Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590

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Construction and Building Materials

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Investigating the effects of stabilization carried out using fly ash and
polypropylene fiber on the properties of highway clay soils
Tayfun Sengul *, Noyan Akray 1, Yasar Vitosoglu 2
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kutahya Dumlupinar University, 43100 Kutahya, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Improving highway subgrades is the most crucial step that increases the performance and longtime durability of
Fly ash pavements. Using fly ash to improve the properties of subgrades and synthetic fibers as additives to increase their
Polypropylene fiber strength in recent years is an effective method. It is essential to determine how fly ashes affect the strength
Freeze–thaw cycles
properties of subgrade soils in the long term with a time-dependent curing effect and how synthetic fibers affect
Soils stabilization
Microstructure
the strength properties of subgrade soils, especially in the short term before curing. Furthermore, another vital
issue is determining the extent to which freeze–thaw cycles that occur during winter months due to regional
climatic conditions reduce the strength of the subgrade soils. For this purpose, a regional high-plasticity soil
representing the problematic subgrade was reinforced with fly ash at different percentages (10%, 20%, 30% and
40%), and a series of experiments were carried out to determine the plasticity, compressibility and strength
properties of these soil mixtures. Besides the clayey soil and fly ash, the microstructures of these mixtures were
also examined by XRF, XRD spectrometry, FT-IR spectroscopy and SEM analyses and the relationships between
mechanical behavior and microstructure were tried to be explained. Furthermore, the impact of polypropylene
fibers added to the soil at 0.5% of the dry mass and freeze–thaw cycles on the strength of the subgrade soils was
determined. The results showed that the effective fly ash mixture ratio for stabilization with fly ash was 10%, and
when the 28-day unconfined compressive strengths of the fly ash mixture and the natural soil were compared, the
fly ash mixture increased the strength by 85.8%. Furthermore, the fiber additives were determined to increase
the shear strength at ratios ranging from 3.0% to 21.0% and that approximately 80% strength loss occurred in
the natural soil due to freeze–thaw cycles, but fly ash and synthetic fiber additives can increase the strength by
compensating for the strength loss caused by freeze–thaw cycles.

1. Introduction
Improving highway pavement subgrades has been a subject that has
drawn the attention of highway and geotechnical engineers for many
years. Weak highway pavement subgrades significantly increase pave­
ment construction costs as they require the construction of pavements of
greater thicknesses. Therefore, where existing weak subgrades in nature
do not fulfill the criteria for pavement construction, stabilizing these
subgrades can be an option for transporting necessary materials for the
base and subbase layers as well as the subgrade. Although many
methods exist for stabilizing subgrades, all of these methods require a
skilled workforce and equipment to ensure adequate performance.
Stabilization of subgrades is the supplementation of various
additives such as fly ash, lime, cement, and fiber to the soil and has been
applied for a long time. Because these additives are generally inexpen­
sive, locally available, biodegradable and environmentally friendly
materials, their use offers many advantages. Using these materials
individually or in combination has a considerable effect on improving
the characteristics of subgrades. Thus, they significantly increase the
performance of pavements.
Clayey soils have low strength and are subject to extreme volume
changes under different humidity conditions. Besides, their permeability
and bearing capacity is low depending on the clay percentage. This
situation makes it difficult for them to be used as subgrades in highway
pavements. The characteristics of these soils can be advanced by using
various methods. These methods that can subdue the volume change

