of 100Hz, motor inertia is able to filter out the fluctuations, giving
nearly a constant speed and ripple-less E.
DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION
1⎡ ⎤ V (cos α − cos β ) + E(π + α − β )
β π +α
Average voltage, Va = ⎢ ∫ Vm sin ωtd (ωt ) + ∫β Ed (ωt )⎥ = m
π ⎢⎣α ⎥⎦ π
Torque, T = KI a and E = Kωm
E Va − I a Ra Vm (cos α − cos β ) + E(π + α − β ) Ra
ωm = = = − 2T
K K πK K
 19

Vm (cos α − cos β ) + Kωm (π + α − β ) Ra

ωm = − 2T
πK K
ωm (β − α ) Vm (cos α − cos β ) Ra
= − 2T
π πK K
V (cos α − cos β ) πR
ωm = m − 2 a T
K (β − α ) K (β − α )
β can be found out as follows:-
For α ≤ ωt ≤ β
dia
va = La + Raia + E = Vm sin ωt …….. (1)
dt
For β ≤ ωt ≤ π + α
va = E and ia = 0
Solution of (1) is given by
Vm E
ia (ωt ) = sin(ωt − φ ) − + K1e− Rat / La for α ≤ ωt ≤ β
Z Ra
where Z = Ra 2 + (ω La )2 φ = tan −1 (ω La / Ra ) τ a = La / Ra
To find K1, at ωt=α, ia (α ) = 0
Raα
Vm E −
sin(α − φ ) − + K1e ωLa = 0
Z Ra
Rα
⎡E V ⎤ a
K1 = ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ eωLa
⎣ Ra Z ⎦
Rα
E ⎡E V ⎤ a
Rt
V − a
ia (ωt ) = m sin(ωt − φ ) − + ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ eωLa × e La
Z Ra ⎣ Ra Z ⎦

Vm E ⎡E V ⎤
ia (ωt ) = sin(ωt − φ ) − + ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ e−(ωt −α )cot φ
Z Ra ⎣ Ra Z ⎦
ia (β ) = 0
Vm E ⎡E V ⎤
sin(β − φ ) − + ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ e−( β −α )cot φ = 0 …….. (2)
Z Ra ⎣ Ra Z ⎦
Solving equation (2), β can be found out.
At boundary between continuous and discontinuous condition, β = π + α
Vm E ⎡E V ⎤
sin(π + α − φ ) − + ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ e−(π +α −α )cotφ = 0
Z Ra ⎣ Ra Z ⎦
E −π cot φ Vm Vm
(e − 1) = sin(α − φ ) + sin(α − φ )e−π cotφ
Ra Z Z
E Vm ⎛ 1 + e−π cot φ ⎞
= sin(α − φ ) ⎜ −π cot φ ⎟
Ra Z ⎝e −1 ⎠
If ωmc is the critical speed at the boundary of continuous and discontinuous conduction,
Vm Ra ⎛ 1 + e−π cot φ ⎞
ωmc = sin(α − φ ) ⎜ −π cot φ ⎟
KZ ⎝e −1 ⎠
 20

CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION
Average voltage,
π +α
1 2Vm
Va =
π ∫V
α
m sin ωtd (ωt ) =
π
cos α

Torque, T = KI a and E = Kωm

E Va − I a Ra 2Vm cos α Ra
ωm = = = − 2T
K K πK K
In discontinuous conduction, for a given α, any
increase in torque and corresponding increase in Ia
causes β to increase and Va to drop. Consequently,
speed drops by a larger amount.
In continuous conduction, for a given α, any
increase in torque causes ωm and E to drop so that Ia
and T are increased. But Va remains constant.

BRAKING OPERATION OF RECTIFIER CONTROLLED SEPARATELY EXCITED MOTOR

For the reversal of power flow, reverse both the armature voltage and back emf and make |E| >| Va|.
Armature current cannot be reversed as the rectifier can carry current only in one direction. Rectifier
output can be reversed by making α > 90°. Under this condition, the rectifier works as a line
commutated inverter transferring from dc side to the ac mains. The condition |E| >| Va| can be
satisfied for any motor speed by choosing an appropriate value of α in this range 90 < α < 180°. The
reversal of the motor emf with respect to the rectifier terminals can be done by any of the following
changes:-
1. An active load coupled to the motor shaft may drive it in the reverse direction. This gives
reverse regeneration. In this case no change in the armature connections are required with
respect to the rectifier terminals.
2. The field current may be reversed motor running in the forward direction. This gives forward
regeneration. In this case also no change in armature connections are required.
3. The motor armature connections may be reversed with respect to the rectifier terminals with
the motor still running in the forward direction. This will give forward regeneration.
Regenerative braking cannot be obtained with a half-controlled rectifier because the output voltage
can not be reversed.
Problem: A 200V, 875rpm, 150A separately excited DC motor has an armature resistance of 0.06Ω. It
is fed from a 1-phase fully-controlled rectifier with an ac source voltage of 220V, 50Hz. Assuming
continuous conduction, calculate i) firing angle for rated motor torque and 750rpm ii) firing angle for
rated motor torque and -500rpm iii) motor speed for α=160° and rated torque.
Solution:
At rated condition,
E = V − I a Ra = 220 −150 × 0.06 = 191V
i) E at 750rpm,
750
E= ×191 = 163.7V
875
V = E + I a Ra = 163.7 + 150 × 0.06 = 172.7V
2Vm
Va = cos α
π
 21

2 × 220 2
172.7 = π cosα
α = 29.3°
ii) E at -500rpm,
−500
E= ×191 = −109V
875
V = E + I a Ra = −109 + 150 × 0.06 = −100V
2 × 220 2
−100 = cos α
π
α = 120°
iii) At α = 160°
2 × 220 2
Va = cos160 = −186V
π
E = Va − I a Ra = −186 − 150 × 0.06 = −195V
−195
speed = × 875 = −875rpm
191
Problem: A 200V, 875rpm, 150A separately excited DC motor has an armature resistance of 0.06Ω. It
is fed from a 1-phase fully-controlled rectifier with an ac source voltage of 220V, 50Hz. If armature
circuit inductance of motor of the drive be 0.85mH, calculate the motor torque for i) α=60° and speed
= 400rpm. Now external inductance of 2mH is added to the armature circuit to reduce the region of
discontinuous conduction. Calculate the torque for (ii) α=120° and speed = -400rpm (iii) α=120° and
speed = -600rpm
Solution:
V R ⎛ 1 + e−π cot φ ⎞
Critical speed, ωmc = KZ sin(α − φ ) ⎜ e−π cot φ − 1 ⎟
m a

⎝ ⎠
At rated condition,
E = V − I a Ra = 220 −150 × 0.06 = 191V
875 × 2π
ωm = = 91.63rad / sec
60
E 191
K= = = 2.084
ωm 91.63
Z = Ra 2 + (ω La )2 = 0.062 + (2π × 50 × 0.85 ×10−3 )2 = 0.2737Ω
Ra 0.06
cot φ = = = 0.2247 φ = 77.34°
ω La 2π × 50 × 0.85 ×10−3
Vm Ra ⎛ 1 + e−π cot φ ⎞ 220 2 × 0.06 ⎛ 1 + e−π ×0.2247 ⎞
ωmc = sin(α − φ ) ⎜ −π cotφ ⎟ = sin(60 − 77.34) ⎜ −π ×0.2247 ⎟
KZ ⎝e − 1 ⎠ 2.084 × 0.2737 ⎝e −1 ⎠
= 28.8rad / sec = 275rpm

i) Since the speed is above ωmc, discontinuous operation.

400
At 400rpm, E = 875 ×191 = 87.3V

Vm E ⎡E V ⎤
sin(β − φ ) − + ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ e−( β −α )cot φ = 0
Z Ra ⎣ Ra Z ⎦
 22

220 2 87.3 ⎡ 87.3 220 2 ⎤

sin(β − 77.34) − +⎢ − sin(60 − 77.34)⎥ e−( β −60)cot 77.34 = 0
0.2737 0.06 ⎣ 0.06 0.2737 ⎦
sin(β − 77.34) + 2.09e−0.2247 β = 1.28
(Note: While solving using Casio 991ES calculator, make the following change in equation
sin(π + γ − 1.35) + 2.09e−0.2247(π +γ ) = 1.28 where β = π+γ
γ=-0.9055rad or β = 231.88)
Vm (cos α − cos β ) + E (π + α − β ) 220 2(cos 60 − cos 231.88) + 87.3(π + 1.047 − 4.047)
Va = = = 114.6V
π π
Va − E 114.6 − 87.3
Ia = = = 455 A
Ra 0.06
T = KI a = 2.084 × 455 = 948.2 Nm
ii) With external inductance
Z = Ra 2 + (ωLa )2 = 0.062 + (2π × 50 × 2.85 ×10−3 )2 = 0.8974Ω
Ra 0.06
cot φ = = = 0.067 φ = 86.17°
ω La 2π × 50 × 2.85 ×10−3
Vm Ra ⎛ 1 + e−π cotφ ⎞ 220 2 × 0.06 ⎛ 1 + e−π ×0.067 ⎞
ωmc = sin(α − φ ) ⎜ −π cotφ ⎟ = sin(120 − 86.17) ⎜ −π ×0.067 ⎟
KZ ⎝e − 1 ⎠ 2.084 × 0.8974 ⎝e −1 ⎠
= −52.94rad / sec = −505.5rpm
−400
At 400rpm, E = 875 ×191 = −87.3V

Vm E ⎡E V ⎤
sin(β − φ ) − + ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ e−( β −α )cotφ = 0
Z Ra ⎣ Ra Z ⎦
220 2 87.3 ⎡ 87.3 220 2 ⎤
sin(β − 86.17) + + ⎢− − sin(120 − 86.17)⎥ e−( β −120)cot86.17 = 0
0.8974 0.06 ⎣ 0.06 0.8974 ⎦
β = 281°
Vm (cos α − cos β ) + E(π + α − β ) 220 2(cos120 − cos 281) − 87.3(π + 2.094 − 4.9)
Va = = = −77.63V
π π
Va − E −77.63 + 87.3
Ia = = = 161.2 A
Ra 0.06
T = KI a = 2.084 ×161.2 = 335.9Nm
iii) Since the motor speed (-600rpm) is less than the critical speed (-505.5rpm), drive operates in
continuous conduction
2 × 220 2
Va = cos120 = −99V
π
−600
E= ×191 = −131V
875
V − E −99 + 131
Ia = a = = 533.3 A
Ra 0.06
T = KI a = 2.084 × 533.3 = 1111.5Nm
SINGLE-PHASE HALF-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER CONTROL OF DC SEPARATELY
EXCITED DC MOTOR
 23

A single-phase half-controlled rectifier fed separately

excited DC motor is shown in figure.

In continuous conduction mode, armature voltage va, armature current ia and source current is are
shown in figure below. From ωt=α to π, thyristor T1 and diode D1 are conducting. Armature
voltage va is same as the source voltage vs and source current is is same as the load current ia.
At ωt= π, diode D2 is forward biased
and it starts conducting. At the same
instant, T1 is turned off due to
reverse voltage applied by the source
through D2. When D1 and D2 are
conducting (freewheeling), armature
voltage va is zero. Source current is is
also zero.
At ωt=π+α, T2 is turned ON by
applying a firing pulse. D1 is
automatically turned OFF. During
ωt=π+α to 2π, armature voltage, va =
-vs and source current, is = - ia.

In continuous conduction mode, average armature voltage, Va is given by

π
V
Va = ∫ Vm sin ωtd (ωt ) = m (1 + cos α )
α π
Figure shows the armature voltage
va, armature current ia and source
current is waveforms assuming the
armature current is continuous and
ripple free (ia = Ia).

In discontinuous conduction mode, armature voltage va, armature current ia and source current is are
shown in figure below.
From ωt=α to π, thyristor T1 and diode D2 are conducting. Armature voltage va is same as the
source voltage vs and source current is is same as the load current ia.
 24

At ωt= π, diode D2 is forward biased and thyristor T1 is turned OFF due to reverse voltage.
During ωt= π to β, both D1 and D2 are conducting (freewheeling) and armature voltage va and
source current is are zero.

At ωt=β, armature current ia decreases

to zero and both D1 and D2 are reverse
biased. Hence, during ωt=β to π+α, all
the devices are OFF. Since armature
current is zero, armature voltage is
same as the back emf E.
At ωt=π+α, T2 is turned ON by
applied a firing pulse. From ωt=π+α to
π, thyristor T2 and diode D2 are
conducting. Armature voltage, va = -vs
and source current, is = - ia.

DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION
1⎡ ⎤ V (1 + cos α ) + E(π + α − β )
π π +α

π ⎢⎣α∫ m ∫β
Average voltage, Va = ⎢ V sin ωtd (ωt ) + Ed (ωt )⎥ = m
⎥⎦ π
Torque, T = KI a and E = Kωm
E Va − I a Ra Vm (1 + cos α ) + E (π + α − β ) Ra
ωm = = = − 2T
K K πK K
Vm (1 + cos α ) + Kωm (π + α − β ) Ra
ωm = − 2T
πK K
ωm (β − α ) Vm (1 + cos α ) Ra
= − 2T
π πK K
V (1 + cos α ) πR
ωm = m − 2 a T
K (β − α ) K (β − α )
β can be found out as follows:-
For α ≤ ωt ≤ π
di
va = La a + Raia + E = Vm sin ωt …….. (1)
dt
V E
ia (ωt ) = m sin(ωt − φ ) − + K1e− Rat / La
Z Ra
where Z = Ra 2 + (ωLa )2 φ = tan−1 (ωLa / Ra )
To find K1, at ωt=α, ia (α ) = 0
Rα
Vm E − a
sin(α − φ ) − + K1e ωLa = 0
Z Ra
Rα
⎡E V ⎤ a
K1 = ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ eωLa
⎣ Ra Z ⎦
 25

Rα
E ⎡E V ⎤ a
Rt
V − a
ia (ωt ) = m sin(ωt − φ ) − + ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ eωLa × e La
Z Ra ⎣ Ra Z ⎦

