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HIPAVE User Manual
HIPAVE User Manual
Contents
Summary 5
Introduction 9
Background ....................................................................................................................................9
Realistic Modelling with HIPAVE..................................................................................................11
Material Modelling..............................................................................................................12
Modelling of Multiple Wheels and Axle Groups .................................................................14
Nature of Damage Pulses..................................................................................................14
Overview 15
How HIPAVE handles Traffic Distributions ..................................................................................15
Cumulative Damage Concept ......................................................................................................16
Lateral Vehicle Wander................................................................................................................18
Material Performance ...................................................................................................................18
Traffic and Loading.......................................................................................................................19
How Vehicle characteristics are defined ......................................................................................19
Standard Vehicle Library....................................................................................................19
Unequal Axle Loads...........................................................................................................20
Equal Axle Loads ...............................................................................................................21
Coordinate System for Vehicles.........................................................................................22
Methods for handling Damage Pulses .........................................................................................24
Dynamic Load Factors .................................................................................................................25
Container Weight Distributions.....................................................................................................26
Automatic Thickness Design........................................................................................................26
Cross-anisotropy and Isotropy in Pavement Materials ................................................................27
Cost Calculation ...........................................................................................................................28
Automatic Parametric Analysis ....................................................................................................29
Appendices 97
References ...................................................................................................................................99
Contents iii
Summary
HIPAVE (Heavy Industrial PAVEment design) is for the mechanistic analysis and design of
flexible pavements subjected to the extremely heavy wheel loads associated with freight
handling vehicles in industrial facilities, in particular, intermodal container terminals. It is
designed to conveniently model each combination of vehicle type and container load and to
combine the damage using the Cumulative Damage Factor concept.
HIPAVE takes account of vehicle wander at a more fundamental level than earlier methods.
Vehicle wander is the statistical variation of the paths taken by successive vehicle
movements relative to lane centrelines. Increased wander reduces pavement damage by
different amounts that depend upon the pavement thickness.
A Parametric Analysis feature can loop through a range of thicknesses for one or two layers,
while simultaneously designing the thickness of another layer. This feature will optimise up to
three layers. Combining this with a Cost Analysis feature, allows for fine-tuning of layer
thicknesses to minimize construction and maintenance costs.
Copyright This manual is copyright and may not be copied, photocopied, reproduced,
translated or reduced to any electronic medium or machine readable form, in whole or part,
without the prior written consent of Mincad.
This documentation is licensed and sold pursuant to the terms and conditions of the HIPAVE
End User Licence Agreement, which appears under the HIPAVE "About" dialogue box which
provides (in part).
20.1 To the maximum extent permitted by law all warranties whether express, implied,
statutory or otherwise, relating in any way to the subject matter of this Agreement or to this
Agreement generally, are excluded. Where legislation implies in this Agreement any
condition or warranty and that legislation avoids or prohibits provisions in a contract
excluding or modifying the application of or the exercise of or liability under such term, such
term shall be deemed to be included in this Agreement. However, the liability of Mincad for
any breach of such term shall be limited, at the option of Mincad, to any one or more of the
following: if the breach related to goods: the replacement of the goods or the supply of
equivalent goods; the repair of such goods; the payment of the cost of replacing the goods or
of acquiring equivalent goods; or the payment of the cost of having the goods repaired; and if
the breach relates to services the supplying of the services again; or the payment of the cost
of having the services supplied again.
20.2 To the maximum extent permitted by law and subject only subject only to the warranties
and remedies set out in Clause 12 and Sub-clause 21.1, Mincad shall not be under any
liability (contractual, tortious or otherwise) to Customer in respect of any loss or damage
(including, without limitation, consequential loss or damage) howsoever caused, which may
be suffered or incurred or which may arise directly or indirectly in respect to the supply of
goods or services pursuant to this Agreement or the act, failure or omission of Mincad.
Customer warrants that it has not relied on any representation made by Mincad or upon any
descriptions or illustrations or specifications contained in any document including any
catalogues or publicity material produced by Mincad.