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tayfun.sengul@dpu.edu.tr (T. Sengul).
1
0000-0001-6640-4727.
2
0000-0002-5543-9673.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132590
Received 31 May 2023; Received in revised form 15 July 2023; Accepted 21 July 2023
Available online 29 July 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T. Sengul et al.
include mechanical, thermal, or chemical ones. Clayey soils can be
improved either by modification, stabilization, or both. In order to
change its index features, adding a modifier, such as lime or cement, to
the soil is called soil modification. On the other hand, soil stabilization is
dealing with soils to increase their durability and strength to make them
suitable for construction. Stabilization usually involves some
modification.
Fly ash is a fine residue produced from scorching pulverized coal in
thermal power stations and is split into two major classes, Class C and
Class F. A distinction is made between these two classes, depending on
the type of coal burned. While Class C fly ash is usually produced by
burning sub-bitumen or lignite coal, Class F fly ash is generally obtained
by burning bituminous coal or anthracite. Class F fly ash, which is called
low calcium ash and has less than 6% calcium oxide (CaO) content,
usually shows pozzolanic properties even though they do not harden
spontaneously. The percentage of unburnt carbon in Class F fly ash is
more than 2%, which is determined by the loss in the ignition test. On
the other hand, Class C fly ash, which generally contains more than 15%
CaO and is also called high calcium ashes, started to be used in the
concrete industry in the 1970 s. Fly ash is used in various construction
applications in many countries, such as manufacturing concretes, bricks
and linings and constructing compacted fills and embankments. Fly ash
on its own has little cementing property. However, in the presence of
humidity, it chemically reacts to make up cementitious compounds and
improves soil’s durability and compressibility properties. The fly ash
additive effectively decreases the swell potential of highly plastic clays.
On the other hand, destructing fly ashes by using them and creating
reuse opportunities for these materials are essential for economic and
environmental interests. While the annual production of fly ash in
Türkiye is approximately 15 million tons, the global production of fly
ash annually reaches large amounts, such as 800 million tons. Using fly
ash in soil stabilization will reduce the demand for landfills for these
ashes and limit using valuable aggregates. Fly ash has been one of the
widely used waste materials for the improvement of the properties of
soft soils because of its low unit weight and compressibility, its pozzo­
lanic reaction characteristics, its cost-effectiveness and its energy sav­
ings [1–4].
The efficiency of utilizing fly ash on the strength features of soils has
been the subject of various studies [5–9]. From the results obtained, it
was identified that the unification of fly ash with the soil particles
caused a considerable rise in the strength property of the soil. Therefore,
the soil could be efficiently improved by treating it with fly ash. At the
same time, the smaller secondary compression coefficient in fly ash-
treated samples may decrease the probability of settlement because of
the secondary consolidation of the structures [10].
There are studies examining the influences of Class C and Class F fly
ash usage in soil stabilization applications in highway construction
[11–15].
Camargo et al. [12] compared the characteristics of a recycled road
pavement material and a road surface gravel stabilized by using a Class
C fly ash with the features of Minnesota Grade 5 base material which is a
traditional base material. In their study, they performed California
bearing ratio (CBR), modulus of elasticity (Mr) and unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) tests in order to appraise the impacts of fly
ash addition to road surface gravel and recycled road pavement material
to improve their physical characteristics. Freezing and thawing resis­
tance was appraised regarding Mr and UCS values. They found that CBR,
Mr, and UCS values for recycled pavement material and road surface
gravel raised with fly ash ingredients. These values also augmented with
curing time, and substantial benefits were obtained when 7 and 28 days
of curing were applied. Adding fly ash decreased the plastic de­
formations of the recycled materials during the test of elasticity
modulus. Besides, the freezing and thawing cycles had an insignificant
impact on the Mr and UCS values of these materials.
Soil reinforcement is described as a method used to enhance the
engineering features of the soil so that parameters such as density, shear
2
Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590
strength, compressibility and hydraulic conductivity can be improved.
Increasing its bearing capacity and stability and decreasing lateral
deformation and settlements are the leading objectives of strengthening
the soil mass. Using natural fiber to achieve these objectives is a practice
known for a long time. Fiber-reinforced soil is the material obtained by
adding randomly distributed and discrete fiber elements to a soil mass to
enhance the soil compound’s mechanical properties. This soil type,
whose fibers with comparatively high tensile strength are buried into the
ground, acts as a composite material. The tensile strength of the fibers is
actuated by shear stresses in the ground, which gives the soil more
strength. Essentially, using randomly distributed flexible fibers imitates
the role of plant roots in the soil. This situation also adds strength to
near-surface soils where the effective stress is minor, contributing to the
stability of the ground.
In addition to natural fibers, synthetic ones are also utilized for
improving the engineering features of the subgrade. Thus, the pavement
thickness required for a given traffic density can be reduced. Therefore,
various researchers have conducted many numerical and experimental
studies on this topic.
In a study performed by Prabakar and Sridhar (2002) [16], different
sisal fiber lengths (10, 15, 20 and 25 mm) were selected as reinforce­
ment material. They were incidentally added in the ground at four
different fiber content percentages, namely 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% and
1%. Fiber-reinforced soil specimens were exposed to compression and
triaxial compression tests. The outcomes obtained from these experi­
ments showed a substantial enhancement in the investigated soil’s shear
strength parameters (C and Ø). In another study by Mohamed (2013)
[17], wheat hay was added to a swelling clayey soil at rates of 0.5%, 1%
and 1.5% by weight of the soil to improve its properties. Index, strength
and swelling features were tested on the soil-hay mixture. The results
demonstrated that shear and indirect tensile strength increased with
increasing dry hay ratio up to the addition of approximately 1% dry hay.
The impact of incidentally distributed polypropylene fibers on the
strength and durability features of fine-grained soil subjected to
freeze–thaw cycles was studied by Zaimoglu (2010) [18]. Several un­
confined compressive tests were conducted to specify the strength
behavior. In addition, mass losses that occurred after freeze–thaw cycles
were computed to determine durability behavior. The experiments were
conducted by changing the polypropylene fiber content between 0.25%
and 2% of the dry soil weight. Comparing the experimental results ob­
tained for the reinforced samples with those obtained for the unrein­
forced specimens showed that the mass losses in the reinforced samples
are approximately 50% smaller than those in the unreinforced speci­
mens. Besides, the study ascertained that the UCS values of samples
exposed to freeze–thaw cycles usually augmented as the fiber content
rose.
Senol [19] conducted an experimental study to research the impacts
of fibrillated and multifilament polypropylene fibers on the strength and
compaction features of CH-class soil containing different percentages of
fly ash. He made ready soil specimens by adding two different ratios of
fiber to the soil (0.5% and 1% by weight of the soil) and two different
ratios of fly ash to the soil (10% and 15% by weight of the soil). In
addition to unconfined compressive strength and optimum moisture
content tests, compaction and Atterberg limits tests were performed.
The study found that the fiber addition raised the strength of the fly ash
mixed soil samples.
Mishra and Gupta [20] analyzed the impacts of adding recycled
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibers and fly ash in a clayey subgrade
on the engineering features of the soil. The engineering features studied
are shear modulus, shear strength, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), in­
direct tensile strength, and Atterberg limits. Fly ash and recycled PET
fiber was mixed with clayey soil in different combinations. The pro­
portions range from 0% to 1.6% by weight of the soil, with an increase of
0.4% for PET fiber and from 0% to 20% by weight of the soil, with an
increase of 5% in the case of fly ash. Experimental studies have shown an
increase in shear strength and CBR value. There was a reduction in the
T. Sengul et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590

plasticity index. Optimum rates were determined to be 15% and 1.2%

ASTM
for fly ash and recycled PET fiber, respectively.

F
Kaniraj and Gayathri [21] studied the impact of incorporating inci­
dentally distributed fiber on the geotechnical features of two types of fly

USCS
ash in India. The tests were conducted using two types of polyester fibers

MH
and a fixed fiber content of 1% by dry weight. In the study, compression
experiments, triaxial compression experiments and other geotechnical

Soil Class

AASHTO

A-7–5
identification experiments were conducted on non-fibrous and fiber-
reinforced fly ash specimens. The results obtained from these experi­
ments were given. From the study, it was found that the fiber addition
raised the strength of fly ash samples. The fiber addition also turned the

Spesific Gravity (Gs)

brittle behavior of fly ash samples into ductile behavior.
Ghazavi and Roustaie [22] studied the impact of freeze–thaw cycles

2.68
2.14
on the compressive strength of fiber-reinforced clayey soil. To this end,
kaolin clay reinforced with steel and polypropylene fibers was com­
pressed and subjected to 10 closed system freeze–thaw cycles. The UCS
values of the non-reinforced and reinforced specimens were determined.

Plasticity Index (PI)%

The study’s results showed that the increase in the freezing and thawing
cycles caused a 20–25% reduction in the UCS values of the clay speci­
mens for the investigated soil. In addition, adding fiber to the clay

28.9
N.P.
specimens increased the UCS values of the soil and reduced frost swell.
The performance of stabilized clays under freezing and thawing
conditions is another crucial topic considered in highway pavement
design. Freezing and thawing cycles that induce microcracks generation

Plastic Limit (PL)%

in compacted soils impact pavements negatively and reduce their per­
formance as highway materials. It is well known that frost-exposed

41.7
N.P.
pavements have a shorter service life than similar non-frost-exposed
pavements [23]. This statement means that these systems incur
increased costs over their lifetime. Some engineering characteristics of
soils, such as strength, compressibility, and permeability, can change
substantially because of freeze–thaw cycles [24–27]. Zhang et al. [28]

Liquid Limit (LL)%

studied the laboratory freeze–thaw performance of road pavement base
materials stabilized with combinations of self-cementing Class C fly ash,

70.6
N.P.
Portland cement, and polymer fibers. They found that additions of fly
ash (15% by weight), cement and cement + fiber improved the freezing
susceptibility of soils. In addition, they determined that the particle size
distribution, the curing time, and the compaction delay of chemical
Clay Percentage%

stabilization affect the freezing and thawing performance of the soil.