Vm E ⎡E V ⎤
ia (ωt ) = sin(ωt − φ ) − + ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ e−(ωt −α )cot φ
Z Ra ⎣ Ra Z ⎦
Vm E ⎡E V ⎤
ia (π ) = sin(π − φ ) − + ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ e−(π −α )cot φ
Z Ra ⎣ Ra Z ⎦
Vm E ⎡E V ⎤
= sin φ − + ⎢ − m sin(α − φ )⎥ e−(π −α )cot φ
Z Ra ⎣ Ra Z ⎦
For π ≤ ωt ≤ β
di
va = La a + Raia + E = 0 …….. (2)
dt
Solution of (2) is given by
E
ia (ωt ) = − (1 − e− Rat / La ) + ia (π )e− Rat / La for π ≤ ωt ≤ β
Ra
E −ωt cot φ ⎡Vm E ⎛E V ⎞ ⎤
=− e + ⎢ sin φ − + ⎜ − m sin(α − φ ) ⎟ e−(π −α )cotφ ⎥ e−ωt cotφ
Ra ⎣Z Ra ⎝ Ra Z ⎠ ⎦
V E
= m ⎡⎣sin φe−(ωt −π )cot φ − sin(α − φ )e−(ωt −α )cotφ ⎤⎦ − ⎡⎣1 − e−(ωt −α )cotφ ⎤⎦
Z Ra
Vm E
= ⎡⎣sin φeπ cot φ − sin(α − φ )eα cotφ ⎤⎦ e−ωt cotφ − ⎡⎣1 − e−(ωt −α )cot φ ⎤⎦
Z Ra
At ωt = β, ia (β ) = 0
Vm E
⎡sin φeπ cot φ − sin(α − φ )eα cotφ ⎤⎦ e− β cotφ − ⎡⎣1 − eα cot φ e− β cotφ ⎤⎦ = 0
⎣
Z Ra
RaVm
eβ cot φ = ⎡sin φeπ cotφ − sin(α − φ )eα cotφ ⎤⎦ + eα cotφ …….. (3)
EZ ⎣
Solving equation (3), β can be found.
At boundary between continuous and discontinuous condition, β = π + α
Vm Ra ⎡ sin φe−α cot φ − sin(α − φ )e−π cotφ ⎤
ωmc = ⎢ ⎥
KZ ⎣ 1 − e−π cot φ ⎦
Problem: A 220V, 960rpm, 12.8A SEDCM has Ra=2Ω and La=150mH. It is fed from a single-phase
half controlled rectifier with an source voltage of 230V, 50Hz. Calculate i) motor torque for α=60°
and speed = 600rpm ii) motor speed for α=60° and T = 20Nm.
Vm Ra ⎡ sin φe−α cotφ − sin(α − φ )e−π cotφ ⎤
ωmc = ⎥ = 77.76rad / s
KZ ⎢⎣ 1 − e−π cotφ ⎦
Drive is operating in continuous conduction.
π
V
Va = ∫ Vm sin ωtd (ωt ) = m (1 + cos α ) = 155.3V
α π
i) T= 32.8Nm ii) speed = 664.8 rpm
 26

3-PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED RECTIFIER FED SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR

VAB
VCB VAC

VCA VBC
VBA

Discontinuous conduction is neglected because it occurs in a narrow region of its operation. Under
continuous conduction, each thyristor conducts for 120° At any instant, two thyristors will conduct -
one thyrtor from upper group and other from lower group. Thyristors are fired in the sequence of their
numbers with a phase difference of 60°.
A thyristor from upper group can be turned on when its anode voltage is greater than the other
two phase voltages. Firing angle of T1 is measured from 30° (reference angle) of phase voltage vA.
Reference angle for firing of T1, T3 & T5 are 30°, 150° and 270° respectively. A thyristor from lower
group can be turned on when its cathode is most negative. Reference angle for firing T2, T4 & T6 are
90°, 210° and 330° respectively. When a thyristor of upper group is conducting, then one thyristor
from lower group must conduct for return path.
Consider the operation of a 3-phase fully controlled rectifier for a firing angle of α=60°. Assume that
the current is continuous and ripple free with sufficiently large value of inductance in the armature
circuit.

The devices will be conducting as per the following table.

Device Start conduction at Stop conduction at
T1 30+α=90° 90+120=210°
T2 90+α=150° 150+120=270°
T3 150+α=210° 210+120=330°
T4 210+α=270° 270+120=30°
T5 270+α=330° 330+120=90°
T6 330+α=30° 30+120=250°

Output voltages during each instant are shown in figure below.

ωt Devices conducting Output voltage
0 to 30° T5 & T4 vCA
30 to 90° T5 & T6 vCB
90 to 150° T1 & T6 VAB
150 to 210° T1 & T2 VAC
210 to 270° T3 & T2 VBC
270 to 330° T3 & T4 VBA
330 to 30° T5 & T4 VCA

Input voltage/phase, output voltage and source current in phase A are shown below.
 27

vs vA vB vC

= 60
T5 T1 T3 T5
T4 T6 T2 T4 T6

vCB vAB vAC vBC vBA vCA vCB vAB

va

ia

Average output voltage of a 3-phase fully controlled rectifier is derived as following:-

Note : If v A = Vm sin ωt & vB = Vm sin(ωt − 120°) , v AB = 3Vm sin(ωt + 30°)
Load (armature) current is assumed to be continuous.
Average value of output voltage is
α + 90
6
Va =
2π ∫
α + 30
3Vm sin(ωt + 30°) d (ωt )

= 6 3Vm [− cos(ωt + 30°)]αα ++90°

30°
2π
= 6 3Vm [cos(α + 60°) − cos(α + 120°)]
2π
6 3Vm
= [cos(α + 90° − 30°) − cos(α + 90° + 30°)]
2π
= 6 3Vm 2 × sin(α + 90°) × sin(30°) (Note: cos( A − B) − cos( A + B ) = 2sin A sin B )
2π
= 6 3Vm 2 × cos α × 1 = 3 3Vm cos α = 3VLm cos α
2π 2 π π
Note : Vm is the peak value of phase voltage and VLm is the peak value of line voltage.
Torque, T = KI a and E = Kωm
E Va − I a Ra 3VLm cos α Ra
ωm = = = − 2T
K K πK K
Problem : A 220V, 1500rpm, 50A SEDCM with Ra=0.5Ω is fed from a 3-phase fully-
controlled rectifier. Available ac source has a line voltage of 440V, 50Hz. A star-delta
connected transformer is used to feed the armature so that motor terminal voltage equals rated
voltage when converter firing angle is zero.
i) Calculate transformer turns ratio
ii) Determine the value of firing angle when a) motor is running at 1200rpm and rated
torque b) when motor is running at -800rpm and twice the rated torque.
 28

3-PHASE HALF CONTROLLED RECTIFIER FED SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR

Under continuous conduction, each
thyristor/diode conducts for 120°. At any
instant, one thyristor from upper group and one
diode from lower group will conduct.
A thyristor from upper group (connected in
common cathode configuration) can be turned
on when its anode voltage is greater than the
other two phase voltages. Firing angle of T1 is
measured from 30° (reference angle) of phase
voltage vA.
Reference angle for firing of T1, T2 & T3 are 30°, 150° and 270° respectively. A diode from lower
group is forward baised when its cathode is most negative. D1, D2 & D3 start conducting from 90°,
210° and 330° respectively. When a thyristor of upper group is conducting, then one diode from lower
group will be conducting for return path.
Consider the operation of a 3-phase half controlled rectifier for a firing angle of α=30°. Assume that
the current is continuous and ripple free with sufficiently large value of inductance in the armature
circuit.
The devices will be conducting as per the following table.
Device Start conduction at Stop conduction at
T1 30+α=120° 120+120=240°
D1 90° 90+120=210°
T2 150+α=180° 240+120=360°
D2 210° 210+120=330°
T3 270+α=360° 360+120=120°
D3 330° 330+120=90°

Output voltages during each instant are shown in figure below.

ωt Devices conducting Output voltage
0 to 90° T3 & D3 VCB
90 to 120° T3 & D1 0
120 to 210° T1 & D1 VAC
210 to 240° T1 & D2 0
240 to 330° T2 & D2 VBA
330 to 360° T2 & 33 0
360 to 90° T3 & D3 VCB

Input voltage/phase, output voltage and source current in phase A are shown below.
 29

Average output voltage of a 3-phase half controlled rectifier is given be

= Va = 3 3Vm (1 + cos α ) = 3VLm (1 + cos α )
2π 2π
Note : Vm is the peak value of phase voltage and VLm is the peak value of line voltage.
Torque, T = KI a and E = Kωm
E Va − I a Ra 3VLm (1 + cos α ) Ra
ωm = = = − 2T
K K πK K
FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION OF DC MOTORS
REVERSIBLE DRIVE USING FULLY CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
The speed of a DC motor can be reversed by changing i) the direction of armature current or ii) the
direction of field current. The field current reversal to obtain a reversible drive is cheaper and simpler
compared to armature current reversal. This is because the power level to be handled by the converter
is small. But the time constant in the speed reversal is large for field current reversal and the response
is slower.
Reversal of armature current can be achieved by mechanical change over switches or dual converters.
The use of contactors is economical whereas the use of dual converters is costly. The change over
must take place at zero current when the switches are used. This gives long life to the contactors.
Also, a define amount of time is required for the opening and closing contactors.
A reversible drive using armature current reversal is shown in figure.

The contactors F1 and F2 are provided for rotation in the forward direction whereas R1 and R2 in the
reverse direction. This arrangement reverses the current in the armature retaining the direction of
current in the thyristors. During speed reversal, the load on the motor is removed. The following
stages are involved in the reversal of the motor.
Stage 1: The motor is in the steady state in the forward direction. F1 and F2 are in the closed position.
Armature current is positive. At the instant of providing the signal to reverse, the motor is unloaded.
A small no-load current flows through the motor.
 30

Stage 2: Speed reversal takes place in this stage. The contactors must be operated at zero current for
longer life. Firing angle is increased such that the armature voltage is equal to the induced voltage.
V −E
This makes the armature current zero ( I a = a = 0 ). F1 & F2 are opened. After a small delay, R1 &
Ra
R2 are closed. Armature voltage is reversed. But the speed remains constant due to large inertia. Firing
angle is increased above 90° so that braking occurs at maximum available torque/current (As an
V −E
example, let the braking current be -200A). ( I a = a = −200 A & α > 90° ). As the speed
Ra
decreases, armature voltage is also decreased by reducing the firing angle so that the braking torque
−V
remains constant. Speed decreases to zero ( I a = a = −200 A & α < 90° ). The motor operates in
Ra
regenerative braking and returns all the kinetic to the mains. Now, firing angle is again decreased and
the motor starts rotating in the reverse direction. Back emf is developed in the opposite direction.
Motor is accelerated at maximum permissible torque
−Va + E
( Ia = = −200 A & α < 90°, Va − ve & I a − ve) . Converter is operating as rectifier. Armature
Ra
voltage is increased till motor attains rated speed. Current is decreased to no-load value by adjusting
firing angle α.
Stage 3: The load is reapplied to the motor. The motor takes a current to drive the load.

t1 – motor on no-load

t2 – speed reversal command

t2t3 – motor decelerates

regeneratively to zero speed

t3t4 – motor accelerates in

reverse direction

t5 – load is reapplied

1-PHASE DUAL CONVERTER (FOUR QUADRANT CONVERTER)

Semiconverter operates in one quadrant
(Quadrant I) only and full converter
operates in two quadrants (Quadrant I &
IV). Dual converters can operate in all the
four quadrants (output voltage and current
may be either positive or negative).
In dual converter, two single phase or three
phase fully controlled rectifiers are
connected in anti-parallel.

2-types :- i) Nor-circulating current type (non-simultaneous type) and ii) circulating current type
(simultaneous type)
DUAL CONVERTER WITHOUT CIRCULATING CURRENT
Assumption :- Load current is continuous
 31

Only one converter is operated at a time and it alone carries the entire load current.
(Note : Positive current is possible with converter 1 and negative current is possible with converter 2)
Initially let the drive be in operation in quadrant I. Converter 1 is operated as rectifier (α1 < 90°) and
firing pulses to the converter 2 is blocked. Motor runs in forward direction. For speed reversal, motor
must initially operate in the second quadrant and then in third quadrant. For this, the operation must
transfer from converter I to converter II. Before converter II is activated, all thyristors in converter I
must turn off; otherwise a line side short circuit of converter II through the conducting thyristors of
converter I will take place. Hence, the armature current is forced to zero by increasing the firing angle
V −E
of converter I ( I a = a1 = 0 ). After zero current is sensed, a dead time of 2 to 10mS is provided to
Ra
ensure the turn-off of all thyristors of converter I. Now, the firing pulses are withdrawn from
converter I and released to converter II. Motor speed will not change appreciably during this period
owing to inertia. α2 is initially set to make the armature voltage equal to back emf. It is then reduced
to make the maximum allowable current (braking current) to flow (α2>90°, armature voltage is
positive & armature current is negative). Speed reversal is achieved at maximum braking torque.
Speed decreases to zero and the motor starts rotating in the opposite direction. Back emf is developed
in the opposite direction. The drive starts operating in third quadrant (α2<90°, both armature voltage
& current are negative). Armature current is maintained at maximum value till the motor reaches rated
speed.
Disadvantages of non-circulating current type dual converter are
i) Proper protection is necessary for avoiding a short circuit due to malfunctioning ie. both
converters are simultaneously operated.
ii) A delay is required to shift the operation from one mode to the other mode.

DUAL CONVERTER WITH CIRCULATING CURRENT

Two converters are operated simultaneously so that the sum of their average terminal voltages is zero
so that no dc current circulates in the loop formed by the two converters.
Va1 + Va 2 = 0
2Vm 2V
cos α1 + m cos α 2 = 0
π π
cos α1 = − cos α 2 = cos(180 − α 2 )
α1 + α 2 = 180°

Hence, when one converter operates as rectifier with

firing angle α1, the other is operated as inverter with
firing angle (180-α1). Though their average output
voltages are equal, instantaneous voltages va1 and va2
may be different. This results in a voltage difference and
hence a large circulating current flows between the two
converters but not through the load.
 32

This circulating current is limited to a tolerable value by inserting a reactor between the two
converters.
Although both thyristors are operated simultaneously, motor control in first and fourth quadrant are
provided by converter I (Ia positive & Va1 positive or negative). Converter II carries only circulating
current. The circulating current is limited to 15 to 30% of the rated armature current. The two
converters reverse their roles when the operating takes place in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
Advantages : i) No short circuit; ii) better dynamic response
Disadvantages : i) Additional reactor is needed to limit the circulating current which increases size
and cost ii) Due to circulating current (=15 to 20% of rated current), current rating of SCR is higher.

REVERSIBLE DRIVE USING CIRCULATING CURRENT TYPE DUAL CONVERTER

The following stages are involved in the speed reversal.