21. Acknowledgement
(a) pavement design and engineering is a complex area and the HIPAVE is not designed as
a substitute in any way for professional advice;
(b) HIPAVE is supplied with certain operating instructions and a failure to follow these
instructions carefully could result in erroneous data being produced by HIPAVE;
8 HIPAVE User Manual
(c) Whilst HIPAVE may be used by persons without a detailed knowledge of computers,
HIPAVE is designed to be used by persons who have a detailed knowledge of, without
limitation:
(ii) All appropriate legislation and other relevant instruments, including, without limitation the
relevant industry recognised engineering design guides;
(d) They shall manually check all results provided by HIPAVE for any anomalies; and
(e) They shall obtain professional advice in relation to all results provided by HIPAVE.
21.2 HIPAVE is licensed on the basis set out in this Agreement on the understanding that to
the extent permitted by law Mincad is not responsible for the results of any actions taken,
either by Customer or a third party relying on figures supplied or not supplied by HIPAVE.
22. Indemnity
Customer warrants that any materials supplied to Mincad by Customer do not infringe
Intellectual Property Right of any person.
To the extent permitted by law, Customer shall fully indemnify and keep indemnified Mincad,
its officers, employees and agents, against any loss, costs, expenses, demands, taxes or
liability whether direct or indirect arising out of:
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Background
HIPAVE (Heavy Industrial PAVEment design) is an outgrowth of CIRCLY and APSDS
(Airport Pavement Structural Design System).
HIPAVE takes account of vehicle wander at a more fundamental level than earlier methods
of treating wander. Vehicle wander is the statistical variation of the paths taken by
successive vehicle movements relative to lane centrelines. Increased wander reduces
pavement damage by different amounts that depend upon pavement thickness.
Previous methods for structural design of container terminal pavements such as the British
Ports Association guide (3rd edition, 1996) were developed prior to personal computers
being commonplace. Therefore simplifying assumptions were necessary for manual
calculation. For example the "equivalent thickness" concept was used to accommodate
materials and properties not covered by the design charts. The variety of vehicle types and
traffic levels were approximated by "Equivalent" wheel loads and "wheel proximity factors".
These simplifying approximations are no longer justified now that personal computers are
commonly available.
HIPAVE has a user-friendly menu-driven interface that runs under Microsoft Windows.
Databases are used for material properties and loadings, thus eliminating the need to
constantly re-key information. Results can be obtained in tabular form or as report-quality
plots on any printer or plotter supported by Microsoft Windows. Results can be easily
exported to other application packages such as spreadsheets for further processing.
10 HIPAVE User Manual
As well as the usual isotropic properties, cross-anisotropic material properties can also be
considered. A cross-anisotropic material is assumed to have a vertical axis of symmetry.
Anisotropies of this type have been observed in soil and rock deposits due to processes
involved in their formation. The interfaces between the layers can be either fully continuous
(rough) or fully frictionless (smooth), or a combination of both types.
In practice, loads may be applied to soil or rock pavement layers in the form of vertical wheel
loads, horizontal wheel loads due to traction and braking, torsional wheel loads due to
cornering, and the "gripping" load developed by pneumatic tyres on pavements. The
program allows all of these load types to be simulated for a circular loaded shape. HIPAVE
can also model non-uniform contact stress distributions.
HIPAVE is based on integral transform techniques and offers significant advantages over
other linear elastic analysis techniques, such as the finite element method. Input data for the
program is much simpler than that required for most finite element programs. For most
problems the program uses less computer time than a finite element program.
This Australian designed system has been developed by the Melbourne company, MINCAD
Systems. The program on which it is based, CIRCLY, has been in regular use in Australia
and worldwide for more than two decades, proving its worth in thousands of design
applications. CIRCLY was first released in 1977 and handled polynomial type radial
variations in contact stress and multiple loads which provide a much closer representation of
the actual loading conditions (Wardle 1977).