Güney et al. [29] noted that the stabilized material must resist extra
55.2
5.9

stresses induced by seasonal temperature diversities and freezing and

thawing cycles in any stabilization practice. The freeze–thaw cycles may
be much less adversely effective on coarse-grained soils than on fine-
grained soils. Fine-grained soils affected by freeze–thaw cycles change
Passing through No. 200 Sieve

concerning strength, volume, condensation, compressibility, bearing

capacity, water content, and microstructure. During the freezing period,
ice of different shapes and sizes has an effect that results in the creation
of characteristic micro and macro structures on the soil [25].
84.5
89.9

For this purpose, this experimental study aimed to determine the

plasticity, compressibility and strength properties of clayey subgrades
stabilized with different fly ash ratios. In addition to determining the
change in the strength that curing conditions, synthetic fiber additives
%

and freeze–thaw cycles generate, determining the ideal mixing ratios of

Characteristics of clayey subgrade and fly ash.

fly ash additive to increase the long-term performance of road subgrades

Passing through No. 4 Sieve

formed another study aim. Besides, it is aimed to determine the change

in the microstructure of the soil caused by the fly ash additive with X-ray
fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry, X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrometry,
98.0
100

fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and scanning electron

microscopy (SEM) analyses.

2. Materials
%

Clayey subgrade

2.1. Clayey subgrade and fly ash

NP: non plastic.

The clayey subgrade used in the experiments was obtained from the
Fly ash
Table 1

Kızıl Bayır location at the 10th km of Tavşanlı Road, which passes

through the area where Dumlupınar University Evliya Çelebi Campus is

3
T. Sengul et al.
Fig. 1. Images of clayey soil sample and fly ash.
Fig. 2. Grain size distribution curve of clayey soil and fly ash.
located. The sampling rules and evaluation methods prescribed in the
test methods for road materials were applied to specify the engineering
characteristics of the clayey subgrade. Soil specimens were taken from 1
m below the soil surface and carried to the laboratory in plastic bags,
dried at 105 ◦ C using an oven and cautiously mixed to get a homoge­
neous specimen.
Fly ash is a pozzolanic, non-crystalline, and lightly cemented mate­
rial. It is an environmentally dangerous solid waste that is mainly
resulting from coal combustion in thermal power stations. Using fly ash
as an additive in the improvement of soils means that, in addition to
improving the strength characteristics of soils, the storage costs of this
waste and its harmful impacts on the environment are reduced or
eliminated. In addition, improving the soil’s strength properties means
reducing the road’s pavement thickness, significantly saving road costs.
Therefore, the fly ash obtained from Seyitömer Thermal Power Station
in Kütahya was utilized as an additive material in this study.
Atterberg limits, specific gravity tests, sieve and hydrometer analyses
were performed to specify the physical characteristics of the clayey
subgrade and fly ash. The results from these experiments are displayed
in Table 1. The images of the soil sample and fly ash are given in Fig. 1.
According to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), the
4
Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590
subgrade was categorized as high plasticity silt (MH). On the other hand,
considering the American Association of State Highway and Trans­
portation Officials (AASHTO) soil classification system, this soil is in the
A-7–5 class clayey soil group, which is regarded as moderate to bad as
highway subgrade.
A specimen of 1000 g was taken from the dried soil sample, and the
coarse-grained soil was separated from the fine-grained soil by wet
analysis. Sieve analysis was performed using the whole coarse-grained
soil obtained, and hydrometer analysis was carried out by taking a 50
g dry sample from the fine-grained soil sample. The grain diameter
distribution curve obtained by both methods is shown in Fig. 2. Ac­
cording to these results, the percentage of fine grain was found to be
84.5%. Clay and silt ratios were determined as 55.2% and 29.3%,
respectively. On the other hand, Seyitömer fly ash consists of 10.2%
sand, 83.9% silt, and 5.9% clay-sized grains.
The chemical compounds of clayey subgrade and Seyitömer fly ash
were identified by the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry method. A
panalytical emperian high-resolution diffractometer was utilized to
determine the mineral/powder contents of soils. During data collection,
the device was operated under 45 kV voltage and 40 A current. The
scanning speed was 0.0261, and scanning was done in the range of 5-70◦
T. Sengul et al.
Table 2
Chemical properties of clayey soil and Seyitömer fly ash.
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO K2O
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Clayey 51.47 15.04 7.81 2.57 3.88 1.60
soil
Fly ash 51.96 21.52 11.76 4.01 3.57 3.33
2 theta. The chemical analysis results (XRF) obtained for clayey sub­
grade and Seyitömer fly ash are given in Table 2 regarding major oxides.
The most common significant oxides are SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3.
Concerning the results of the chemical analysis, it is sighted that the
fly ash of the Seyitömer Thermal Power Station contains 3.57% CaO.
Since the CaO content is less than 6% and the sum of SiO2, Al2O3 and
Fe2O3 contents (85.24%) is found to be greater than 70%, it is under­
stood that the fly ash (ASTM C 618) obtained from the Seyitömer
Thermal Power Station is F class fly ash [30].
XRD spectrometry is a device utilized for regular and comparatively
non-destructive chemical analysis of minerals, rocks, sediments and
liquids. It operates according to the principles of wavelength distribu­
tion spectroscopy. Major and trace elements in geological materials are
analyzed by how atoms behave when interacting with X-rays. X-ray
diffractograms of raw clayey soil and fly ash are displayed in Fig. 3a and
b.
According to chemical analysis, the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio is an essential
indicator for kaolin-type clay minerals. This ratio is approximately 2/1
in clays containing fine kaolin or kaolinite minerals and 3/1 in others.
Iron content also affects the utilization rate of the clay and its condition
in the mineralogical structure. The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio of the clay used in
the study is 3.42, and it can be said that it is a kaolinite-based clay in the
other group. In addition, the approximate ratio of 8% Fe2O3 in its con­
tent may limit the usage areas. According to the XRD analysis given in
Fig. 3a, it consists of quartz, illite-muscovite-kaolinite and calcite min­
erals in its structure. According to the peak intensities, the presence of
quartz minerals is seen most clearly in the clay structure. It can be said
that Fe2O3 in the chemical structure maintains its existence in clay
mineral structures [31].
Regarding the chemical analysis results in Table 2, the existence of
K2O in clayey soil is the most crucial factor proving the presence of illite.
XRD analyses also put forth that clayey soil comprises illite. The entire
mineralogical composition of clayey soil looks like that of conventional
clayey materials. According to XRD graphs, the fact that the excess silica
is due to free quartz is attested by the lack of correlation between the
alumina and silica ingredients. In addition, as seen in Table 2, it is clear
that the clayey soil is rich in Fe2O3 (7.81 wt%). The Fe2O3 content pri­
marily results from the potential contribution of clayey minerals such as
illite and the iron oxy/hydroxide phases such as hematite. Regarding the
dispersion of iron, the trace peaks of iron-based phases are displayed by
the XRD patterns of the clayey soil. Since there is a connection between
Fig. 3. X-ray diffractograms related to the mineralogical composition of raw clayey soil and fly ash.
Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590
SO3 TiO2 Na2O NiO BaO P2O5 MnO Cr2O3
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
– 0.86 0.22 – – – 0.22 0.07
1.44 0.93 0.79 0.24 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.09
the iron and the illite phase, it is assumed that the majority of Fe ions
presumably associate with the illite structure (Fig. 3a) [32,33].
The color of the fly ash used is gray, and the fly ash particles are
generally fine and spherical. The mineralogical structure of fly ash de­
pends on minerals such as clay, quartz, pyrite, gypsum, and carbonates
(Ca, Mg, Fe) in coal and on process conditions such as coal preparation
and combustion. It consists of glassy (non-crystalline) and crystalline
components, with a distribution varying according to the type of ash.
Generally, in fly ash that contains low CaO, mainly glassy phase and
minorly quartz (SiO2), mullite (3Al2O3.2SiO2), magnetite (Fe3O4), he­
matite (Fe2O3) and alkali feldspars are encountered [34].
As shown in Fig. 3b, quartz, hematite, magnesioferrite, mullite,
albite, and sanidine phases were detected in the fly ash. The mineral­
ogical composition of fly ash (the state of the glassy phase and crystal
structures) affects the pozzolanic properties of the ash. In particular, the
state of the glassy phase is effectual in the reactivity of fly ash. The
structure of the glassy phase in low-lime fly ash is rich in SiO2 and is
composed of highly polymerized silica or aluminosilicate, which also
contains aluminum. Silica or aluminosilicate glassy phase is the reactive
ingredient of low-lime fly ash and reacts with water and calcium hy­
droxide, giving the fly ash a pozzolanic feature.
Particle morphology (shape) and size distribution are affected by
process-related factors such as the origin and uniformity of the coal, the
pulverization state of the coal, the combustion conditions (temperature
and oxygen level), the uniformity of combustion, and the type of dust
collection system.
Fly ash contains both glassy spherical and irregularly shaped parti­
cles ranging from 0.5 µm to 150 µm. Glassy spherical-shaped particles
can be found in various forms such as spherical structures without
hollows (solid glassy sphere), hollow spheres (cenosphere), structures
containing a cluster of small spheres in a large sphere (pleurosphere),
structures containing irregularly distributed amorphous spaces on the
surface, structures with liquid droplets on the surface, structures with a
surface covered with crystals (dermasphere), deformed structures, and
structures with amorphous deposits on the surface [35].
Non-spherical particles are composed of minerals from coal, such as
quartz and feldspars, which do not participate in combustion reactions
and irregularly shaped and porous structures, such as clay residues and
unburned carbon.
The hump shown in the XRD diffractogram of fly ash indicates the
existence of an amorphous phase in the fly ash. In contrast, the sharp
5
T. Sengul et al.
Fig. 4. FT-IR spectrums of clayey soil and fly ash.
peaks show the presence of crystalline impurities such as quartz, he­
matite, magnesioferrite, mullite, and sanidine. Hematite detected in the
clayey soil is an iron mineral in the form of Fe2O3. It is usually found as
thin or thick plate-like crystals. The most common colors of hematite are
red and brown. It also has different colors ranging from black to gray,
yellow to brown, due to the other rocks it contains. Mullite (3Al2O32­
SiO2) consists of aluminum silicates that are existent in the fly ash, and
SiO2 is also found in the form of quartz in the structure. Sanidine
(KAlSi3O3), which is a feldspar mineral, induces the existence of K+ el­
ements in the structure. Besides, it is monitored that the amorphous
phase attains its maximum when 2θ is between 20 and 34◦ . Thus, since
the amorphous phase is near the maximum peak value of the quartz
crystal, it has silica-like properties (Fig. 3b) [36,37].
FT-IR spectroscopy of clayey soil and fly ash are shown in Fig. 4. FT-
IR spectroscopy of clayey soil revealed the presence of clayey minerals in
all samples due to the absorption bands in the 3700–3600 cm− 1 region.
The stretching vibrations of structural hydroxyl and OH groups of clayey
minerals found in specimens such as illite, kaolinite, chlorite and
smectite are associated with a broad absorption band near 3616 cm− 1. A
Fig. 5. SEM and EDS analyses of raw clayey soil and fly ash.
6
Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590
wide band in the range of 3200–3500 cm− 1 is ascribed to the bending/
stretching vibrations of OH bands of physically absorbed water or any
molecule carrying an OH group. The group deformation vibration of
water molecules is appointed by the band at 1625 cm− 1. In addition, the
H–O–H stretching at this band is a feature of hydrated phyllosilicates.
The 1433 cm− 1 band related to CO3 stretching and connected by a soft
shoulder at 875 cm− 1 (non-flat bending) is ascribed to the vibrations of
calcite’s C–O bands. The intense band at 998 cm− 1 may appertain to the
Si-O stretching of clay minerals and the Si-O-Si stretching of quartz. In
addition to other di-octahedral clays, the 913 and 691 cm− 1 bands show
the Al-OH vibration of kaolinite. The FT-IR spectrum displays the quartz
binary bands in the form of Si-O stretching vibrations at 799 and 691
cm− 1. Si-O-Si bending of quartz may cause peaks at 462 and 517 cm− 1
(Fig. 4a) [32,33,38].
FT-IR spectroscopy of fly ash shows the uncommon existence of
absorbed water and alumina silicate. The central absorption region
seems to be centered at a wave number of 1034 cm− 1, which is ascribed
to the asymmetric stretching of the O–Si–O and O–Al–O bonds. The peak
at 779 cm− 1 wave number results from the existence of quartz. Even
T. Sengul et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590