Stage 1: Initially motor is operating in first quadrant. Converter I operates as a rectifier ( 0 < α1 < 90° )
and converter II as inverter ( 90° < α 2 < 180° ). Armature current is supplied by converter I and only
circulating current flows through converter II. The motor is unloaded.
Stage 2: This is the speed reversal stage. It is initiated with a command to reverse the speed. α1 is
increased (Va1 decreases) and α2 is decreased (Va2 increases) such that α1 + α 2 = 180° . Motor back
emf exceeds the magnitude of both Va1 and Va2. Armature current becomes negative and shifts to
converter II. Motor operates in 2nd quadrant. Armature current is maintained constant at maximum
permissible limit during regeneration. During this period, only circulating current flows through
converter I. Kinetic energy is supplied back to the source. Speed decreases to zero.. Now α2 is reduced
below 90° and converter II will act as rectifier and the motor will be operating in 3rd quadrant (both
armature voltage and current negative). Back emf is developed in the opposite direction. During
acceleration also, the current is maintained at maximum permissible value. Motor is accelerated to
rated speed. Current is decreased to its no-load value by adjusting α2.
Stage 3: The load is reapplied to the motor. The motor takes a current to drive the load.

t1 – motor on no-load

t2 – speed reversal command

t2t3 – motor decelerates

regeneratively to zero speed

t3t4 – motor accelerates in

reverse direction

t5 – load is reapplied

Simultaneous control (circulating current type) has number of advantages. The control is simple.
Continuous conduction is guaranteed because of the natural freedom of motor current to flow in
direction. Drive has good speed regulation. But presence of reactors L1 and L2 increases the cost,
weight, volume, noise and power loss. Transient response is slow because of increase in the time
constant. Power factor and efficiency are low because of the circulating current.
Nonsimultaneous (non-circulating current type) control has the advantages of increased efficiency and
power factor because of the absence of circulating current. It does not need reactors and hence cost,
weight, noise and power loss are less. It provides quicker response to changes in the firing angle.
Main disadvantages are discontinuous conduction at light loads and the consequent poor speed
 33

regulation. Dead time is required during the reversal of the armature current. It needs complex control
circuit.
Problem : A 220V, 750rpm, 200A SEDCM has Ra = 0.05Ω. Armature is fed from a 3-phase non-
circulating current dual converter consisting of fully controlled rectifiers A and B. Rectifier A
provides motoring operation in the forward direction and rectifier B in reverse direction. Line voltage
of ac source is 400V. Calculate the firing angles of rectifiers for the following assuming continuous
conduction:
i) Motoring operation at rated torque and 600rpm
ii) Regnerative braking operation at rated torque and 600rpm
iii) Motoring operation at rated torque and -600rpm
iv) Regenerative braking operation at rated torque and -600rpm.
Ans:
At 750 rpm,
E = V − I a Ra = 220 − 200 × 0.05 = 210V
i) Forward Motoring at 600rpm
At 600 rpm,
600 × 210
E2 = = 168V
750
3 3Vm 3 3 2 × 400
Va = E2 + I a Ra = 168 + 200 × 0.05 = cos α A = cos α A
π π 3
α A = 70.7° α B = 180 − 70.7° = 109.3°
ii) Forward regenerative at 600rpm
3 3Vm 3 3 2 × 400
Va = E2 − I a Ra = 168 − 200 × 0.05 = cos α A = cos α A
π π 3
α A = 73° α B = 107°
iii) Reverse motoring at -600rpm
3 3Vm 3 3 2 × 400
Va = E2 + I a Ra = 168 + 200 × 0.05 = cos α B = cos α B
π π 3
α A = 109.3° α B = 70.7°
iv) Reverse regeneration at -600rpm
3 3Vm 3 3 2 × 400
Va = E2 − I a Ra = 168 − 200 × 0.05 = cos α B = cos α B
π π 3
α A = 107° α B = 73°
CHOPPER CONTROLLED SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR
Choppers are used for the control of DC motors because of number of advantages such as high
efficiency, flexibility in control, light weight, small size, quick response, and regeneration down to
very low speeds. Chopper controlled DC motors have applications in servos and traction.
Chopper offers a number of advantages over controlled rectifiers. Because of the higher frequency of
the output voltage ripple, the ripple in the motor armature current is less and the region of the
discontinuous conduction in the speed-torque plane is smaller. Reduction in the armature current
ripple reduces the machine losses and its derating. A reduction or elimination of discontinuous
conduction region improves speed regulation and transient response of a drive.
A chopper can be operated at comparatively high frequencies. With power transistors, operating
frequency can be 2.5kHz and with power MOSFETs, operating frequency can be upto 200kHz. The
rectifier output voltage and current have a much lower frequency – 100Hz in the case of a 1-phase
rectifier and 300Hz in the case of a 3-phase fully-controlled rectifier-when the ac source frequency is
50Hz.
 MOTORING CONTROL (CLASS A CHOPPER) 34

va
V
ton T t
ia Ia2
Ia1 Ia1
t
is Ia2
Ia1
During ON period of the switch, armature t
voltage, va = V. Armature current increases from
armature voltage, armature current
and input current
Ia1 to Ia2.
di
Ra ia + La a + E = V , 0 ≤ t ≤ ton
dt
At t = ton, switch is turned off. Motor current freewheels through diode DF. Armature voltage is zero
during this interval.
di
Ra ia + La a + E = 0, ton ≤ t ≤ T
dt
Motor current decreases from Ia2 to Ia1.
t
Duty ratio, D = on
T
ton
Average armature voltage, Va = 1 ∫ Vdt = DV
T 0
Va Ra DV Ra
Speed, ωm = K − K 2 T = K − K 2 T
REGENERATIVE BRAKING (CLASS B CHOPPER)

During ON period of the switch, armature voltage, va = 0. Armature current increases from Ia1 to Ia2.
DC machine works as a generator and a part of the energy is stored in the armature inductance and
remainder is dissipated in armature resistance.
When switch is turned off, armature current flows through diode D and source V and armature current
decreases from Ia2 to Ia1. The stored energy in the inductance and the energy supplied by the machine
is fed to the source.
T − ton
Duty ratio, D =
T
T
Average armature voltage, Va = 1 ∫ Vdt = DV
T ton
DV Ra
Speed, ωm = K − K 2 T
 TWO QUADRANT CHOPPER (CLASS C) 35

iG1

iG2 t

t
va
V
ton T t
ia Ia2
Ia1 t
D2 S1 D1 S2 D2 S1 D1
Although switching from class A to class B configuration is a satisfactory method of obtaining
regenerative braking for some applications, in others a smooth transition from motoring to braking is
essential. This is frequently the case in servo drives and machine-tool drives. A combination of class
A and class B choppers provides the required drive.
For first quadrant operation, S1 and D1 will be operated. If the average armature current Ia (hence
torque) is high enough, S2 and D2 will not conduct, even though S2 receives gate signal.
For second quadrant operation, S2 and D2 will be operated. If the average armature current Ia (hence
torque) has sufficiently large negative value, S1 and D1 will not conduct, even though S1 receives gate
signal.
The circuit parameters and value of ton may be such that it would result in discontinuous current in the
single-quadrant step-down chopper. Current in the class C chopper, however, cannot be discontinuous
because under these conditions S2 and D2 conduct for part of the cycle. When the current in D1 falls to
zero, emf E drives negative current through S2 to store energy in inductance La. When S2 is
commutated, the fall in this stored energy induces a negative emf eL, which, in conjunction with emf
E, supplies energy to source V until the negative current becomes zero and the energy in inductance
La is exhausted. Positive load current ia then resumes through S1.

FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER (CLASS E CHOPPER)

S1 D1 S3 D3
La E
ia
V
+ va -
S2 D2 S4 D4

In this chopper, both the armature voltage and armature current may be either positive or negative.
Equivalent circuits and devices conducting in each quadrant is as shown below.

QUADRANT 1
S2 & S4 are kept OFF;
S4 is kept ON;
S1 is operated ON & OFF
Va and Ia are positive
 36

QUANDRANT 2
S1, S3 & S4 are kept OFF;
S2 is operated ON & OFF
Va is positive and Ia is negative

QUADRANT 3
E is reversed
S1 & S4 are kept OFF;
S2 is kept ON;
S3 is operated ON & OFF
Va and Ia are negative

E is reversed;
S1, S2 & S3 are kept OFF;
S4 is operated ON & OFF
Va is negative and Ia is positive

NOTE : For Quadrant 1, S1 is operated ON & OFF; for Quadrant 2, S2 is operated ON & OFF; for
Quadrant 3, S3 is operated ON & OFF; for Quadrant 4, S4 is operated ON & OFF

CLOSED LOOP SPEED CONTROL

For speed control above base speed, field control must be combined with armature voltage control.
Speed control from zero to base speed should be done at the maximum field by armature voltage
control and control above base speed should be done by field weakening at the armature voltage.
 37

INVERTERS
DC to AC converters are known as inverters.
An inverter changes a DC input voltage to a symmetrical AC output voltage of desired magnitude and
frequency. The output voltage can have a fixed or variable frequency.
Note: For AC, average value is zero
Applications : Variable speed ac motor drives, induction heating, standby power supply, UPS
Inverters are mainly classified as: i) current source inverter and ii) voltage source inverter
CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER (CSI)
This type of inverter is fed by a current source with high internal impedance. (A DC source in series
with a large inductance will act as a current source). Input current cannot change instantaneously.
VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER (VSI)
This type of inverter is fed by a dc source of small internal impedance.
Voltage source inverter can be classified as half-bridge and full-bridge inverter.
Also, voltage source inverters may further be classified as a) square-wave inverter and b) pulse-width
modulated (PWM) inverter.
a) Square-Wave Inverter – produces a square wave ac voltage of constant value. The output
voltage of this type of inverter can only be varied by controlling the input dc supply voltage.
b) Pulse-Width Modulated (PWM) Inverters – the output has one or more pulses in each half-
cycle. By varying the width of these pulses, the output voltage can be controlled. The value of
the dc input voltage is essentially constant in PWM-VSI.
VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER
1-PHASE FULL BRIDGE INVERTER
Disadvantages of half-bridge inverters are i) it requires 3-wire dc supply and ii) voltage across OFF
state device is Vdc which is twice the load voltage.

RL load
Mode 1
At t=t1; SA & SB’ are turned ON. vo = +Vdc; io starts increasing from zero. io reaches maximum at t2.

Mode 2
 38

At t=t2; SA & SB’ are turned OFF. io starts decreasing. Stored energy in the inductance is fed back to
source through DA’ and DB. vo = -Vdc.
Mode 3
At t=t3; load current becomes zero; SB & SA’ are turned ON; io flows in negative direction. vo = -Vdc;

Mode 4
At t=t4; load current becomes maximum in reverse direction; SB & SA’ are turned OFF; io continues to
flows through DA and DB’ due to stored energy. vo = +Vdc.
Special Case : Full bridge inverter with L load

Note :
a) If output voltage is vo=+Vdc, load current is linearly increasing and if output voltage is vo = -Vdc,
load current is linearly decreasing for a pure inductive load ( vo = L dio ).
dt
b) Average voltage across the inductance is zero under steady state.
c) Average power dissipated over one half-cycle in an inductance is zero under steady state.
PERFORMANCE OF SQUARE WAVE INVERTER (FULL BRIDGE)

The square wave has half-wave symmetry ( vo (t + T ) = −vo (t ) ) and odd symmetry ( vo (−t ) = −vo (t ) ).
2
(Note: i) If a waveform has half-wave symmetry, ao = 0 and n is odd ii) If a waveform has odd-
symmetry, ao = 0 ; an = 0 & vo(t) consists of only sine terms )
π
4 4V 4V
2π ∫0
bn = Vdc sin nωtd ωt = dc [ − cos nωt ] = dc where n = 1,3,5,……
2π n nπ
∝
4Vdc 4V 4V 4V
vo (t ) = ∑
n =1,3,5,.. nπ
sin nωt = dc sin ωt + dc sin 3ωt + dc sin 5ωt + ...
π 3π 5π
Peak value of fundamental output voltage, V o1 = 4Vdc = 1.273Vdc
^

π
 39

RMS value of fundamental output voltage, Vo1 = 2 2Vdc = 0.9Vdc

π
π
RMS value of output voltage, Vo = 1 Vdc 2 dωt = Vdc
π ∫0

Total Harmonic Distortion, THD = Vo − Vo1 = 0.4843

2 2

Vo1
Note : RMS value of fundamental, 3 , 5th , 7th and 9th harmonics output voltages are respectively
rd

Vo1=0.9Vdc , Vo3=0.3Vdc, Vo5=0.18Vdc, Vo7=0.13Vdc, Vo9=0.1Vdc.

PWM INVERTERS
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) is the most suitable method of voltage control. It not only controls
the voltage but also reduces the harmonic content.
Elimination of lower order harmonics results in reduced size of filter requirement which saves the cost
(Higher order harmonics can be easily filtered out using a low-pass filter).
Different PWM techniques are i) single pulse width modulation ii) Multiple-pulse width modulation
and iii) sinusoidal PWM.
SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
In sine PWM technique, gate signals are generated by comparing a sinusoidal reference signal vsine (of
frequency fo , same as the output frequency) with a triangular carrier wave vtri of frequency fc.
Amplitude of reference voltage Asin e
Amplitude modulation ratio, ma = =
Amplitude of carrier signal Atri
Amplitude of carrier wave is generally kept constant.
Frequency of triangular wave fc
Frequency modulation ratio, m f = =
Frequency of sine wave fo

Note: For an induction motor, speed is generally controlled by varying the stator frequency. For
controlling the speed below base speed, voltage is decreased in proportion while decreasing the
frequency so that V/f ratio is constant. If an inverter is used for controlling V and f, V can be
controlled by varying amplitude modulation index ma and f can be controlled by varying the
frequency of sine (reference) wave. Harmonics can be eliminated/reduced by increasing frequency
modulation ratio mf.
PWM WITH BIPOLAR SWITCHING
When vsine > vtri, SA is ON (SA’ is OFF) and SB is OFF (SB’ is ON), vo = +Vdc
When vsine < vtri, SA is OFF (SA’ is ON) and SB is ON (SB’ is OFF), vo = −Vdc
Note: Switching signals to two switches in a leg will be complimentary (When SA is ON, SA’ will be
OFF) and these two switches are never off simultaneously.
The output voltage switches between –Vdc and +Vdc voltage levels. Hence, the name PWM with
bipolar voltage switching.
 40

^


Peak of the fundamental output voltage, V o1 = maVdc where ma ≤ 1
maVdc
RMS value of the fundamental output voltage, Vo1 = = 0.707 maVdc
2
Peak (RMS) value of the fundamental component of the output voltage varies linearly with
modulation index ma.
(For a 1-phase, 230V, 50Hz induction motor, RMS value of the fundamental component of supply
voltage should be 230V. Hence, value of dc link voltage Vdc required is 230/0.707 = 325V if we are
using a 1-phase sine PWM inverter. With square wave inverter, Vdc required is only 230/0.9 = 256V)

3-PHASE BRIDGE INVERTER

A 3-phase inverter is formed by connecting three 1-phase half-bridge inverters in parallel.
A 3-phase inverter is classified as : a) 180° conduction mode inverter and b) 120° conduction mode
inverter. This classification is based on the period of conduction of each switch.
In 180° conduction scheme, each device conducts for 180°. They are turned ON at regular interval of
60° in the sequence T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6.
In 120° conduction scheme, each device conducts for 120°. As each device conducts for 120°, only
two devices are in conduction state at any instant.

180° CONDUCTION
When SA is ON, SA’ will be OFF and when SA is OFF, SA’ will be ON.
When SA is ON, vAN = +Vdc and when SA is OFF, vAN = 0
When SB is ON, vBN = +Vdc and when SB is OFF, vBN = 0
When SC is ON, vCN = +Vdc and when SC is OFF, vCN = 0
Line voltages,
vAB = vAN – vBN
 41

vBC = vBN – vCN

vCA = vCN – vAN
For star connected or delta connected load, the waveforms are shown below.

In the 3-phase inverters, only the harmonics in the line-to-line voltage are of concern.
If shifted by ωt= π/6, the waveform vAB will have odd symmetry and half-wave symmetry (a0=0; an=0
& n odd).