CIRCLY was commercialised in 1988 by MINCAD Systems. A limited release of the first
Windows version (Version 2.4) was made in early 1996. CIRCLY 3.0 was released in late
1996 and included many improvements, including a major re-write of the integration
algorithms and automatic sub-layer generation for granular materials. CIRCLY 4.0 was
released in early 1999 and extended the software to include an automatic thickness design
capability. CIRCLY 5.0 was released in early 2004.
While CIRCLY and APSDS have been used very successfully for heavy duty industrial
pavements, unwieldy data input makes it very difficult to model more than one or two
payloads per vehicle. HIPAVE has been designed to conveniently handle comprehensive
details of the freight handling vehicles and the characteristics of the payload distribution for
each vehicle. The wander algorithm that is used in HIPAVE was first released in APSDS 3.0
in 1995 (Wardle and Rodway, 1998). HIPAVE incorporates all the features of CIRCLY 5.0.
Commencing in 2004, MINCAD Systems has released a number of trial versions of HIPAVE.
HIPAVE 5.0 was commercially released in September 2005.
In 2007 Mincad Systems and Pioneer Road Services released the Heavy Duty Industrial
Pavement Design Guide (Mincad Systems and Pioneer Road Services, 2007).
The Guide has been developed to assist users of the HIPAVE software. The Guide is a
collaborative effort currently involving Dr. Leigh Wardle of Mincad Systems, Ian Rickards
(Pioneer Road Services Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia), John Lancaster (VicRoads, Australia)
and Dr. Susan Tighe (Dept. Civil Engineering, University of Waterloo, Canada).
Chapter 1 Introduction 11
The Guide presents the author’s attempts to reflect best practice in the design of new
construction and rehabilitation of industrial pavements. The Guide steers the designer
through all necessary design considerations and suggests external sources for research
updates.
The Guide is a ‘living document’ that will be regularly updated to reflect advances in
pavement technology and made freely available via the Internet at no charge.
Although HIPAVE can produce what appear to be very accurate solutions to problems, the
predictions cannot be any more reliable than indicated by the degree of scatter given by the
back-analysis of the full-scale field tests against which HIPAVE has been 'calibrated'.
Care must be taken to ensure that the sophistication of the analysis method is consistent
with the quality of the input data. Otherwise so many assumptions must be made about the
uncertain parameters that the model predictions will be meaningless.
The following Sections summarize the "state of the art" with respect to modelling of heavy
loads such as container handling equipment and the behaviour of pavement materials. Much
of this knowledge has been derived from airport pavement research.
More detailed advice is given in the Heavy Duty Industrial Pavement Design Guide (Mincad
Systems and Pioneer Road Services, 2007). For further details see
http://www.mincad.com.au/hdipdg/.
12 HIPAVE User Manual
Material Modelling
HIPAVE is an open system that will accommodate material properties and transfer functions
for any pavement design methodology. But research has shown that highway pavement
design methods such as Austroads (1992, 2004) are not applicable to the higher loadings
typically applied to heavy duty pavements used at ports and container terminals (Wardle et
al., 2003).
Because each failure criterion is derived in the context of its own detailed design procedure,
it will only produce sensible pavement designs when used as part of that same procedure. If
a failure criterion is used in conjunction with a different design procedure, the vital empirical
link between the design and the original performance data used to calibrate the criterion is
broken. This issue is discussed in more detail by Wardle et al. (2003).
The material performance characteristics recommended for use in HIPAVE are based on
calibrations developed from airport pavement research. There are a number of differences
to the Austroads pavement model:
Basecourse, sub-base and subgrade are assumed to be isotropic (Austroads assumes
anisotropic);
A different methodology (Barker and Brabston, 1975) is used to sublayer the basecourse
and sub-base.
A preferred subgrade performance relationship for heavy duty pavements was developed by
Wardle et al. (2001). This performance relationship was established by calibrating pavement
designs using APSDS against designs based on the US Army Corps of Engineers CBR
method (Method S77-1, Pereira 1977). The relationship was developed using a range of
different aircraft with masses varying from 40 tonnes to 397 tonnes and subgrade strengths
varying from CBR = 3% to CBR = 15%.