though multi-phases are usually sighted at 1138 cm− 1 wave number, a Table 3
strong peak takes place at 1034 cm− 1 wave number. Hematite phases The chemical and physical properties of polypropylene fiber.
come about at a wave number of 452 cm− 1. Small peaks at a wave Appearance Natural White Fibers
number of 559 cm− 1 specify silicate and alumina silicate phases (Fig. 4b)
Type Polypropylene
[36]. Purity %100 Pure
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X- Specific Gravity 0.91 g/cm3
ray spectroscopy (EDS) analyses of clayey soil and fly ash are displayed Length 6 mm − 12 mm − 19 mm
in Fig. 5a and b, respectively. Profile / Diameter Circular / 18 µm − 20 µm
Tensile Strength 450–700 N/mm2 (Mpa)
The micrographs show that the raw clayey soil sample consists of Modulus of Elasticity 3000–3500 N/mm2 (Mpa)
slim platelets, aggregated particles, and an irregular flaky texture. The Melting Point 162 ◦ C
parallel flat aggregates display a characteristic pseudo-hexagonal Ignition Point 593 ◦ C
morphology of the kaolinite layers stocking up in the sample. Illite Acid, Salt and Alkali Reactions Acid, Salt and Alkali Resistant
UV Resistance UV Resistant
particles are usually ascribed to kaolinite. In clayey minerals, illite is
Oxidation Resistance High
generally monitored as slim flakes in small size particles. Besides, the Corrosion Resistance High
tiny grains of 1–2 μm marked in clay structures are quartz particles [32]. Moisture Retention 0
The elemental composition of the raw clayey soil obtained using EDS is Shelf Life Unlimited in Dry Conditions
shown in Fig. 5a-1. In general, SiO2 and Al2O3 levels are appertained to
clay content. SiO2 levels are also a function of quartz proportions. The
3. Experimental method and findings
main oxides in raw clayey soil are SiO2 (69.89%) and Al2O3 (27.11%).
However, MgO (2.73%) is available with low content. The levels of other
The soil was homogeneously mixed with 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%
oxides, which are Fe2O3 (0.27%) and K2O (0.00%), are below 1%. The
fly ash by weight to make better the natural soil’s engineering charac­
results obtained are in good agreement with XRD analysis. The high
teristics. In order to identify the plasticity features of these mixtures,
peaks of quartz (SiO2) are explained by high oxygen (O) and silicon (Si)
liquid and plastic limit tests were carried out, and plasticity index values
content. The existence of illite is verified by the presence of Al, Mg and
were determined. Compaction experiments were conducted to specify
Fe at different levels (Fig. 5a-1) [39]. The morphology of a fly ash par­
the soil’s compressive behavior and shear strength. According to the
ticle differs according to the cooling rate and combustion temperature.
results of these experiments, maximum dry unit weight and optimum
The sizes of particles in the fly ash observed in this study range from
water content values, where the best compaction is achieved in the soil,
about 1 to 40 µm and consist of solid spherical particles (Fig. 5b-2).
were determined.
Furthermore, besides spherical particles, there are also sporadically
particles of varying size, which can be ascribed to different physical
states of silica. As determined by EDS, the principal oxides in the fly ash 3.1. Plasticity properties of soil mixtures
specimens were SiO2 (44.56%), Al2O3 (26.69%) and CO3 (21.23%),
respectively. The other oxides include MgO (3.25%), K2O (3.13%), TiO2 The consistency limits of soil-fly ash mixtures were identified con­
(1.13%) and Fe2O2 (0.00%), respectively [40,41]. cerning ASTM D4318-05 [44], and the results are displayed in Table 4.
When the influence of fly ash on the plasticity features of the soil is
examined, it is observed that a minimal decrease occurs in the liquid
2.2. Polypropylene fiber limit, plastic limit and plasticity index values as the fly ash ingredient in
the mixture rises, although it is not plastic.
Polypropylene fibers have found use widely in the construction in­ There are many studies to determine the alteration in the plasticity
dustry for many years. For this reason, it has been the subject of many index value of soils mixed with fly ash at different rates [8,45]. Fly ash
researches [42,43]. In recent years, these fibers have also been used in treatment reduces the detrimental effect of sulfate swelling and swelling
soil improvement applications. In this study, a commercially available potential while causing a decrease in the plasticity index of the soil.
polypropylene fiber named BF-12 of the Betonfiber brand was also used. Nonetheless, some research results displayed that applying fly ash alone
This fiber features thin and fibrous and is in the form of clusters. The might be inadequate to enhance the features of highly plastic soils
photograph of the polypropylene fiber is given in Fig. 6, and its chemical [8,46,47].
and physical characteristics provisioned by the manufacturer are shown
in Table 3. The density of the fibers is 0.91 g/cm3, and their length is 12
3.2. Compaction behavior of soil mixtures
mm.
The compaction behavior of the fly ash added natural soil at different
rates (10%, 20%, 30% and 40%) was specified as regards ASTM D698-07
[48], and the change in dry unit weight values depending on the water
content is shown in Fig. 7.
It is observed that the water content - dry unit weight relationship is
affected by the fly ash addition and changes depending on the addition
of fly ash in increasing percentages. According to the results, it has been
determined that as the ratio of fly ash additive in the mixture increases,