π
π
8 2 4Vdc 4Vdc nπ
bn = ∫ V sin( nω t ) d ω t = [ − cos( nω t ) ] π =
2
cos
2π π nπ nπ
dc
6 6
6

4Vdc π
2 3Vdc
b1 = =
cos
π 6 π
4V 3π
b3 = dc cos =0
3π 6
4Vdc 5π 2 3Vdc
b5 = cos =−
5π 6 5π
 42

4Vdc 7π 2 3Vdc
b7 = cos =
7π 6 7π
4V 9π
b9 = dc cos =0
9π 6
Triplen harmonics will be absent.
∝
4Vdc nπ π
vAB = ∑ cos sin n(ωt + )
n =1,5,7.. nπ 6 6

2 3Vdc ⎡ π 1 π 1 π 1 π ⎤
v AB = ⎢ sin(ωt + ) − sin 5(ωt + ) + sin 7(ωt + ) − sin11(ωt + ) + ...⎥
π ⎣ 6 5 6 7 6 11 6 ⎦
^

2 3Vdc
Peak value of fundamental component of line voltage, V L1 = = 1.1Vdc
π
6Vdc
RMS value of fundamental component of line voltage, VL1 = = 0.78Vdc
π
π
Vdc 2 × 2
RMS value of line voltage, VL1 = 3 = 0.8165V
π dc

VL 2 − VL12
THD = VL1 = = 0.3095
VL1
A 3-phase square wave inverter (180° conduction mode) has THD = 30.95%.
(For a 3-phase, 400V, 50Hz induction motor, RMS value of the fundamental component of supply
voltage (line) should be 400V. Hence, value of dc link voltage Vdc required is 400/0.78 = 512.8V if
we are using a 3-phase square wave inverter)
Note: The main disadvantage of stepped wave inverter is the large harmonics of low frequency in the
output voltage. Effects of harmonics are
i) Because of low frequency harmonics, the motor losses are increased at all speeds causing
derating of the motor.
ii) Motor develops pulsating torques due to 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th harmonics which cause jerky
motion of the rotor at low speeds
iii) Harmonic content in motor current increases at low speeds. The machine saturates at light
loads at low speeds due to high V/f ratio. These effects overheat the machine at low
speeds, thus limiting lowest speed to around 40% of base speed.
For the 3-phase square wave inverter, output voltage can be varied only by varying the input dc
voltage Vdc. Keeping the input dc voltage constant, the output voltage can be controlled by using
pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques. By using sine PWM, low frequency harmonics can be
eliminated and the associated losses can be eliminated.
For star-connected balanced R-load, output voltage per phase can be determined as follows.
v AN = vAn + vnN
vBN = vBn + vnN
vCN = vCn + vnN
v AN + vBN + vCN = v An + vBn + vCn + 3vnN = 3VnN (since
v An + vBn + vCn = R(iAn + iBn + iCn ) = 0
vAN + vBN + vCN
VnN =
3
 43

Load voltages per phase are

v +v +v
v An = v AN − vnN = vAN − AN BN CN
3
2v v v
= AN − BN − CN
3 3 3
2v v v
vBn = BN − CN − AN
3 3 3
2v v v
vCn = CN − AN − BN
3 3 3
v AN = +Vdc or 0;
Note: vBN = +Vdc or 0;
vCN = +Vdc or 0
For R-load, iA has same shape of vAn.
But, for L-load, iA is shown in figure.
di
Note: vAn = L A
dt

SINE PWM FOR 3-PHASE INVERTER

In 3-phase PWM inverter, the same triangular voltage waveform is compared with three sinusoidal
control voltages that are 120° out of phase as shown in figure. (Here, mf = 9)

The modulation index ma determine the width of the pulses and hence the RMS value of the inverter
output voltage.
Amplitude of reference wave
Amplitude modulation ratio (modulation index) ma = and
Amplitude of carrier wave
In sine PWM, ON/OFF periods are varied such that the ON-periods are longest at the peak of the
fundamental sine wave.
Modulation index is varied by varying the amplitude of the reference wave by keeping the amplitude
of carrier wave constant.
frequency of carrier wave
Frequency modulation ratio, m f =
frequency of reference wave
The frequency modulation ratio, mf should be an odd multiple of 3 for half-wave symmetry and 3-
phase symmetry.
 44

LINEAR MODULATION (ma ≤ 1)

For linear modulation ( ma ≤ 1 ),
RMS value of fundamental component of line-to-line output voltage, VL1 = 0.612maVdc
VL1 ∝ ma
(Note: In the 3-phase inverters, only the harmonics in the line-to-line voltage are of concern.)
(Note: For a 3-phase square wave inverter, RMS value of fundamental line-to-line output voltage is
0.78Vdc)
(For a 3-phase, 400V, 50Hz induction motor, RMS value of the fundamental component of supply
voltage (line) should be 400V. Hence, value of dc link voltage Vdc required is 400/0.612 = 653.6V if
we are using a 3-phase sine PWM inverter with ma = 1; dc link voltage utilization is poor. With 3-
phase square wave inverter, Vdc required is 400/0.78=512.8V only)
OVERMODULATION (( ma > 1 )
For better DC link voltage utilization and increase in fundamental output voltage, ma is increased
beyond unity. In PWM over modulation, the peak of the reference (sine) wave is allowed to exceed
the peak of the carrier wave. But, lower order harmonics reappear in the output voltage. RMS value of
fundamental line-to-line voltage does not increase proportionally with modulation indeed ma.
3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
The induction motor is the most rugged and the most widely used machine in industry. The
induction machine can operate both as a motor and as a generator. However, it is seldom used as a
generator supplying electrical power to a load. The performance characteristics as a generator are not
satisfactory for most applications. The induction machine is extensively used as a motor in many
applications.
Construction
A three phase induction motor consists of two parts
a) Stator
b) Rotor
Stator
The core is hollow cylindrical in shape and is made of high grade sheet steel laminations
(0.35mm to 0.65mm thick) insulated from each other. It consists of number of slots in its inner
periphery to accommodate armature conductors (winding). A three phase distributed, full
pitched/short pitched windings are placed in these slots. Windings are suitably connected to form a
 45

balanced three phase star or delta connected circuit. It is wound for a definite number of poles as per
requirement of speed.
Rotor
Two types
a) Squirrel cage
b) Wound rotor (slip ring type)
Squirrel cage
It is cylindrical (solid) in shape and built up
of number of laminations having slots on its
outer surface. Solid copper or aluminium
bars short circuited at both ends by copper
rings are inserted in these slots. There is no
insulation between the iron core and the
conductors. The current induced in the rotor
is contained within the circuit formed by
the conductors and end rings.
Skewing the rotor slots helps avoid crawling (locking in at sub synchronous speed) and reduces
vibration.
Wound rotor (Slip ring type)
It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having
slots on its outer surface. These slots carry a 3
phase winding similar to the one in the stator.
The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the
slots and is usually star connected.
The rotor is wound for as many poles as the
number of stator poles. The open ends of the
rotor winding are brought out and joined to 3
insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft
with one brush resting on each slip ring.
The 3 brushes are connected to a 3
phase star connected rheostat. At
starting the external resistance is
included in the rotor circuit to give
a large starting torque and to
reduce the starting current. As the
motor speeds up, the resistance is
gradually reduced up to zero.
Comparison of squirrel cage (SCIM) and slip ring induction motors (SRIM)
SCIM SRIM
1. Its rotor consists of copper bars 1. Its rotor consists of 3 phase windings which is
permanently short circuited at both ends then connected to external resistance through slip
rings and brushes
2. Starting torque is poor 2. Better starting torque can be achieved by
inserting external resistance in the rotor circuit.
3. Separate starting methods are needed in 3. Rotor resistance starting can be used
order to reduce the staring current
4. Its rotor can adjust to any number of stator 4. Rotor and stator are wound for same number
poles. So different speeds can be obtained by of poles
different arrangements of stator winding.
5. It has less components and hence less labor 5. Slip rings, brushes, starting resistance etc.
 46

since it has no rotor winding. So it is cheaper increases the cost

6. Better efficiency 6. Low efficiency
7. Better cooling (larger space to provide fan 7. Cooling not efficient
blades on rotor)
8. Less maintenance 8. More maintenance
The transfer of energy from the stator to the rotor, whether squirrel cage or wound rotor, is by means
of electromagnetic induction and occurs in a manner similar to that in a transformer.
Principle of operation of 3 phase induction motor
When the stator winding is connected to three phase ac supply, a rotating magnetic field is
established in the air gap which rotates at synchronous speed. Initially, rotor is stationary. Due to
relative speed between the rotating magnetic field and stationary rotor conductors, an emf is induced
in the rotor. As the rotor circuit is closed, currents will circulate through them. According to Lenz’s
law, these induced currents will flow in such a direction so as to oppose the cause producing it. Here
the cause is relative speed. In order to reduce the relative speed, the currents in the rotor produce a
torque tending to rotate the rotor in the same direction of rotating field.
At synchronous speed of the rotor, the relative speed is zero, no emf and no torque developed,
rotor tends to stop, hence rotor cannot attain synchronous speed. Motor runs at a speed slightly less
than synchronous speed.
120 f
Speed of the rotating magnetic field is called synchronous speed Ns. ( N s = rev/min or
P
4π f
ωs = rad/sec)
P
Slip
Difference between the speed of the rotating magnetic field Ns and the actual speed of the rotor N is
called slip speed.
Slip, s = N s − N ×100% = ωs − ωm ×100% where N = Rotor speed in rev/min or ωm = rotor speed in
Ns ωs
rad/sec
At starting, N=0, hence s=1 (standstill)
At synchronous speed, N=Ns and s=0
At starting, rotor is stationary and the frequency of rotor emf or current is same as the supply
frequency.
When the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency of the rotor currents depends on the
relative speed or slip.
Let f2 be the rotor frequency at any slip s
P( N s − N ) ( N s − N ) PN s
f 2 == = = sf
120 Ns 120
Rotor frequency = slip x supply frequency
Note: The normal full-load slip of the induction motor is of the order of 2%-8%, so the frequency of
the rotor currents is as low as 1-4Hz.
Let E1 and E2 be the stator and rotor induced voltages at standstill.
E1 = 4.44 K w1 f ΦT1
E2 = 4.44 K w2 f ΦT2
where
T1=No. of stator turns/phase
T2=No. of rotor turns/phase
Kw1=Stator winding factor
Kw2=Rotor winding factor
 47

E1 K w1T1
= = n =Effective stator to rotor turns ratio
E2 K w 2T2
or
E1 ∝ E2
Under running condition, fr=sf
Rotor emf/phase = 4.44Kw2(sf)ΦT2 = sE2
Slip depends on the load on the motor. As the load increases, slip also increases (or speed decreases).
Let Rs = stator winding resistance/phase
Xs= stator leakage reactance/phase
Rr = rotor winding resistance/phase
Xr= rotor leakage reactance/phase at standstill
sXr= rotor leakage reactance/phase during running condition
(Note: At standstill, X r = 2π f r Lr = 2π fLr
During running condition, f r = sf ; rotor reactance = sX r )
Note: Induced currents in the 3-phase rotor windings also produce a rotating field. Its speed with
respect to rotor is N s 2 = 120 f r = 120sf = sN s . Because the rotor itself is rotating at N rpm, speed of the
P P
rotor field with respect to stator is N+sNs=Ns(1-s)+sNs =Ns. Hence, both the stator field and rotor field
are rotating in the air gap at the same synchronous speed Ns.
Note: The stator magnetic field and rotor magnetic field are stationary with respect to each other. The
interaction between these two fields can be considered to produce the torque.
Note: Assume that 3-phase supply is given to the rotor windings of a slip ring induction motor and
stator windings are shorted. Initially, rotor is stationary. When 3-phase currents flow through the 3-
phase rotor winding, a rotating magnetic field is produced in the rotor. Assume that the direction of
rotating field is clockwise. This rotating field induces emfs and hence currents in the stator winding.
This current will flow such that it opposes the cause (relative speed). Hence, the rotor will rotate in
anticlockwise direction.
TORQUE EQUATION
Equivalent circuit of the induction motor is shown below. Rr’ and Xr’ are the rotor resistance Rr and
rotor reactance Xr referred to stator.
ω − ωm
s= s where ωm = rotor speed in rad/sec and ωs = synchronous speed in rad/sec
ωs
4π f
ωs = rad/sec
P
ωm = (1 − s)ωs

Rr ' Rr '
Rr '(1 − s )
s s s

From equivalent circuit in figure (c),

V
Ir ' =
( Rs + Rr '/ s)2 + ( X s + X r ')2
Rr ' 3V 2 Rr '/ s
Power transferred to rotor (rotor input or air-gap power) Pg = 3I r '2 =
s ( Rs + Rr '/ s)2 + ( X s + X r ')2

Mechanical power developed, Pm = 3I r '2 Rr '(1 − s) = 3V 2 Rr '(1 − s) / s

s ( Rs + Rr '/ s)2 + ( X s + X r ')2
 48

Torque developed by motor, T = Pm = Pm = 3 V 2 Rr '/ s

ωm ωs (1 − s) ωs ( Rs + Rr '/ s)2 + ( X s + X r ')2
(Note:
Mechanical power developed = Stator input – Stator Cu loss – Rotor Cu loss
Motor output = Mechanical power developed – Stator core loss – Friction & Windage loss)
dT
For maximum torque, =0
ds
Slip at maximum torque, sm = Rr '
Rs + ( X s + X r ')2
2

Maximum (break-down) torque, Tmax = 3 V2

2ωs Rs + Rs 2 + ( X s + X r ')2
Note: Maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.
Tmax is independent of rotor resistance but sm is directly
m
proportional to rotor resistance.
s
Drop in speed from no-load to full load depends on the
rotor resistance. When rotor resistance is low, the drop is
quite small, and therefore, motor operates essentially at a
constant speed.
For slips much smaller than sm, the speed-torque
characteristics is a straight line. For slips much larger 0 Tmax T
than sm, torque is inversely proportional to slip and
hence has hyperbolic shape.
Compelete speed Vs torque characteristics is shown below.
Methods employed for braking of an induction motor
are i) regenerative braking ii) plugging and iii)
dynamic braking
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
When the rotor of an induction motor runs faster than
the stator field, the slip becomes negative and the
machine generates power. Therefore, whenever the
motor has a tendency to run faster than the rotating
field, regenerative braking occurs and the kinetic
energy of the rotating parts is returned to the mains.
The speed of the motor decreases. The braking torque
makes the motor run at a constant speed.
In hoists and cranes, the drive motor has a tendency to
run faster than the synchronous speed. This situation
occurs when the hoist is raising an empty cage or
lowering a loaded cage.

When fed from a source of fixed frequency, regenerative braking is possible only for speeds greater
than synchronous speed. With a variable frequency source, it can also be obtained for speeds below
synchronous speed.
DYNAMIC BRAKING
 49

In DC dynamic braking, the stator running at a speed is

connected to a dc supply. The dc flowing through the stator
sets up a stationary field. This induces rotor currents which
produce a torque to bring the rotor to rest quickly. The torque
developed and the retardation during braking can be
controlled by the amount of dc power. Additional resistances
are used in stator and rotor circuit to control the dc excitation
and braking torques respectively. The dc supply can be either
separate dc source or a rectified dc supply derived from the ac
source through a diode rectifier.
In AC dynamic braking, the stator is switched to a capacitor bank. The machine runs as a self-excited
induction generator. All the mechanical energy is dissipated as electrical energy in the rotor
resistance. This method is uneconomical due to the cost of the capacitors.
PLUGGING
By changing the phase sequence of the input to an
induction motor, the direction of the stator field can
be reversed. In practice, this is done by interchanging
the supply to any two terminals of the motor. A
braking torque is developed and the motor comes to
rest very fast. The motor must be switched off from
the mains when zero speed is reached. Otherwise, the
torque developed accelerates the motor in the reverse
direction.