The subgrade strains are converted to damage using a performance relationship of the form:
b
⎡k ⎤
N=⎢ ⎥
⎣ε ⎦
Chapter 1 Introduction 13
k is a material constant
The parameters k and b vary with subgrade modulus (E) in units of MPa as given by the
following:
APSDS has been used to study multiple gear interaction effects for a Boeing 747 and 777
aircraft using a range of alternative damage models (Rodway 1995a, Wardle and Rodway
1998, Rodway, Wardle and Wickham 1999). Results from these studies show that the
successful calibration of simplified design models against the full-scale test data does not
create a capability to confidently extrapolate beyond the limits of the test data. The studies
showed that simple damage models give unrealistic predictions for the damage caused by all
sixteen main wheels of the aircraft when compared to that computed for a single isolated 4-
wheel gear. Three different performance models, each of which gave a similar 'goodness of
fit' to the full-scale test data, gave greatly different predictions of the damage caused by the
interactions of the sixteen main wheels. The differences between the alternative predictions
increased with increasing depth to subgrade.
Given the above comments, as a general rule only groups of wheels that are within 2 metres
of each other should be modelled as a single load case. For example, the most appropriate
way of modelling a Fork Lift is described in Coordinate System for Vehicles (on page 22).
CHAPTER 2
Overview
HIPAVE has many features to facilitate pavement analysis and design.
The following example illustrates the concepts. Here there are two vehicle models, A and B.
Each vehicle model is assigned a payload distribution.
8000
7000
6000
5000
Count
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2.5 4 6 8.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5
Payload (tonnes)
8000
7000
6000
5000
Count
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2.5 4 6 8.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5
Payload (tonnes)
16 HIPAVE User Manual
The damage factor for any given loading is defined as the number of repetitions (n) of a
given response parameter divided by the ‘allowable’ repetitions (N) of the response
parameter that would cause failure:
n
CDF =
N
The Cumulative Damage Factor (CDF) for the parameter is given by summing the damage
factors over all the loadings in the traffic spectrum:
M Nk
CDFtotal = ∑ ∑ CDFkj
k =1 j =1
where:
k is summed over M vehicle models
Nk is the number of different payloads for vehicle model no. k
The system is presumed to have reached its design life when the cumulative damage
reaches 1.0. If the cumulative damage is less than 1.0 the system has excess capacity and
the cumulative damage represents the proportion of life consumed. If the cumulative
damage is greater than 1.0 the system is predicted to ‘fail’ before all of the design traffic has
been applied.
HIPAVE does a full spectral analysis of pavement damage by using the cumulative damage
concept to sum the damage from multiple vehicle models and payload cases for one set of
layered system material properties. The figure below is a sample cumulative damage plot
produced by HIPAVE:
Note that there is a data point for each combination of vehicle model and payload.
HIPAVE can also generate graphs that show the variation of the damage factor across the
pavement, as shown below:
18 HIPAVE User Manual
Material Performance
Generally most performance models may be represented graphically by a plot of tolerable
strain versus load repetitions (generally by a straight line of 'best fit' on a log-log plot).
HIPAVE usually represents models in the form:
b
⎡k ⎤
N=⎢ ⎥
⎣ε ⎦
k is a material constant
log10 ( N) = k − b ε
HIPAVE is supplied with a comprehensive range of published performance models. You can
use your own performance equations by specifying values for ‘k’ and ‘b’ and the particular
component to be used, for example vertical strain, vertical deflection, maximum tensile strain,
etc.
Chapter 2 Overview 19
We encourage all users to send us vehicle specifications for inclusion in the standard vehicle
library. In designing HIPAVE account has been taken of a number of important issues
relating to the definition of vehicle loading characteristics. Most importantly, a critical issue is
choosing the optimum number of wheels to use in the model - a benefit of of the Standard
Vehicle Library is that it takes the worry out of selecting which wheels to model. You will also
save time by not having to seek vehicle specifications from manufacturers or facility
operators. Of course, you can define your own vehicle models directly in HIPAVE.