Table 4
The effect of fly ash additive at different mixing ratios on the plasticity prop­
erties of the soil.
Mixture Ratios LL PL PI

100% Soil 70.6 41.7 28.9

90% Soil + 10% Fly Ash 68.5 40.9 27.6
80% Soil + 20% Fly Ash 66.0 39.2 26.8
70% Soil + 30% Fly Ash 62.4 38.5 23.9
60% Soil + 40% Fly Ash 61.1 37.7 23.4
Fig. 6. The photograph of the fiber.

7
T. Sengul et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590

Fig. 7. The effect of fly ash additive at different mixing ratios on the
compaction behavior of the soil.
Fig. 9. The effect of fly ash additive at different rates on the UCS values of
the soil.
the maximum dry unit weight value lessens. In addition, it has been seen
that adding fly ash at low mixing ratios does not significantly change the
optimum water content in general. On the other hand, adding 40% fly
ash caused a rise in the optimum water content.
Research on the compaction properties of soils revealed that adding
fly ash to soils changes the void ratio and porosity of soils [1,15,45,46].
The soil particles can absorb a more significant amount of water thanks
to soil stabilization. This coaction immediately causes a rise in optimum
moisture content and a reduction in maximum dry density.

3.3. Shear strength of soil mixtures

The cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 50 mm and a height of

100 mm were made ready by static compression method so that the void
ratio and maximum unit volume weight were the same as the com­
pressed samples by applying the standard compaction energy in the
standard proctor mold. In this method, natural soil and mixtures of
natural soil stabilized with fly ash at different rates are homogeneously
mixed at the optimum water content determined separately for each.
The calculated amount of soil mixtures at the optimum water content
was then placed in a stainless steel mold coated with a very thin oil layer
to reduce friction on its inner surface. The movable piston placed on the
steel mold was pushed with a statically constant speed until the desired
sample height was reached with the help of a hydraulic jack (Fig. 8a).
During the compression process, when half of the compression length is
Fig. 10. Variation of shear strength of fly ash mixtures at different rates at the
end of 1-day curing.
reached, steel mold is turned upside down, the compression is
completed, and homogeneous compression of the sample is ensured.
Then, the compressed samples were pushed out of the mold at a constant
speed (Fig. 8b). Since the soil is compressed in three layers in the
standard proctor mold, even if undisturbed samples are taken with thin-
walled steel tubes of the desired diameter, fine cracks between layers
can affect the UCS value of the soil sample. Therefore, the static
compression method was adopted to prepare unconfined pressure
samples, as shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Sample preparation by static compression method. a) Compressing the Fig. 11. Variation of shear strength of fly ash mixtures at different rates after
sample b) Removing the sample from the mold. 28 days of curing.