Slip during plugging, sn = −ωs − ωm = 2ωs − (ωs − ωm ) = 2 − s

−ωs ωs
At the instant of plugging, sn is nearly 2 and the relative speed of stator field with respect to rotor is
twice the relative speed at standstill. The rotor induced emf can be twice of its value at zero speed.
Consequently, the motor current is large. In case of wound-rotor motors, a resistance of twice the
starter resistance is inserted in the rotor to limit the braking current to starting value. This increases
the braking torque also.
SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR
For an induction motor,
4π f
Synchronous speed, ωs = rad/sec
P
Motor speed, ωm = (1 − s)ωs
Basic methods of speed control of induction motor are
i) By changing the number of poles
ii) By varying the supply frequency
iii) By varying the stator voltage
iv) By varying the rotor resistance
v) By injecting emf of slip frequency into the rotor circuit
Method (i) is applicable only for squirrel cage induction motors and (iv) and (v) only for slip ring
induction motors.
POLE CHANGING
For a given frequency, the synchronous speed is inversely proportional to the number of poles.
Synchronous speed and hence the motor speed can be changed by changing the number of poles.
 50

Since there is no winding in rotor circuit of a squirrel cage induction motor, the rotor can adjust to any
number of stator poles. In slip ring induction motor, since the rotor is wound for same number of
stator poles, change in number of stator poles requires change in number of rotor poles which
complicates the machine. Hence, this method of speed control is only used for squirrel cage induction
motors.
If an induction motor is to run at different speeds, one way is to have different stator windings
for the motor so that it will have different synchronous speeds and the running speeds. But this
method is expensive.
Another method is to use one winding but with suitable connections for a change-over to
double/halve the number of poles. The stator winding per phase is divided into two coil groups. By
reversing the current in one coil group, change in number of poles by a factor 2 can be achieved. The
two coil groups can be connected in series or parallel.

The three phases of the machine can be connected in star or delta. By choosing a suitable combination
of series or parallel connections between coil groups of each phase and star or delta connection
between the phases, speed change can be obtained with constant torque operation, constant power
operation or variable torque operation.
STATOR VOLTAGE CONTROL
By reducing stator voltage, speed of a high-slip induction
motor can be reduced by an amount which is sufficient for the
speed control of fan and pump drives ( TL = ωm 2 ). Torque is
directly proportional to the square of the applied voltage. TL ∝ ωm 2
3 V 2 Rr '/ s
T=
ωs ( Rs + Rr '/ s)2 + ( X s + X r ')2
The speed-torque characteristics for different stator voltages
are shown in figure.

The speed can be varied from ωm1 to ωm2. The slip sm for maximum torque is independent of stator
voltage.
V2
Maximum torque, Tmax = 3 if stator resistance is neglected (Rs = 0)
2ωs ( X s + X r ')
If the voltage is reduced to 80%, the maximum torque falls to 64%.
 51

The variation in applied voltage is achieved by

means of a 3-phase AC voltage controller. The
voltage is varied by means of phase angle control
of the anti-parallel thyristors.

3-PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH R LOAD

For a balanced pure resistive load, the
output voltage waveforms of a 3-phase AC
voltage controller is shown below for a
firing angle of α = 60°.
Note: A thyristor is turned off, when its
anode current reaches zero (or falls below
holding current). T1 is turned off when
vAN=0 (if all the 3 phases are conducting)
or vAC=0 (if only 2 phases are conducting).

v AB v AC
2 2
v AB v AC
2 2
 52

For 0° ≤ α < 60°, immediately before the firing of T1, two thyristors are conducting. Once T1
is fired, three thyristors conduct.
For 60° ≤ α ≤ 90°, only two thyristors conduct at any time. For 90° ≤ α ≤ 150°, although two
thyristors conduct at any time, there are periods when no thyristors are ON. For α ≥ 150°,
there is no period of two conductors conducting and output voltage is zero.
T1 is in forward blocking state when vAN is positive. T1 starts conducting from ωt=α°. Firing
sequence is 1,2,3,4,5,6. T2 starts conducting from ωt=α+60°. T3 starts conducting from
ωt=α+120°. T1 stops conducting till vAN becomes zero if all the phases are connected to load
(T1, T2 & T3 are conducting) or till vAC becomes zero if only A & C phases are connected to
load (only T1 & T2 are conducting).
The disadvantages of stator voltage control is low starting torque and input power factor is
poor.
Problem 1: A 3-phase 460V, 60Hz, 4-pole Υ-connected induction motor has the following
parameters Rs=1.01Ω, Rr’=0.69Ω, Xs=1.3Ω, Xr’=1.94Ω, Xm=43.5Ω. No load loss is
negligible. Load torque is proportional to the square of the speed. If TL is 41Nm at 1740rpm,
find the load torque, rotor current and stator supply voltage at 1550rpm.
Solution: ωm1 = 1740 × 2π = 182.2rad / s
60
4π f 4π × 60 2π
ωs = = = 188.5rad / s ωm 2 = 1550 × = 162.3rad / s
P 4 60
TL 2 ωm 2 2 or ωm 22 162.32
= T = T × = 41 × = 32.53Nm
TL1 ωm12
L2 L1
ωm12 182.22
Under steady state, developed torque T = load torque TL
At ωm 2 = 162.3rad / s,
ω − ωm2 188.5 − 162.3
s= s = = 0.139
ωs 188.5
3 R ' 3 0.69
T2 = I r '2 × r = I r '2 × = 32.53
ωs s 188.5 0.139
Ir’ = 20.3A
3 V 2 Rr '/ s 3 V 2 × 0.69 / 0.139
T= = = 32.53
ωs ( Rs + Rr '/ s)2 + ( X s + X r ')2 188.5 (1.01 + 0.69 / 0.139)2 + (1.3 + 1.94)2
V = 137.9V/ph=238.86V
Problem 2: A 3-phase 400V, 50Hz, 4-pole, 1370rpm Δ-connected induction motor has the
following parameters Rs=2Ω, Rr’=5Ω, Xs=Xr’=5Ω, Xm=80Ω. Motor speed is controlled by
stator voltage control. While driving a fan load, it runs at rated speed at rated voltage.
Calculate motor terminal voltage, current and torque at 1200 rpm.
Solution: ωm1 = 1370 × 2π = 143.47rad / s
60
4π f 4π × 50 2π
ωs = = = 157.08rad / s ωm 2 = 1200 × = 125.66rad / s
P 4 60
At rated voltage and rated speed,
ω − ωm 2 157.08 − 143.47
s= s = = 0.087
ωs 157.08
3 V 2 Rr '/ s 3 4002 × 5 / 0.087
T= = = 48.3Nm
ωs ( Rs + Rr '/ s)2 + ( X s + X r ')2 157.08 (2 + 5 / 0.087)2 + (5 + 5)2
ωm 22 125.662
TL 2 = TL1 × = 48.3 × = 37.05Nm
ωm12 143.472
At ωm 2 = 125.66rad / s ,
 53

ωs − ωm 2 157.08 − 125.66
s= = = 0.2
ωs 157.08
3 V 2 Rr '/ s 3 V 2 × 5 / 0.2
T= = = 37.05
ωs ( Rs + Rr '/ s) + ( X s + X r ') 157.08 (2 + 5 / 0.2)2 + (5 + 5)2
2 2

V =253.63V
V 253.63∠0
Ir ' = = = 8.81∠ − 20.32°
( Rs + Rr '/ s) + j ( X s + X r ') (2 + 5 / 0.2) + j (5 + 5)
253.63∠0
Im = = 3.17∠ − 90°
j80
I s = I r '+ I m = 8.81∠ − 20.32° + 3.17∠ − 90° = 10.35∠ − 37°
Line current, I L = 3 ×10.35 = 17.93 A
STATOR FREQUENCY CONTROL
The torque and speed of induction motor can be controlled by changing the supply frequency. If the
voltage is maintained fixed at its rated value while reducing the frequency below its rated value, the
flux increases. This would cause saturation of the air-gap flux, and the motor parameters would not be
valid in determining the torque speed characteristics. Magnetizing current also increases. At low
frequency, the reactances decrease and the motor current may be too high. Core loss also increases
while reducing frequency keeping voltage constant.
The synchronous speed corresponding to the rated frequency is called base speed ωb. For speed
control below base speed, while frequency is reduced the voltage is also reduced in proportion so that
V/f ratio is constant. In constant V/f control, flux remains constant at its rated value. With reduction in
frequency, magnetizing current remains constant while core loss decreases. Maximum torque remains
constant.
The synchronous speed at any other frequency, ωs = kωb where k < 1 and slip s = ωs − ωm = kωb − ωm .
ωs kωb
3 (kV )2 Rr '/ s
T= where V = rated voltage, Xs and Xr’ are stator and rotor
kωb ( Rs + Rr '/ s)2 + (kX s + kX r ')2
reactances at rated frequency
Maximum torque at rated frequency, Tmax = 3 V2
2ωb Rs + Rs 2 + ( X s + X r ')2

If Rs is neglected, Tmax = 3 V2
2ωb X s + X r '

Maximum torque at reduced frequency Tmax = 3 (kV )2 3 V2

=
2kωb k ( X s + X r ') 2ωb ( X s + X r ')
Hence, for speed control below based speed, the maximum torque remains constant if V/f ratio is kept
constant.
For speed control above base speed (k > 1), voltage is kept
constant at its rated value while increasing the frequency
above rated frequency. Since V/f ratio decreases, flux
decreases. The maximum torque is given by,
2
3 V2 3 ⎛ V ⎞ where k > 1.
Tmax = = ⎜ ⎟
2kωb k ( X s + X r ') 2ωb ( X s + X r ') ⎝ k ⎠
Maximum torque decreases by factor k2 where k is greater
than 1. (Maximum torque is inversely proportional to
frequency squared similar to the behavior of dc series
motors. In this mode of control, the motor is said to be
operated in field-weakening mode.
 54

The voltage at variable frequency can be obtained by a 3-phase cycloconverter or 3-phase

voltage source/current source inverter (see 3-phase sine PWM inverter). The cycloconverter
is used in very large power applications (eg: locomotives and cement mills) where the
frequency requirement is one-half or one-third of the line frequency.
Problem: A 3-phase, 460V, 60Hz, 4-pole, 1750rpm, star connected induction motor has the
following parameters: Rs=0.66Ω, Rr’=0.38Ω, Xs=1.14Ω, Xr’=1.71Ω. The motor is fed from a
voltage source inverter with a constant voltage to frequency ratio. a) Calculate maximum
torque Tmax and the corresponding speed for 60Hz and 30Hz. b) Repeat (a) if Rs is neglected.
Solution:
At 60Hz, ωs = 4π f = 4π × 60 = 188.5rad / s
P 4
2
3 V 3 (460 / 3)2
Tmax = = = 156.54 Nm
2ωs Rs + Rs 2 + ( X s + X r ')2 2 ×188.5 0.66 + 0.662 + 2.852
Rr ' 0.38
sm = = = 0.13
Rs + ( X s + X r ')
2 2
0.662 + 2.852
ωm = (1 − sm )ωs = (1 − 0.13) ×188.5 = 164 rad / sec or 1566rpm
At 30Hz, ωs = kωb = 0.5 ×188.5 = 94.25rad / s
3 (kV )2 3 (0.5 × 460 / 3)2
Tmax = = = 125.82 Nm
2kωb Rs + Rs 2 + k 2 ( X s + X r ')2 2 × 0.5 ×188.5 0.66 + 0.662 + 0.52 × 2.852
Rr ' 0.38
sm = = = 0.242
Rs + k ( X s + X r ')
2 2 2
0.66 + 0.52 × 2.852
2

ωm = (1 − sm )ωs = (1 − 0.242) × 0.5 ×188.5 = 71.44 rad / sec or 682rpm

(b) If Rs is neglected,
At 60Hz, Tmax = 3 V2 3 (460 / 3)2
= = 196.94 Nm
2ωs ( X s + X r ') 2 ×188.5 2.85
Rr ' 0.38
sm = = = 0.133
( X s + X r ') 2.85

At 30Hz, Tmax = 3 (kV )2 3 (0.5 × 460 / 3)2

= = 196.94 Nm
2kωb k ( X s + X r ') 2 × 0.5 ×188.5 0.5 × 2.85
Rr ' 0.38
sm = = = 0.267
0.5( X s + X r ') 0.5 × 2.85
ωm = (1 − sm )ωs = (1 − 0.267) × 0.5 ×188.5 = 61.09 rad / sec or 659.7rpm
ROTOR RESISTANCE CONTROL
With the addition of external resistance in the rotor circuit,
maximum torque remains the same but the slip or speed at
which the maximum torque occurs varies. For the same
torque, the speed falls with an increase in rotor resistance.
Because of low cost and high torque capability at low
speeds, rotor resistance control is used in cranes. Main
disadvantage is the low efficiency due to additional Cu loss
in external rotor resistance.
Problem : A 3-phase 400V, 6-pole 50Hz Δ connected wound rotor induction motor has rotor
resistance of 0.2Ω and leakage reactance of 1Ω/phase referred to stator. When driving a fan
load, it runs at full load at 4% slip. What resistance must be inserted in rotor circuit to obtain
a speed of 850rpm? Neglect stator impedance and magnetizing branch. Stator to rotor turns
ratio is 2.2.
 55

Solution:
4π f 4π × 50
ωs = = = 104.72rad / s
P 6
At full load, ωm = ωs (1 − s) = 104.72(1 − 0.04) = 100.53rad / s
3 V 2 Rr '/ s 3 4002 × 0.2 / 0.04
Torque at full load, TFL = = = 881.47 Nm
ωs ( Rr '/ s) + X r ' 104.72 (0.2 / 0.04)2 + 12
2 2

At speed 850rpm,
2π
ωm 2 = 850 × = 89.01rad / s
60
89.012
TL 2 = 881.47 × = 691.05Nm
100.532
ω − ωm 104.72 − 89.01
s= s = = 0.15
ωs 104.72
3 4002 × R '/ 0.15
TL 2 = = 691.05Nm
104.72 [ R '/ 0.15]2 + 12
R’ = 0.97
External rotor resistance = R = 0.97 −2 0.2 = 0.772 = 0.159Ω
n 2.2
STATIC ROTOR RESISTANCE CONTROL
Smooth control of rotor resistance is possible by using static rotor resistance control. The ac
output voltage of rotor is rectified by a diode bridge and fed to a parallel combination of a
fixed resistance R and a power transistor T. Effective value of resistance across terminals A
and B, RAB, is varied by varying duty ratio of transistor T which in turn varies rotor circuit
resistance. Inductance Ld is added to reduce ripple and discontinuity in the dc link current Id.
RMS value of rotor current, I r = I d × 2π / 3 = 2 I d
2

π 3
tON
D = duty ratio of transistor =
T
Average value of resistance between A & B = RAB = (1 − D) R
Power consumed by RAB, PAB = I d 2 RAB = I d 2 (1 − D) R = 3 I r 2 (1 − D) R
2
P
Power consumed by RAB per phase, AB = 0.5I r 2 (1 − D) R
3
Rotor Cu loss per phase = I r 2 Rr
Total rotor circuit resistance = R eq = Rr + 0.5(1 − D) R
Total rotor circuit resistance referred to stator side = R eq ' = Rr '+ 0.5(1 − D) R '
 56