8
T. Sengul et al. Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590

On the soil samples obtained by static compression method, the fly ash additive increases the strength by 85.8%. When the rate of fly
deformation-controlled unconfined compression tests were performed ash in the mixture is increased to 20%, the increase in strength decreases
following ASTM D2166-06 [49] by keeping the loading speed constant to 77.7%.
at 1 mm/min, and the strength characteristics of the samples were When all the cured and uncured results were compared, it was
specified. In the experiments where the shear strength parameters were identified that the effective fly ash ratio in the mixture was 10%, and
determined, at least three or more samples if deemed necessary were when this ratio increased, a gradual decrease in strength occurred.
prepared for each data set, and the consistency of the test results was
ensured. The change of UCS values of natural soil and samples of natural
3.4. Association of the strength characteristic with the microstructure
soil treated with fly ash at different ratios is presented in Fig. 9.
When the impact of the fly ash addition at different rates on the UCS
The SEM micrographs, taken at magnification of 20,000 times, for
values of the natural soil was examined, it was observed that the UCS
100% clayey soil cured for 28 days are presented in Fig. 12.
values of the soil stabilized with 10% and 20% of fly ash increased by
The scanning electron micrographs taken for the fractured 100%
23.2% and 8.7%, respectively, compared to the natural soil. After this
clayey soil surfaces are displayed in Fig. 12. Compared to the morpho­
stage, it was determined that the strength decreased a little (5.4%)
logical views of raw clayey soil (Fig. 5a), it is explicit that the transaction
depending on the increase in the percentage of fly ash in the soil mixture
used directly affects the microstructural properties, phase evolutions
(30%), and when the rate of fly ash in the mixture reached 40%, the
and porosity of 100% clayey soil. When the microstructure of 100%
strength decreased by 43.7%.
clayey soil is examined, it is seen that the massive stratified morphology
Since the UCS values of the fly ash mixes are determined immedi­
is widely distributed and forms a compact structure. However, it is seen
ately after the samples are prepared, it may not be sufficient for the
that there are pores between 1 and 2 μm in the structure of the 100%
pozzolanic reaction to occur due to the fly ash additive. For this reason,
clayey soil sample. According to the EDS analysis of 100% clay soil, the
the UCS values of the soil samples at the same mixing ratios were
main oxides are SiO2 (68.97%) and Al2O3 (25.58%). However, K2O
determined again at the end of 1 and 28 days of curing at 20 ± 2 ◦ C. The
(3.79%) is available with low content. The other oxides include MgO
obtained results are displayed in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11, respectively.
(1.67%) and Fe2O3 (0.00%).
The ability of natural soil and mixtures stabilized with fly ash to
The SEM micrographs, taken at a magnification of 10,000 times, for
show pozzolanic activity depends on sufficient curing time, water con­
90% clayey soil + 10% fly ash and 60% clayey soil + 40% fly ash at 28
tent, fine-grained surface area to expand, and enough good silica,
days are presented in Figs. 13 and 14, respectively.
alumina and iron oxide content. When the change of the UCS values with
It is evident that the microstructures of both fly ash-added samples
the one and 28-day curing effect is examined, it is seen that the pozzo­
show better densification than the 100% clayey soil sample (Figs. 13 and
lanic activity occurs not only for the fly ash mixtures but also for the
14). As the reason for this compact structure, it could be said that fly ash
natural soil.
particles are spherical, which is suitable for filling the voids among soil
After only one day of curing, the UCS value of the compressed natural
particles. Furthermore, another reason might be that fly ash absorbs less
soil increased by 38.5 percent. In contrast, compared to uncured con­
water than soil [50]. According to the EDS analysis of 90% clay soil +
ditions, the strengths of 10% and 20% fly ash-added mixtures increased
10% fly ash, the principal oxides are SiO2 (65.57%) and Al2O3 (19.81%).
by 76.8% and 90.2%, respectively. When the fly ash additive is further
However, CaO (8.50%) and K2O (6.12%) are present with low content.
increased, the increase in strength decreases to 61.5%-66.1% compared
The other oxides include MgO (0.00%) and Fe2O3 (0.00%) (Fig. 13). As
to uncured conditions.
determined by EDS, the dominant oxides in the 60% clayey soil + 40%
When the change in the strength of the fly ash mixtures and the
fly ash sample are SiO2 (45.52%) and Al2O3 (27.04%). The other oxides
natural soil after one day of curing were compared, it was determined
include CO3 (11.77%), SO4 (9.21%), K2O (4.10%), MgO (1.22%), CaO
that the UCS value of the mix with 10% fly ash additive increased by
(0.99%) and Fe2O3 (0.15%) (Fig. 14).
57.3% compared to the strength of the natural soil after one day of
The change of mineralogical structure resulting from the rise in the
curing. It was sighted that the rise in the fly ash ratio in the mixture
amount of fly ash added to the ground soil and the curing effect is shown
caused a decrease in the increase in strength, and when the fly ash ratio
in Fig. 15. Here, it can be said that 100% clay soil shows the same
reached 40%, it caused a 32.5% decrease in strength.
mineralogical distribution as raw clay after 28 days of curing if X-ray
The rise in the strength of the natural soil after 28 days of curing is
diffractograms for clayey soils in Fig. 3a and Fig. 15a are compared. The
49.3% compared to uncured conditions, while it is 7.8% according to 1-
presence of quartz, illite, muscovite, kaolinite and calcite minerals is
day curing conditions. When the 28-day UCS values of the mixture with
observed in the structure. Depending on the curing time, it is monitored
10% fly ash additive and natural soil are compared, it is observed that
that there is a slight increase in the intensity of the quartz mineral.

Fig. 12. SEM and EDS analyses of 100% clayey soil.