CLOSED LOOP SPEED CONTROL USING STATIC ROTOR RESISTANCE CONTROL

Actual speed of the motor ωm is
compared with the reference
speed ωm* and the error is fed to
a speed controller SC. The speed
controller generates the reference
dc link current Id*. Error
obtained after comparing the
actual and reference dc link
currents is given as input to
current controller CC which
along with base drive circuit
produces the base signal of
required duty ratio D to the
transistor.
Advantages of static rotor resistance control over conventional rotor resistance control are
i) Smooth & stepless control
ii) Fast response
iii) Less maintenance
iv) Compact size
v) Simple closed loop control
vi) Rotor resistance remains balanced between the three phases for all operating points
Problem: A 3-phase, 440V, 50Hz, 6-pole, Y-connected wound rotor induction motor has the
following parameters: Rs=0.5Ω, Rr’=0.4Ω, Xs=Xr’=1.2Ω, Xm=50Ω.Stator to rotor turns ratio
is 3.5. Motor is controlled by static rotor resistance control. External resistance is chosen such
that the breakdown torque is produced at standstill for a duty ratio of zero. Calculate the
value of external resistance.
Solution: sm = ( Rr '+ 0.5R ') (0.4 + 0.5R ')
=1= = 0.408(0.4 + 0.5R ')
Rs + ( X s + X r ')
2 2
0.52 + (1.2 + 1.2)2
R ' = 4.1Ω
R ' 4.1
External rotor resistance referred to rotor side = R = = = 0.335Ω
n2 3.52

SLIP POWER RECOVERY SCHEME

If Pg is the air-gap power (rotor input), Pg = sPg + (1 − s) Pg
Mechanical power developed, Pm = (1 − s) Pg
Slip power = sPg
The slip power of a doubly fed wound-rotor induction machine can be controlled to control speed and
torque. A simple method of speed control for this type of motor is to vary the rotor circuit rheostat
mechanically. All the power in the rotor circuit (slip power) is wasted in this case. However, the
advantages are that the machine can be started smoothly with maximum torque with no in-rush
current and no line harmonics, and a high line power factor can be obtained.
Instead of wasting the slip power, it can be controlled by a converter and fed back to the line to
improve the efficiency. For limited range speed control near the machine’s synchronous speed, the
converter size is reduced, thus offsetting the disadvantages of wound-rotor induction motor. A number
of limitations of this drive are poor line power factor and harmonics, nonreversible speed control at
only rated flux, and the need for a separate starter. For variable-speed pumps and fans within typically
 57

a 2:1 speed control range, this type of drive with a high power rating has been widely used in industry.
The two main classes of this drive are static Kramer drives and static Scherbius drives.
STATIC SCHERBIUS DRIVE (for sub-synchronous speed control)
In a static Scherbius drive, the rotor circuit slip power is converted to dc by the diode rectifier and
then inverted to ac by a current-fed phase-controlled line-commutated inverter. The inverted 50-Hz
power is then fed back to the line through a transformer. The machine always operates at
subsynchronous speed with the airgap flux remaining constant. Speed reversal and regenerative
braking are not possible. However, these are not disadvantages for some applications like
underground waste water pumps and fans.

Transformer
Ld
SRIM + +
n:1 Id 1:m

Vd VI

- -
Bridge Inverter
Rectifier
The speed is controlled by inverter firing angle α.
Equivalent circuit of an induction motor with injected emf into rotor is shown below.
Let n= stator turns and
rotor turns
m = source side to converter side turns ratio of
transformer
3 6 sV
Vd =
π n
3 6V
VI = − cos α
π m
Under steady conditions, Vd = VI (average voltage across Ld = 0)
n
s=− cos α
m
For safe commutation of inverter thyristors, maximum value of α is restricted to 165°. Hence slip can
be controlled from 0 to 0.966α when α is changed from 90 to 165°.
The machine torque can be shown to be proportional to dc link current Id.
If rotor copper loss is neglected, total slip power sPg = VI I d (where Pg = total air gap power)
VI I d
Air gap power, Pg =
s
Torque developed, T = VI I d
sωs
This drive has applications in medium and high power fan and pump drives which require speed
control in a narrow range only.

Problem: A 3-phase, 460V, 60Hz, 6-pole, Y-connected wound rotor induction motor has the
following parameters: Rs=0.5Ω, Rr’=0.4Ω, Xs=Xr’=1.2Ω, Xm=50Ω.Stator to rotor turns ratio
is 1.1.The source side to converter side turns ratio of the transformer is 2.5. The induction
motor is controlled by static Scherbius drive. The load torque is proportional to speed squared
 58

and its value at 1175rpm is 750Nm. If the motor is required to operate at a speed of 1050rpm,
calculate i) the inductor current Id, ii) the dc voltage Vd and iii) the delay angle of the
converter α. The losses in the diode rectifier, converter, transformer and inductor Ld are
negligible.
Solution: ωm1 = 1175 × 2π = 123.05rad / s
60
4π f 4π × 60 2π
ωs = = = 125.66rad / s ωm 2 = 1050 × = 109.96rad / s
P 6 60
TL 2 ωm 2 2 or ωm 22 109.962
= T = T × = 750 × = 598.87 Nm
TL1 ωm12
L2 L1
ωm12 123.052
At speed 1050rpm,
ω − ωm 125.66 − 109.96
s= s = = 0.125
ωs 125.66
sm 0.125 × 2.5
cos α = − =− = −0.284 or α = 106.5°
n 1.1
3 6V 3 6 265.58
VI = − cos α = − cos106.5° = 70.57V
π m π 2.5
Vd = 70.57V
VI sω T 0.125 ×125.66 × 598.87
T = I d or I d = s = = 133.3 A
sωs VI 70.57
FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION
Four quadrant operation is possible in a static Scherbius drive with suitable switching. The
braking is obtained by connecting the stator to the DC supply. The rectified output of the
rotor can be used for the purpose. The reverse rotation is obtained by means of plugging
using contactors.
If S1 & S3 closed and S2 & S4 open, normal operation of a sub synchronous induction motor
drive is possible with rotation in one direction. For braking, S1 & S3 are opened and S4 is
closed. The stator is connected to rectified power supply from the rotor. Braking torque is
developed.

For rotation in the opposite direction, phase sequence of the stator supply is reversed by
closing S2.
The drive can operate in all four quadrants of speed-torque plane.

STATIC KRAMER DRIVE (for sub-synchronous and super-synchronous speed control)

 59

Static Scherbius drive allows power to flow out of the rotor of the induction motor and hence
restricts the speed control to subsynchronous mode i.e., below the synchronous speed. For the
speed control both below and above synchronous speed, static Kramer drive is used.
If the diode rectifier in rotor side in static Scherbius drive is replaced by a thyristor bridge,
the slip power can be controlled to flow in either direction. With bidirectional slip power
flow, the drive can be controlled for motoring and regenerating in both the sub-synchronous
and super-synchronous ranges of speed.
In sub synchronous speed control of SRIM, slip power is removed from the rotor circuit and
is pumped back into the ac supply. Bridge 1 has firing angle less than 90° whereas bridge 2
has firing angle more than 90°. In other words, bridge 1 works as rectifier and bridge 2 as
line-commutated inverter for sub synchronous speed control. The slip power flows from rotor
circuit to bridge 1, bridge 2, transformer and to the supply.
In super synchronous speed control, the additional power is fed into the rotor circuit at slip
frequency. Bridge 1 is made to work as line-commutated inverter with firing angle more than
90° and bridge 2 as a rectifier with firing angle less than 90°. The power flow is from the
supply to transformer, bridge 2, bridge 1 and to the rotor.

LOAD COMMUTATED CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER

In the voltage source inverter (VSI), the load voltage is independent of the type of load. But in current
source inverter (CSI), the load current is independent of the load, however, the voltage waveform
depends upon the type of the load. A voltage source is converted into a current source by connecting a
large series inductor. Because of the series inductor, variation in the source current is very slow, so
current ripple is negligible.
Load commutation is possible only for a leading power factor load. A pair of thyristors are
commutated by the negative voltage across the load when other pair of thyristors are turned ON. In
case of R or RL loads, a capacitor is connected in parallel across the load. For 3-phase current source
inverter fed synchronous motor, load commutation is possible if it is operating at leading power factor
(overexcited mode). For a 3-phase CSI fed induction motor, load commutation is possible if a 3-phase
capacitor bank connected across the induction motor.
 60

Initially capacitor C is charged with left plate negative while T3 and T4 are conducting. When
T1 and T2 are turned ON, constant current flows through T1, parallel combination of R & C
and T2. T3 and T4 are turned OFF due to reverse voltage by capacitor. Voltage across the
capacitor decreases to zero and then increases exponentially with reverse polarity (left plate
positive). Load voltage vo is same as the capacitor voltage. Input voltage, vin = vo.
When T3 & T4 are turned ON, T1 & T2 are commutated due to reverse voltage by capacitors.
Constant current flows through through T3, parallel combination of R & C and T4. Input
voltage, vin = -vo.
Note: Consider a CSI with RL load (Refer the following figure). Here, capacitor C is used to
have load commutation of thyristors. Output voltage is nearly sinusoidal. Fundamental
component of load current leads the nearly sinusoidal load voltage by β°. At ωt = 0, when T1
& T2 are turned ON, T3 & T4 are turned OFF due to negative load voltage vo. Load
commutation is possible only if load power factor is leading.

AUTO-SEQUENTIAL COMMUTATED CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER (ASCI)

A single-phase current source inverter is shown in figure. No freewheeling diodes are required and the
thyristors require forced commutation and have to withstand reverse voltages.
Initially, capacitors are charged with left plate positive while T1 and T2 are conducting.
Mode 1 : Thyristors T3 & T4 are turned ON. Thyristors T1 & T2 are turned OFF due to the reverse
voltage applied by the capacitors. D3 & D4 are also reverse biased. Load current flows through T3 &
T4 via the path T3-C1-D1-load-D2-C2-T4. The two capacitors discharge linearly. At the end of this
mode, both capacitors are completely discharged.
 61

Mode 2: Now, capacitors charges in the opposite direction with right plate positive, diodes D3
& D4 are also forward biased. Source current Id passes through 3 parallel paths i) T3, C1, D1,
D4, T4 ii) T3, D3 ,load, D4, T4 iii) T3, D3 , D2, C2, T4 . When the load current reaches -Id,
current through the capacitors becomes zero and the diodes D1 & D2 are reverse biased.

Mode 3: Constant Current Id flows through the path T3, D3, load, D4, T4. This mode ends
when thyristors T1 & T2 are turned ON to commutate T3 & T4.
A 3-phase current source inverter fed induction motor is shown below. Diodes D1-D6 and
capacitors C1-C6 provide commutation of T1-T6 which are fired with a phase difference of
60°. Fundamental component of motor phase current, I s = 0.78I d . For a given speed, torque is
controlled by varying dc link current Id.

Major advantage of CSI is its reliability. Conduction of two devices in the same leg does not lead to
sudden rise of current through them due to the presence of large inductance Ld. In a VSI, simultaneous
conduction of two devices in the same leg leads to dangerous rise of current.
But, due to large values of inductor Ld and capacitors, CSI drive is expensive and has more weight
and volume.
 62

SPACE VECTOR PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (SVPWM)

For 3-phase sine PWM inverter, RMS value of fundamental component of line-to-line output voltage,
VL1 = 0.612maVdc . If space vector modulation is used instead of sine PWM, VL1 increases by 15.5% for
same switching frequency. DC link utilization is better with space vector PWM.
For example, for a 3-phase, 400V, 50Hz induction motor, RMS value of the fundamental component
of supply voltage (line) should be 400V. Hence, value of dc link voltage Vdc required is 400/0.612 =
653.6V if we are using a 3-phase sine PWM inverter with ma = 1. If space vector PWM technique is
used, value of dc link voltage Vdc required is 400/(0.612*1.15) = 565.8V. Less DC link voltage is
required for same fundamental voltage if space vector modulation is used instead of sine PWM
technique.
Any 3 balanced voltages/currents/fluxes (need not be sinusoidal) displaced by 120° each other can be
represented by a single vector rotating with angular velocity ω. This vector is called space vector.
− 2
V s = (va + avb + a 2 vc ) where a = 1∠120° and a 2 = 1∠240°
3
If the three voltages are sinusoidal, locus of Vs will be a circle.
Consider 3 sinusoidal voltages,
va = Vm sin ωt
vb = Vm sin(ωt − 120)
vc = Vm sin(ωt − 240)
−
At ωt=108°, va = 0.951Vm , vb = −0.208Vm , vc = −0.743Vm , hence V s = Vm ∠18°
Consider 3-phase inverter.
vaN = Van + vnN = Van − vNn or van = VaN + vNn
Similarly, vbn = VbN + vNn and vcn = VcN + vNn
2
vs = (van + avbn + a 2 vcn )
3
2
= ⎡⎣ (vaN + vNn ) + a (vbN + vNn ) + a 2 (vcN + vNn ) ⎤⎦
3
2
vs = [vaN + avbN + a 2 vcN + vNn (1 + a + a 2 )]
3
But, 1 + a + a 2 = 0
2
vs = [vaN + avbN + a 2 vcN ]
3
For a 3-phase inverter, if Sa is ON, vaN = +Vdc and Sa is OFF (or Sa’ is ON), vaN = 0
Since Sa is 1 or 0, vaN = Vdc × S a
Similarly, vbN = Vdc × Sb and vcN = Vdc × Sc
2
vs = [ S a + aSb + a 2 S c ]Vdc
3
There are 8 possible states of switches of the inverter (000), (001), (010), (011), (100), (101), (110),
(111) in the order (Sc,Sb,Sa).

Space (Sc,Sb,Sa) Magnitude & angle of

vector Space Vector
Vo (000) 0
2
V1 (001) Vdc ∠0°
3
2
V2 (010) Vdc ∠120°
3
2
V3 (011) Vdc ∠60°
3
 63

2
V4 (100) Vdc ∠240°
3
2
V5 (101) Vdc ∠300°
3
2
V6 (110) Vdc ∠180°
3
V7 (111) 0
(For example, for V3,Sa=1, Sb=1, Sc=0, v3 = 2 [ S a + aSb + a 2 S c ]Vdc = 2 [1 + a ]Vdc = 2 Vdc ∠60° )
3 3 3
Vo and V7 are null vectors (magnitude is zero) and V1 to V6 are active vectors (magnitude is 2 Vdc ).
3
The locus of these active vectors will be a hexagon as shown below.

Assume that Vref ∠θ ° is the input voltage space vector to be applied to the induction motor during V/f
control.
We have to synthesis this reference vector using two null vectors Vo & V7 and six active vectors V1 to
V6 so that switching signals Sa, Sb, Sc are produced.
Vref is sampled at regular interval Ts. Vref is assumed to be constant during sampling time Ts.
Assume that Vref is in sector I.
Vref is synthesized using adjacent vectors V1 and V3 and null vectors V0 & V7. V1 is applied for T1
seconds, V3 is applied for T2 seconds, V0 and V7 applied for remaining T0 seconds as shown below.

Calculation of time T1, T2 and T0 :-

Assuming volt-second balance,
T T T
Vref × s = Vo × 0 + V1 × T1 + V3 × T2 + V7 × 0
2 2 2
Since Vo and V7 are null vectors, it does not contribute any volt-seconds.
T 2 2
Vref ∠θ °× s = Vdc × T1 + Vdc ∠60°× T2
2 3 3
Ts 2 2
Vref (cos θ + j sin θ ) × = Vdc × T1 + Vdc (cos 60 + j sin 60) × T2
2 3 3
Separating imaginary parts,
 64

Ts 2
Vref × sin θ ×= Vdc × sin 60 × T2
2 3
V sin θ Ts
T2 = ref × ×
2
Vdc sin 60 2
3
Separating real parts,
Ts 2 2
Vref cos θ × = Vdc × T1 + Vdc × cos 60 × T2
2 3 3
Substituting T = Vref × sin θ × Ts
2
2
Vdc sin 60 2
3
Vref sin(60 − θ ) Ts
T1 = ×
2
Vdc sin 60 2
3
Ts
T0 = − T1 − T2
2
Comparison of SVPWM and sine PWM
• It is inherently suitable for digital implementation
• It provides a higher DC link voltage utilization compared to the sinusoidal PWM
• It provides lower relative harmonic content compared to the sinusoidal PWM
• The switching frequency of the inverter switches is half the carrier frequency. Therefore, the
switching losses are lesser as compared to a sinusoidal PWM with the same carrier frequency.
FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL (VECTOR CONTROL)
PRINCIPLE
Advantages of DC drives over AC drives using conventional inverter-fed induction motors are
i) Good transient response of the DC motor
ii) Torque can be directly controlled even under transient conditions by controlling the armature
current.
In a separately excited dc motor, electromagnetic torque is proportional to the product of field flux
and armature current. If magnetic saturation is neglected, field flux is proportional to field current and
is unaffected by the armature current because of orthogonal (field flux and armature flux are 90°
apart) displacement. Hence for a separately excited dc motor, if the field current is kept constant, the
torque will be proportional to the armature current. The field flux and the developed torque can be
independently controlled.
In an AC induction motor, the flux producing current
(Im) and torque producing current (Ir’) are ‘inside’ the
motor and cannot be measured externally or
controlled separately. As in the DC drive, these two Rr '
currents are also roughly at 90° to one another and s
their vector sum makes up the stator current, which
can be measured or controlled. This is what makes
the control of an AC motor more difficult than its DC Equivalent circuit neglecting rotor
counterpart. leakage inductance
In induction motor, stator flux rotates at synchronous speed. Rotor flux also rotates at synchronous
speed, but it lags the stator flux by an angle which depends on the slip. Since this angle is not 90°,
independent control of torque and flux are not possible.
Objective of the vector control is to produce the two fluxes at 90°. Hence, it produces separately
excited dc motor type characteristics.
The vector control can be implemented by either direct method or indirect method. The methods are
different essentially by how the rotor flux position θ is generated.
 65

In the direct method, the rotor

flux vector is computed from the
terminal quantities of the motor.

In the indirect vector control method (figure shown below), rotor flux angle is indirectly obtained by
summation of the rotor speed and slip speed. It is simpler to implement than the direct method and is
used increasingly in induction motor control.

IMPLEMENTATION

DIRECT & QUADRATURE AXIS TRANSFORMATION

The three-phase voltages, currents and fluxes of AC-motors can be analyzed in terms of complex
space vectors. With regard to the currents, the space vector can be defined as follows.
Assuming that ia, ib, ic are the instantaneous currents in the stator phases, then the complex stator
current vector is
2
is = (ia + aib + a2ic )
3
2π 4π
j j
where a = e 3
and a = e represent the spatial operators.
2 3

For balanced sinusoidal 3-phase currents, the space vector has constant amplitude and rotates with
constant angular velocity.
This current space vector depicts the three phase sinusoidal system. It still needs to be transformed
into a two time-invariant co-ordinate system. This transformation can be split into two steps:
i) (a,b,c) to (α,β) (Clarke transformation) which outputs a two co-ordinate time variant system
ii) (α,β) to (d,q) (Park transformation) which outputs a two co-ordinate time invariant system
abc to α-β TRANSFORMATION (CLARKE TRANSFORMATION)
(space vector is defined with respect to the stationary stator axis)
The space vector can be reported in another reference frame with
 66

only two orthogonal axis called (α,β). Assuming that the axis a b
and the axis α are in the same direction, we have the following
is is
vector diagram.
The projection that modifies the 3-phase system into the (α,β)
two dimension orthogonal system is presented below.
isα = isa is =a

1 2
isβ = ia + ib
3 3 c
⎛ isα ⎞
We obtain a two co-ordinate system ⎜ i ⎟ that sill depends on
⎝ sβ ⎠
time and speed.

α -β to d-q TRANSFORMATION (PARK TRANSFORMATION)

This is the most important transformation in the FOC.
In fact, this projection modifies a two phase orthogonal system (α,β) in the d,q rotating reference
frame.
−
The d-axis is aligned with the rotor flux ψ R .
The flux and torque components of the current vector
are determined by the following equations.
isd = isα cosθ + isβ sin θ
isq = −isα sin θ + isβ cosθ
where θ is the rotor flux position.

These components depend on the current vector (isα,isβ) components and on the rotor flux position. If
we know the right rotor flux position, then, by this projection, the d,q components becomes a
constant.
3 p Lm 3 p Lm2 −
Td = ψˆ Risq = isd isq = kmisd isq where Td = desired motor torque, ψ R = rotor flux, Lm=
2 Lr 2 Lr
mutual inductance, Lr = Llr+Lm, Llr = rotor leakage inductance
Rotor flux angle can be obtained from the following relation:-
 67

Rr isq
θ = ∫ ωe dt = ∫ (ωr + ωsl )dt where ωsl = Here, the rotor flux angle is estimated indirectly.
Lr isd
Hence this method is called indirect vector control.
To stator currents ia and ib feed the Clarke transformation module. The outputs are indicated iSα and
iSβ. These two components of the current provide the input of the Park transformation that gives the
current in the d,q rotating reference frame. The iSd and iSq components are compared to the references
iSdref (the flux reference) and iSqref (the torque reference). The torque command iSqref corresponds to the
output of the speed regulator. The flux command iSdref is the output of the field weakening function
that indicates the right rotor flux command for every speed reference. The current regulator outputs
are vSdref and vSqref; they are applied to the inverse Park transformation. The output of this projection
are vSαref and vSβref, the components of the stator vector voltage in the α,β orthogonal reference frame.
These are the input of the space vector PWM. The outputs of this block are the signals that drive the
inverter.
Note that both Park and inverse Park transformations require the rotor to be in flux position which is
given by the current model block. This block needs the rotor resistance as a parameter. Accurate
knowledge and representation of the rotor resistance is essential to achieve the highest possible
efficiency from the control structure.
With the asynchronous drive, the mechanical rotor angular speed is not, by definition, equal to the
rotor flux angular speed. This implies that the necessary rotor flux position cannot be detected directly
by the mechanical position sensor provided with the asynchronous motor used in this application. The
current model block must be added to the generic structure in the block diagram. This current model
takes as input both iSq and iSd current as well as the rotor mechanical speed and give the rotor flux
position as output.

In direct vector control, the rotor flux position is estimated from the terminal voltages and currents as
shown below.
ψ sα = ∫ (vsα − Rsisα )dt and ψ sβ = ∫ (vsβ − Rsisβ )dt
Lr L L2
ψ rα = ψ sα − σ Lsisα and ψ rβ = r ψ sβ − σ Lsisβ where σ = 1 − m
Lm Lm Lr Ls


ψˆ
r = ψ rα 2 +ψ rβ 2
ψ ψ
cosθ =
rα and sin θ =
rβ
ψˆ r ψˆ r
Disadvantages : i) Complex since two coordinate transformations are required and ii) parameter
sensitive
 68

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
A 3-phase synchronous motor consists of two parts – stator and rotor.
1. Stator – Consisting of 3-phase star or delta connected winding. This is excited by a 3-phase ac
supply.
2. Rotor – Rotor is a field winding, the construction of which can be salient or cylindrical rotor
type. Practically most of the synchronous motors use salient pole type construction. The field
winding is excited by a separate dc supply though slip rings.
Salient features of synchronous motor are
i) A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed or not at all. Its speed is constant
120 f
( Ns = ) at all loads. The only way to change its speed is to alter the supply
P
frequency.
ii) It can be made to operate over a wide range of power factors (lag, unity or lead) by
adjustment of its field excitation. Hence, a synchronous motor can be made to carry the
mechanical load at constant speed and at the same time improve the power factor of the
system.
iii) Synchronous motors are generally of the salient pole type.
iv) A synchronous motor is not self-starting and an auxiliary means has to be used for starting it.

Construction
A three phase synchronous machine consists of two parts
a) Stator
b) Rotor
Stator (Armature)
The core is hollow cylindrical in shape and is
made of sheet steel laminations (0.35mm to 0.65mm
thick) insulated from each other. (Stator of synchronous
machines and induction machines are similar)
It consists of number of slots in its inner periphery to
accommodate armature conductors (winding). A three
phase distributed, full pitched/short pitched windings
are placed in these slots. Windings are suitably
connected to form a balanced three phase star or delta
connected circuit. It is wound for a definite number of
poles as per requirement of speed.

Rotor
Rotor carries field winding which is supplied with dc through 2 slip rings.
Two types
a) Salient (or projecting) pole type
b) Smooth cylindrical type
 69

Salient Pole Smooth cylindrical

1. It consists of projected poles, laminated, made 1. It is built from solid steel forging (usually
of cast iron or cast steel chromium – nickel steel)
2. Poles carry concentrated field windings 2. Poles consists of radial slots in which field
windings are placed
3. Air gap is not uniform 3. Air gap is nearly uniform
4. It has large diameter and short axial length 4. It is of small diameter and of very long
axial length.
5. It is used for low and medium speed machines 5. It is used for high speeds (Steam driven)
(water wheel drive or diesel engine drive)
6. Noiseless operation
7. Less windage loss
8. Better in dynamic balancing
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A synchronous motor is not self starting. If the rotor field poles are excited by the field
current and the stator terminals are connected to the ac supply, the motor will not start; instead, it
vibrates. This can be explained as follows.
Let us consider a two-pole synchronous machine. If it is connected to a 3-phase, 50Hz ac supply,
stator currents will produce a rotating magnetic field that will rotate at 3000rpm in the air gap. Let us
represent this rotating field by two stator poles rotating at 3000rpm as shown in figure.

N S 3000rpm

T 3000rpm S
S T
T N
N
T

3000rpm 3000rpm N
S

Figure (a) at t = 0 Figure (b) at t = t1

At start (t=0), let the rotor poles be at the position shown in figure (a). The rotor will therefore
experience a clockwise torque, making it rotate in the direction of the stator rotating poles. At t=t1
(nearly 0.01 sec since T=1/f=0.02sec), let the stator poles move by half a revolution, shown in figure
(b). The rotor poles have hardly moved, because of the high inertia of the rotor. Therefore, at this
instant the rotor experiences a counterclockwise torque tending to make it rotate in the direction
 70

opposite to that of the stator poles. The net torque on the rotor in one revolution will be zero, and
therefore the motor will not develop any starting torque. The stator field is rotating so fast that the
rotor poles cannot catch up or lock onto it. The motor will not speed up but will vibrate.

However, if the rotor is rotated by some means in the same direction of the rotating field at a
speed near the synchronous speed, rotor will overcome its moment of inertia (Figure (c) and (d)). If
the rotor field is established at a particular instant when unlike poles comes closer, a magnetic locking
takes place between the stator and rotor poles. Hence, the rotor continues to rotate due to this
magnetic locking even if the external force is removed.
General procedure to start a synchronous motor is
1. Give a 3-phase supply to 3-phase stator winding. This will produce a rotating field
revolving at synchronous speed.
2. Drive the rotor by some external means like dc motor in the direction of rotating field at a
speed close to synchronous speed.
3. Switch on the dc supply given to the rotor circuit which will produce rotor poles.
4. At a particular instant, both the fields get magnetically locked. The stator field pulls rotor
field into synchronism. Now, the external devices used to rotate the rotor can be removed.
But, the rotor will continue to rotate at the same speed as that of the rotating field due to
magnetic locking.
Note: A synchronous motor has no starting torque. It has torque only when running at synchronous
speed. Either a squirrel-cage winding is added to the rotor to cause it to start, or a DC motor is used to
bring the rotor to near synchronous speed, at which time the AC is then applied. Once up to speed, the
rotor snaps into step with the rotating magnetic field and will continue to rotate at synchronous speed.
The torque developed when the motor snaps into synchronous speed is called pull-in torque.
If the load on the motor is increased to the point where the rotor is pulled out of synchronism
(excessive torque), the motor will stop. The maximum torque a motor can develop before
synchronization is lost is called pull-out torque. The pull-out torque is generally 1.5 times the
continuously rated torque.
Methods of starting synchronous motor
1. By using an external motor
The rotor is bought to synchronous speed by using an external motor. Now, dc excitation is given to
the rotor winding. The synchronous machine is then synchronized with the bus bar as a synchronous
generator. The starting motor is then disconnected. Once in parallel, the synchronous machine will
work as a motor. Now, the load can be connected to the synchronous motor.
Note: The starting motor has to overcome the inertia of the synchronous motor at no load. Hence the
rating of the starting motor can be much smaller than the rating of the synchronous motor.
2. By using damper (amortisseur) winding
In synchronous motor, in addition to normal field winding, an additional winding consisting of copper
bars is placed in the slots in the pole faces. The bars are short circuited by end rings at both ends.
These short circuited bars form a squirrel cage winding.
 71

When 3-phase supply is applied to the stator, the End Ring

synchronous motor with damper winding will
start as a 3-phase induction motor. As the motor Damper Bars

approaches synchronous speed, the dc excitation

is applied to the field windings. The rotor will
then pull into step with the stator magnetic field.
When the machine is running at synchronous
speed, no current will be induced in the damper
winding.

3. Start with variable supply frequency

By using a frequency converter, a synchronous motor can be brought from standstill to its desired
speed.
V,f
3-phase Frequency Synchronous
Supply Converter Motor

If
f control V control
Initially, the field winding is excited with dc supply. The motor is started with a low voltage, low-
frequency supply. This will make the stator field rotate slowly so that the rotor poles can follow the
stator poles. Afterward, the frequency is gradually increased and the motor brought to its desired
speed.
This method is expensive. However, if the synchronous motor has to run at variable speeds, this
method may be used.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT & PHASOR DIAGRAMS
A synchronous motor is same as a synchronous generator except that the direction of power flow is
reversed. Equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor is given below,
V = Supply voltage/phase
Ef = Excitation voltage/phase
Ia = Armature current
δ = Power/Torque angle (angle between Ef and V)
θ = Synchronous impedance angle = tan −1 ( X s ) (if Ra is
Ra
neglected, θ = 90°)
φ = Power factor angle = angle between V and Ia.

a) Lagging power factor

V
-I aRa
jIaXs

δ
δ
V
Ψ Ef
ϕ ϕ Ψ
I aRa
-jI aXs
Ia
Ef
Ia
Ef as reference
V as reference
a) p.f. lag
 72

b) Leading power factor

V Ia
jIaXs

Ia
ϕ ϕ Ψ V

δ
δ
IaRa -IaRa
Ψ
Ef
-jIaXs
Ef as reference
b) p.f. lead
V as reference
Ef

E f = V − I a Zs
E f ∠ −δ ° = V ∠0° − I a ∠ −φ × ( Ra + jX s )

POWER FLOW EQUATIONS (Synchronous Motor)

V = Supply voltage/phase
Ef = Excitation voltage/phase
Ia = Armature current
δ = Torque angle (angle between Ef and V)
φ = Power factor angle = angle between V and Ia.