9
T. Sengul et al.
Fig. 13. SEM and EDS analyses of 90% clayey soil + 10% fly ash.
Fig. 14. SEM and EDS analyses of 60% clayey soil + 40% fly ash.
It is seen that the quartz peak intensity reduces with the rise in the fly
ash additive ratio. In addition, the rate of amorphization increases in
XRD analysis. It is observed that some deterioration occurs in the crys­
talline peak intensities of illite, muscovite and kaolinite minerals with
the increase in the fly ash ratio. This situation shows that the soil
mixture prepared with fly ash additive and curing can behave like fly
ash. It can be said that the mechanical properties are the highest in the
mix with 10% fly ash additive with 28 days cure because the structure in
this composition shows the closest feature to the clay structure
mineralogically.
FT-IR analyses of 100% clay and fly ash added samples cured for 28
days are given in Fig. 16. These analyses were carried out to explain how
the 28-day curing period affects the prepared fly ash mixtures in the
molecular dimension. In FT-IR spectroscopy, vibrations of atoms form­
ing solid lattices are observed in the region of 400–1600 cm− 1, and
molecular vibrations are kept in the area of 1600–4000 cm− 1.
As a result of the FT-IR analysis performed on 100% clay composition
after 28 days of curing, vibration peaks are observed at wave numbers
457, 518, 692, 793, 1000, 1430, 1638, 3377 and 3616 cm− 1 (Fig. 16a).
Al-O bonds with Si-O give vibration peaks of 457 and 518 cm− 1. Si-O
bonds in the lattice structures are in the form of vibration peaks at a
wave number of 1000 cm− 1. CO−3 2 is seen at 1430 cm− 1. Vibration peaks
of water ions and molecules in its structure are found at wave numbers
3377 and 3616 cm− 1 [51–53].
As a result of the FT-IR analysis of the samples hydrated for 28 days
with 10% fly ash additive, vibrations are observed at wave numbers 457,
518, 694, 797, 1002, 1429, 1634, 3384 and 3621 cm− 1 (Fig. 16b). Si-O
bonds show vibrations at wave numbers of 457 cm− 1 and Al-O bonds at
10
Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590
694 cm− 1 wave numbers. Si-O-Si bonds vibrate at 797 cm− 1, and Si-O-Al
bonds at 1002 cm− 1 wave numbers. CO−3 2 is seen at 1429 cm− 1. Water
ions and molecules (H-OH) in its structure were detected at wave
numbers 1624 cm− 1 and water (OH) connected by hydrogen bridges at
wave numbers 3384 and 3621 cm− 1 [54].
As a result of FT-IR analysis of samples hydrated for 28 days with
40% fly ash additive, vibrations are observed at wave numbers 460, 520,
692, 797, 1002, 1430, 1635, 3377 and 3606 cm− 1 (Fig. 16c). Si-O bonds
show vibrations at 460 cm− 1 wave numbers and Al-O bonds at 692 cm− 1
wave numbers. As Si-O-Si bonds vibrate at 797 cm− 1 wave numbers, Si-
O-Al bonds vibrate at 1002 cm− 1 wave numbers. CO−3 2 is seen at 1430
cm− 1. Water ions and molecules (H-OH) in its structure were detected at
wave numbers 1635 cm− 1 and water (OH) connected by hydrogen
bridges at wave numbers 3377 and 3606 cm− 1 [55].
When the change occurred in the structure depending on the fly ash
additive rate and curing is examined with FT-IR, the value and in­
tensities of the peaks are considered. When all FT-IR graphs are inves­
tigated, the 3606–3621 cm− 1 region shows the presence of bound and
absorbed water.
Depending on these two small peak contribution ratios, as the
contribution ratio increases, the peak value first increases and then
decreases again. In addition, when the peaks in the 1000–1002 cm− 1
region are examined for both additive ratios, the peak intensity formed
in the Si-O-Al bonds in the structure first decreases and then increases
depending on the additive ratio. This situation is in agreement with the
XRD results. At the same time, this situation explains the first peak in­
crease in bond structure and fly ash structure, increase and decrease in
mechanical properties.
T. Sengul et al.
Fig. 15. X-ray diffractograms related to the mineralogical composition of clayey soil and fly ash mixtures.
3.5. Shear strength of polypropylene fiber reinforced soil mixtures
In addition to natural fibers, synthetic fibers are also utilized to
enhance the engineering characteristics of subgrades. This study
examined the impact of randomly distributed polypropylene fibers on
the strength of subgrade and subgrade mixtures stabilized with different
fly ash ratios. To this end, a series of unconfined compressive strength
tests were conducted. The polypropylene fiber by 0.5% of the dry mass
was added to mixtures in the experiments.
The unconfined compressive test results obtained at the end of the 1
and 28 days curing period for the specimens reinforced with poly­
propylene fiber are displayed in Fig. 17 and Fig. 18, respectively.
When the test results are compared, it is seen that the fiber addition
raises the UCS values for the natural soil and the specimens stabilized
with fly ash. This increase is 61.9%-73.7% compared to the one and 28-
day cured samples of natural soil, respectively. When the impact of fiber
additive on strength was investigated in the samples stabilized with fly
ash at different rates, it was determined that it increased the shear
strength at rates ranging from about 3.0% to 21.0%. These results mean
that the effect of fiber additives on the result is higher in the samples
with low shear strength.
When the results are evaluated, polypropylene fiber additive
generally increases the shear strength of natural soil and soil mixtures
stabilized with fly ash at different rates and their ductility. In addition,
the essential feature of the fiber additive is that it prevents a rapid
decrease in the bearing capacity after the shear strength of the soil
samples that are forced to shear is exceeded.
11
Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590
3.6. Performance of soil mixtures under freeze–thaw effects
Cracks in asphalt concrete may occur with temperature, humidity,
and environmental changes, regardless of traffic effects. These effects,
alone or combined with axle loads, can crack the pavement. Crocodile
cracks are the cracking of the pavement into interconnected blocks.
These cracks are called crocodile cracks because they resemble the
crocodile skin pattern. The crocodile cracks seen in a road pavement
close to the area where the clayey subgrade is provided in the province
of Kütahya are shown in Fig. 19. Environmental and climatic conditions
such as insufficient compaction of the subgrade, sub-base and base
layers and low bearing capacity of these layers due to inadequate
drainage, fatigue of the asphalt concrete layer under excessive traffic
loads, use of inappropriate materials, poor construction techniques,
freezing effect, and humidity change are the possible causes of crocodile
cracks. Among these factors, crocodile cracks may also occur due to the
change in the water content of the soil and softening with the effect of
only freeze–thaw cycles.
Therefore, one of the points to be considered in the pavement design
is determining the performance of stabilized subgrades under freezing
and thawing conditions. It is understood that pavements are negatively
impacted by freezing and thawing cycles. Pavements exposed to freezing
effects have shorter service lives than similar pavements not exposed to
freezing effects. Some engineering characteristics of soils, such as
strength, compressibility, and permeability, can change substantially
because of freeze–thaw cycles. Besides, fine-grained soils are generally
much more delicate to the impact of freezing and thawing cycles than
coarse-grained soils.
As in the clayey subgrade used in this study, capillary water rise in
soils with tiny effective diameters increases the soil’s exposure to frost.
T. Sengul et al.
Fig. 16. FT-IR spectrums of clayey soil and fly ash mixtures.
Fig. 17. Variation of shear strength of fiber-reinforced fly ash mixtures at the
end of 1-day curing.
The occurrence of water flow from deeper layers to the areas close to the
freezing surface further expands the frozen area. As in the province of
Kütahya, in regions where the air temperature drops below zero centi­
grade (0 ◦ C) for a long time during the winter months, a volume increase
of approximately 10% may occur on the soil as a result of the freezing of
the water in the spaces of the high plastic subgrades. As a result of sig­
nificant increases in the water content of the thawed soil with the rise in
temperature in the spring months, substantial losses occur in the bearing
capacity of the ground. Repeating freeze–thaw cycles further increases
these losses. In this case, the road pavements on the ground layers suffer
significant damage, as seen in Fig. 19.
12
Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590
Fig. 18. Variation of shear strength of fiber-reinforced fly ash mixtures after
28 days of curing.
For this purpose, in addition to subgrade, the performance of fly ash