Complex Power developed per phase V

V = V ∠0° , E f = E f ∠−δ ° jIaXs
So = Po + jQo = E f × I a *

Ef
V ∠0 − E f ∠−δ
= E f ∠−δ × ( )*
jX s Ia

V ∠ − 90 − E f ∠ − 90 − δ
= E f ∠−δ × ( )*
Xs
V ∠90 − E f ∠90 + δ
= E f ∠−δ × ( )
Xs
VE f Ef 2
= ∠(90 − δ ) − ∠90 per phase
Xs Xs
Separating the real parts,
3VE f
Mechanical power developed, Pm = sin δ
Xs
Rotating field produced by stator moves at synchronous speed ωs.
4π f
Synchronous speed, ωs = rad / sec
P
For synchronous motor, rotor also rotates at synchronous speed.
 73

Pm 3VE f
Torque developed, T = = sin δ
ωs ωs X s
For a given field excitation, Ef is constant. Hence, T is
proportional to sinδ.
For motoring operation, δ is positive and Ef lags behind V.
For regenerative braking, δ is negative and Ef leads V.

The maximum torque Tmax is reached when δ = ±90°. If the load torque exceeds Tmax, the machine
pulls out of synchronism. In order to prevent damage due to excessive current, automatic circuit
breakers are provided to disconnect the machine when it comes out of synchronism.
Note: Power Output (shaft power) = Pm - Rotational losses
Effect of varying field current
The important feature of wound field motor is that its power factor can be controlled by varying field
current or Ef. When field excitation is small, the machine operates with a lagging power factor. The
power factor can be made unity or leading by increasing the field excitation.
Consider a synchronous motor connected to the infinite bus and operating at constant load with
induced emf Ef, torque angle δ and working at unity power factor with current Ia. (Ra is neglected)

Now, assume that excitation is decreased so that Ef is decreased to Ef1. Since the synchronous motor is
operating at constant load, Pm = E f V sin δ remains constant. Hence, torque angle δ is increased to δ1
Xs
so that E f 1 sin δ1 = E f sin δ .
Also, VI a cos φ = constant (since Ra=0)
Hence, I a cos φ =constant.
Armature current increases from Ia to Ia1. But, I a cos φ remains same. Power factor decreases to cosφ1
(lag) so that Ia1cosφ1 = Iacosφ
EfV
Now, assume that excitation is increased so that Ef is increased to Ef2. But, sin δ remains
Xs
constant. Hence, torque angle δ is decreased to δ2 so that E f 2 sin δ 2 = E f sin δ . But, VI a cos φ =
constant. Armature current increases from Ia to Ia2. But, I a cos φ remains same. Power factor
decreases to cosφ2 (lead) so that Ia2cosφ2 = Iacosφ.
The excitation corresponding to unity power factor is called normal excitation, while the
excitation larger than this is called over-excitation and less than this is called under-excitation.
Note: Synchronous motor draws a leading power factor current when over-excited and draws a
lagging power factor current when under-excited.
 74

Problem: A 500kW, 3-phase, 3.3kV, 50Hz, 0.8 (lagging) power factor, 4-pole, star connected
synchronous motor has following parameters: Xs = 15Ω, Rs = 0. Rated field current is 10A. Calculate
i) armature current and power factor at half the rated torque and rated field current ii) field current to
get unity power factor at rated torque and iii) torque for unity power factor operation at field current
of 12.5A.
Solution: V = 3.3 ×10 = 1905.26V
3

3
3VI s cos φ = Pm
Pm 500 × 103
Is = = = 109.35 A
3 × V cos φ 3 × 1905.26 × 0.8
I s = 109.35∠ − 36.87° A
E f = V − jI s X s = 1905.26∠0° − j109.35∠ − 36.87°× 15 = 1603.2∠ − 54.9°V
i) At half-rated torque & rated field current
At rated field current, E f = 1603.2V
At half-rated torque, Pm = 250kW
3E f V 3 × 1603.2 × 1905.2
Pm = sin δ = × sin δ = 250 × 103
Xs 15
δ = 24.16°
V ∠0° − E f ∠ − δ ° 1905.26∠0° − 1603.2∠ − 24.16°
Is = = = 52.76∠ − 34° A
jX s j15
Power factor = cos(−34°) = 0.83(lag )
ii) At unity power factor & rated torque
Pm 500 × 103
Is = = = 87.48 A
3V cos φ 3 × 1905.26 × 1
E f = V − jI s X s = 1905.26∠0° − j87.48∠0°× 15 = 2313.4∠ − 34.56°V
Ef ∝ I f
Ef 2 2313.4
I f 2 = I f1 × = 10 × = 14.43 A
Ef1 1603.2
iii) Torque at unity power factor & at field current = 12.5A
If2 12.5
Ef 2 = Ef1 × = 1603.2 × = 2004V
I f1 10
E f = V − jI s X s = 1905.26 − jI s × 15 = 2004∠ − δ = 2004 cos δ − j 2004sin δ
Equating real parts,
1905.26 = 2004 cos δ
δ = 18.06°
3E f V 3 × 2004 × 1905.2
Pm = sin δ = × sin18.06 = 236.727kW
Xs 15
Pm 236727
T= = = 1507 Nm
ωs 157.08
Equating imaginary parts,
I s × 15 = 2004sin δ = 2004 × 0.31 = 621.27
I s = 41.42 A
Problem: A 3-phase 460V, 60Hz, 6-pole star connected cylindrical rotor synchronous motor has Xs =
2.5Ω and the armature resistance is negligible. The load torque is proportional to the speed squared, is
TL = 398Nm at 1200rpm. The power factor is maintained at unity by field control and the voltage-to-
 75

frequency ratio is kept constant at the rated value. If the inverter frequency is 36Hz and the motor
speed is 720rpm, calculate (a) the input voltage, (b) the armature current (c) the excitation voltage (d)
the torque angle and (e) the pull-out torque.
Solution: V = 460 = 265.58V 4π f 4π × 50 Vrated 265.58
ωs = = = 125.66rad / s = = 4.426
3 P 6 f rated 60
(a) Input voltage = VL = 3 × 4.426 × 36 = 276V
2
(b) TL = ⎛⎜ 75.4 ⎞⎟ × 398 = 143.3 Nm
⎝ 125.66 ⎠
Pm = ωs × T = 75.4 × 143.3 = 10804W
Pm 10804
Is = = = 22.6 A
3 × V cos φ 3 × 159.35 × 1
(c) E f = V − jI s X s = 159.35∠0° − j 22.6∠0°× 2.5 = 169.07∠ − 19.5°V
(d) Torque angle = 19.5°
3E f V 3 × 159.35 × 169.07
(e) Pull-out torque, Tmax = = = 428.8 Nm
ωs X s 75.4 × 2.5

TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS OF SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The phasor diagram of a salient pole synchronous generator at lagging power factor (Ra
neglected) is shown below.

Complex Power developed per phase

S = P + jQ = V × I a*
Take Ef as reference vector.
V ∠δ = V cos δ + jV sin δ
I a = I q − jI d
I a * = I q + jI d
S = P + jQ = V × I a*
= (V cos δ + jV sin δ )( I q + jI d )
X q I q = V sin δ
V sin δ
Iq =
Xq
X d I d = V cos δ − E f
V cos δ − E f
Id =
Xd
Substituting,
V sin δ V cos δ − E f
S = (V cos δ + jV sin δ )( +j )
Xq Xd
 76

V 2 sin δ cos δ V 2 sin δ cos δ VE f sin δ V 2 cos 2 δ VE f cos δ V 2 sin 2 δ

=( − + ) + j( − + )
Xq Xd Xd Xd Xd Xq
VE sin δ V 2 1 1
Real power developed per phase = f + ( − ) sin 2δ
Xd 2 Xq Xd
3VE f sin δ 3V2
1 1
Total real power, P= + ( − ) sin 2δ
Xd 2 Xq Xd
3VE f sin δ
First term = P1 is called excitation power (power due
Xd
to field excitation)
2
Second term 3V ( 1 − 1 ) sin 2δ = P2 is called reluctance
2 Xq Xd
power (power due to saliency). (power developed in salient
pole synchronous motor due to the variable reluctance offered
by the salient pole).

Reluctance power P2 does not depend on field excitation and is present even when field current is
zero.
For a cylindrical rotor machine, Xd=Xq and hence reluctance power is zero.
Reluctance power is maximum, when δ = 45º.
Maximum power occurs when δ ≤ 90º.
VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL
Synchronous speed is directly proportional to frequency. Motor speed can be controlled by varying
the frequency. For speed control below base speed, frequency is decreased so that v/f ratio is constant.
For speed control above base speed, frequency is increased keeping the terminal voltage at rated
value. Unlike an induction machine, it will run at synchronous speed or will not run at all.
Variable frequency control may employ any of the two modes : i) true synchronous mode or ii) self-
controlled mode (or self synchronous mode).
In the open loop or true-synchronous mode, the motor speed is controlled independently by changing
the voltage and frequency of an inverter or cycloconverter. In the self control mode, the stator
frequency is automatically adjusted by the motor speed according to the information obtained from an
absolute rotor position sensor mounted on the machine shaft.
OPEN LOOP INVERTER-FED SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR DRIVES
In true synchronous mode, the motor speed is controlled independently by changing the output
frequency and voltage of an inverter or cycloconverter as shown below. If a diode rectifier is used
instead of controlled rectifier, the input voltage to the inverter is constant and the output voltage and
frequency can be varied by using PWM technique of the inverter.

If the frequency is suddenly changed or changed at a high rate, the rotor poles may not be able to
follow the stator rotating field and the motor will lose synchronism. Therefore, the rate at which the
frequency is changed must be restricted. A sudden change in load torque may also cause the motor to
lose synchronism. The open loop drive is therefore not suitable for applications in which load may
change suddenly.
This simple method is attractive in multi-motor installations where all the motors must run at exactly
the same speed. Individually the synchronous motors are more expensive than the equivalent mass-
 77

produced induction motor, but this is offset by the fact that speed feedback is not required, and the
motors can all be supplied from a single inverter as in figure shown below.

SELF CONTROLLED SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

A synchronous motor tends to lose synchronism on shock loads. In the open loop or true synchronous
mode, if a load is suddenly applied, the rotor momentarily slows down, making the torque angle δ
increased beyond 90° and leading to loss of synchronism. However, if the rotor position is sensed as
the rotor slows down and the information is used to decrease the stator frequency, the motor will stay
in synchronism. In such a scheme, the rotor speed will adjust the stator frequency and the drive
system is known as a self-controlled synchronous motor drive.
Two converters are used, one at the supply end and the other at the machine end. In the motoring
mode of operation, the supply-side converter operates in the rectification mode and the load-side
converter in the inversion mode. The roles of the rectifiers reverse for regenerative braking, in which
the power flow reverses. The thyristors in the supply-side converter are commutated by the supply
line voltage and those in the load-side converter by the excitation voltage of the synchronous
machine.
The rotor position sensor, mounted on the rotor shaft, generates signals having rotor position
information. These signals are processed in the control logic circuit and used to fire the thyristors of
the load-side converter. Therefore, any change in the rotor speed due to change in load will
immediately change the frequency of the firing of the thyristors and hence adjust the stator frequency
at the correct rate to maintain synchronism. (Frequency of operation of the inverter will be same as
the frequency of the induced voltages.)
A current loop is implemented around the supply end rectifier to maintain the machine current at the
desired value. The dc link current Id, being proportional to the machine current Ia, is compared with
the reference current and the error signal adjusts the firing of the supply end rectifier to keep the
armature current constant at the reference value.
Ia R X Ia R Ia V
a s a
Im
Ef q-axis
V V Xs
Ef If'
Im
Equivalent circuit of synchronous motor Norton equivalent circuit
If'
d-axis

Torque developed in the synchronous motor is given by,

 78

3X s
T= I a I f 'sin β (from the current source equivalent circuit)
ωs
where β is the angle between the Ia and If’ phasors.

Torque varies sinusoidally with the angle β.

This angle β can be controlled in the control logic circuit for the machine end rectifier, because the
signal from the rotor position sensor defines the position of the field axis and the firing instant of the
thyristors defines the position of the armature field axis. If angle β is regulated at a specified value and
the field current is kept constant, the torque (and hence the speed) can be directly controlled by the
armature current. This current is controlled by the current control loop of the supply end rectifier.

CLOSED LOOP SPEED CONTROL

For a self controlled synchronous motor drive system without closed loop speed control, if the load
torque is changed, the speed will change. If the speed is to be maintained constant, the dc link current
Id must be adjusted to satisfy the change in the load torque. This can be achieved by inserting an outer
speed loop as shown in figure below. The position sensor supplies information about the position of
the rotor field as well as the speed of the rotor. If the speed drops because of an increase in load torque
on the synchronous motor, the speed error increases, which in turn increases the current demand Id*.
Consequently, the firing angle of the controlled rectifier will change to alter the dc link current Id to
produce more torque as required by the increased load torque. The speed will eventually be restored to
its initial value.
 79

LOAD COMMUTATED CSI FED SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR IN SELF SYNCHRONOUS MODE

A load commutated current source inverter fed synchronous motor is shown below.

This synchronous motor operates in self-synchronous mode. A rotor position sensor is mandatory.
The currents waveforms are switched according to the measured rotor position information such that
the current waveform in each phase has a fixed angular displacement γ with respect to the induced
emf of the current in the corresponding phase.

The load commutation is possible only if the synchronous motor is operating at leading power factor
(when it is overexcited). (Note: At the instant when T1 is turned ON, ia increases from 0 to +Id, ea is
negative and ec is positive and the ongoing thyristor T5 is turned off because of negative voltage eac.
Hence, ic decreases from +Id to zero). Because of the large dc link inductor, the phase currents may be
considered to remain constant between switching intervals. The quasi-square current waveforms
contain many harmonics and are responsible for large torque pulsations that may become troublesome
at low speed.
The motor can be reversed easily by reversing the sequence of switching of the inverter. It can also be
braked regeneratively by increasing the firing angle of the input rectifier beyond 90◦ while
maintaining the dc-link current at the desired braking level until braking is no longer required. The
rectifier now returns the energy of the overhauling load to the ac mains regeneratively.
ELECTRONIC COMMUTATOR
It turns out that the overall operating characteristics of a self synchronous a.c. motor are very similar
to those of a conventional d.c. motor. In a d.c. motor, the mechanical commutator reverses the
direction of the current in each (rotating) armature coil at the appropriate point such that, regardless of
speed, the current under each (stationary) field pole is always in the right direction to produce the
desired torque. In the self-synchronous motor the roles of stator and rotor are reversed compared with
the d.c. motor. The field is rotating and the ‘armature’ winding (consisting of three discrete groups of
coils or phases) is stationary. The timing and direction of the current in each phase is governed by the
inverter switching, which in turn is determined by the rotor position sensor. Hence, regardless of
speed, the torque is always in the right direction.
The combination of the rotor position sensor and inverter performs effectively the same function as
the commutator in a conventional d.c. motor. There are of course usually only three windings to be
switched by the inverter, as compared with many more coils and commutator segments to be switched
by the brushes in the d.c. motor, but otherwise the comparison is valid. Not surprisingly the
 80

combination of position sensor and inverter is sometimes referred to as an ‘electronic commutator’,

while the overall similarity of behaviour gives rise to the rather clumsy term ‘electronically
commutated motor’ (ECM) or the even worse ‘commutatorless d.c. motor’ (CLDCM) to describe self-
synchronous machines.