stabilized mixtures and polypropylene fiber added samples under
freezing and thawing cycles was investigated in this study. A 28-day
freeze–thaw cycle was performed for freeze–thaw experiments. For
freezing, samples were exposed to a temperature of − 10 ◦ C for 12 h in a
freezing apparatus to achieve complete freezing penetration. They were
then allowed to thaw for 12 h at a temperature of 10 ◦ C. The temperature
changes in the freeze–thaw cycles were determined by considering the
local climatic conditions during the winter months. After the freezing
and thawing cycles, the UCS values of the completely thawed samples
were determined. Thus, the impacts of freezing and thawing cycles on
T. Sengul et al.
Fig. 19. Crocodile cracks.
Fig. 20. Variation of shear strength of fly ash mixtures at the end of 28-day
freezing and thawing cycles.
the UCS values of unstabilized and stabilized soil samples were deter­
mined. The results from this research are shown in Fig. 20 and Fig. 21.
When the results obtained were investigated, it was specified that the
natural soil exposed to 28-day freeze–thaw cycles had a 77.3% loss in
UCS value compared to the natural soil that was not exposed to this
effect. In order to consider the 28-day curing effect, it is seen that this
loss is 84.8% as a consequence of the freezing and thawing cycles when
compared with the 28-day cured UCS value of the natural soil.
Similarly, when the UCS value obtained after 28-day curing of nat­
ural soil stabilized with fly ash at different rates and the UCS value of the
soil exposed to 28-day freeze–thaw cycles at the same mixing ratios were
compared, it was determined that the freezing and thawing cycles
caused a strength loss of approximately 83%. However, it is seen that
even when the mixtures stabilized with 10–20% fly ash are exposed to
freeze–thaw cycles, the strength increases by approximately 100%
compared to the natural soil, and when this mixture ratio reaches
30–40%, the strength increases by about 300–418%, respectively.
The use of polypropylene fiber can be an alternative solution to the
use of additives to minimize the loss of strength on soils that will be
exposed to freeze–thaw effects. At the same time, the fibers can be used
in a mixture with additives. The fact that the fiber additive reduces the
13
Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590
Fig. 21. Variation of shear strength of fiber-reinforced fly ash mixtures at the
end of 28-day freeze–thaw cycles.
strength loss by approximately 25% in the soil exposed to freeze–thaw
cycles compared to the natural ground means that it increases the
strength by 83.2%. Despite this, the loss of strength due to the freeze­
–thaw effect is approximately 58.5% in fiber-reinforced soil.
In general, it was determined that the decrease in strength reduced as
the fly ash ratio in the mixture increased with 0.5% fiber additive in the
soils exposed to freezing and thawing cycles, and when the fly ash
mixture ratio reached 40% by mass, the strength increased by 39.1%. It
is thought that the reason for this increase is the pozzolanic reaction of
the fly ash in the soil, changing the plasticity features of the ground and
reducing the increase in volume when it comes into contact with water.
Field experience in fly ash stabilized soils reveals that if the cured
material is durable enough to withstand the freeze–thaw cycles of the
first winter season, the possibility of durability issues in the following
years is generally relatively low. Extra curing, which develops during
the summer following manufacture and the following summer seasons,
helps create additional strength in mixtures stabilized with fly ash.
4. Results and discussion
Improving highway subgrades with fly ash and polypropylene fibers,
which have been widely used in recent years, significantly increases the
strength and long-term durability of subgrades and reduces the con­
struction, maintenance and repair costs of pavements. Therefore, this
study investigated the variation of engineering properties of highway
subgrades stabilized with different proportions of fly ash. In addition,
the fact that the subgrades lose their strength to a great extent as a result
of exposure to freeze–thaw cycles in cold climates is one of the most
important factors that trigger damage to highway pavements. For this
reason, besides the natural subgrade, the variation of the strength
properties of mixtures stabilized with fly ash and/or polypropylene fi­
bers with the curing effect and freeze–thaw cycles were also
investigated.
When the strength characteristics of the subgrade and the samples
obtained from the mixtures of subgrade stabilized with different ratios of
fly ash were examined, it was identified that if the fly ash rate in the
mixture was 10%, there was an increase in strength by 23.2%, and if the
fly ash rate increased, the strength decreased.
At the end of 1 and 28 days of curing, the mixture with the maximum
rise in strength compared to natural soil is the mixture stabilized with
10% fly ash, and this rise is 57.3% and 85.8, respectively. Therefore, it
can be considered the optimum mixing ratio for the fly ash stabilized
subgrade.
The SEM micrographs taken at 28 days for 10–40% fly ash-added
samples showed that the microstructures of both fly ash-added sam­
ples were denser than that of the 100% clayey soil sample because
T. Sengul et al.
spherical fly ash particles were suitable for filling the voids among soil
particles.
It was seen that the quartz peak intensity reduced with the rise in the
fly ash additive ratio, and the rate of amorphization increased in XRD
analysis. It was also found that the mix with 10% fly ash additive with
28 days cure was the best in terms of mechanical properties.
When the change formed in the structure depending on the fly ash
additive rate and curing was examined with FT-IR, it was also observed
that the peak value first increased and then decreased again as the ad­
ditive ratio increased. Furthermore, when the peaks in the 1000–1002
cm− 1 region were examined for both additive ratios, the peak intensity
formed in the Si-O-Al bonds in the structure decreased and then
increased depending on the additive ratio.
When the impacts of randomly distributed polypropylene fibers at a
rate of 0.5% by dry weight on the strength of the subgrade and the
mixtures of the subgrade stabilized with different ratios of fly ash were
examined, it was found that the polypropylene fiber additive rose the
shear strength in both natural soil samples and fly ash stabilized speci­
mens at the rates changed between 3.0% and 21.0%. The polypropylene
fibers used in stabilization not only increase the shear strength of the soil
but also prevent the rapid decrease of the bearing capacity of the soil
after the shear strength is exceeded, thus reducing the deformations that
will occur under high stresses.
It was observed that freezing and thawing cycles significantly
reduced the UCS value of the subgrades. In general, although the shear
strength of the samples stabilized with fly ash increased significantly
compared to the natural soil samples because of the pozzolanic reaction,
freeze–thaw cycles decreased the shear strength of the 10% and 20% fly
ash-added soil samples. Although the polypropylene fiber additive
added to the soil mixtures to reduce this strength loss increased the
strength, it was insufficient to meet the loss caused by the freeze–thaw
cycles.
In samples stabilized with 40% fly ash, despite the freeze–thaw ef­
fect, the shear strength is higher than the shear strength of the natural
subgrade, which has not been exposed to freezing and thawing cycles.
Therefore, considering the freezing and thawing cycles, it can be said
that the optimum mixing ratio for fly ash additives is 40%. While the
mixture ratio with the highest rise in strength compared to the natural
soil with the curing effect is 10%, this mixture ratio is 40% when the
freeze–thaw impact is examined. This result can be interpreted that the
rise in the fly ash ratio increased the effective diameter of the soil while
reducing its plasticity and exposure to frost.
As a result, it is understood that subgrades stabilized with fly ash and
synthetic fibers will not exhibit excessive swelling and shrinkage
behavior due to the improvement in plasticity properties. Besides, it is
also determined that their shear strength will increase, and thus the
long-term stability of the road pavements can be maintained.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Tayfun Sengul: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
Supervision, Methodology, Investigation. Noyan Akray: Investigation.
Yasar Vitosoglu: Writing – original draft, Resources, Methodology,
Investigation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
14
Construction and Building Materials 400 (2023) 132590
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