In this case, the vehicle loading characteristics are specified in terms of two load cases that
express the axle loads as a function of Container Weight. For example this could be the
Unladen case together with one specific Container Weight.
The graph below illustrates the concept. Axle loads for other container weights are obtained
automatically by linear interpolation.
If you now click on the Load Components and Locations tab, you will see more details for the
currently selected Vehicle Model:
If you now click on the Load Components and Locations tab, you will see more details for the
currently selected Vehicle Model:
The Figure below illustrates the convention used to define the wheel locations. This example
is for a Hyster Fork Lift -Model H40.00-16CH. HIPAVE will normally model the two axle
loadings as separate components, with the front axle (assumed to be on Y=0) as component
1 and the rear axle as component 2. Modelling the two axles as separate components
means that the two axles are modelled as two separate load cases, i.e. there is no
interaction between axle loads.
Usually it is only necessary to model the wheels on one side (X ≥ 0) of the vehicle.
24 HIPAVE User Manual
The damage that a given point in the pavement will experience during the passage of a
multiple axle primarily depends on the depth below surface. The two extremes of behaviour
are—
multiple distinct pulses resulting from each axle, for shallow depths; and
a single pulse that reflects the overall loading on the axle group, for large depths.
HIPAVE lets you specify the method to be used to calculate the damage.
For shallow pavement depths compared to axle spacing one ‘pulse per axle’ is selected.
HIPAVE then computes the damage beneath that axle due to the strain contributions for all
wheels of the vehicle, then multiplies the computed damage by the number of axle rows (i.e.
the number of axles seen from one side of the vehicle).
HIPAVE relies on you specifying one set of axles at Y=0 [see Convention used to define
wheel locations (on page 23)].
However, for large depths relative to the axle spacing the maximum strain will generally
occur under the centroid of the gear. In this case you specify 'combined pulse for gear' and
HIPAVE will automatically shift the load coordinates so that the origin is at the centroid of the
gear as shown on Automatic shift of Y-coordinates for 'combined pulse for gear' case
(on page 25). HIPAVE then computes the damage pulse beneath the centroid of the gear
due to the strain contributions for all wheels of the vehicle, and ignores the number of axles
in the group.
Between these two extremes the pulses resulting from each axle overlap making the
calculation of damage problematic. Recently the ‘reservoir’ method, as used in bridge design
to handle complex loadings, was implemented in a prototype version of this software to
overcome this problem and to ensure a smooth transition between the two extremes. But
this method is not currently available.
Chapter 2 Overview 25
Figure 1: Automatic shift of Y-coordinates for ‘combined pulse for gear’ case
It is your decision whether the pavement is relatively deep or shallow compared the axle
spacing. HIPAVE automatically shifts the position of the load coordinates if you specify
'combined pulse for gear'.
Container weight distribution for 40 foot containers based on data provided by UK ports
(British Ports Association 1996).
The container weight distributions are categorized as being "Standard" or "Custom". The
"Standard" distribution feature lets you re-use a particular distribution across a range of
vehicle models and projects. HIPAVE includes the "Standard" distributions provided by
British Ports Association (1996). The "Custom" distribution is used for just one traffic
spectrum / vehicle model combination.
In the Austroads pavement design method (1992 and 2004) cross-anisotropic properties are
used for subgrade materials and unbound granular aggregates and isotropic properties are
used for bound materials such as asphalt and cemented materials.
The moduli and Poisson's ratios are related by the following equation:
νvh/Ev = νhv/Eh
The condition that the strain energy must be positive imposes restrictions on the values of
the elastic constants:
To be able to model a cross-anisotropic material you need to specify five constants: the
vertical Elastic modulus (Ev), the horizontal Elastic modulus (Eh), the Poisson’s ratio (νvh), the
Poisson’s ratio (νh) and the Shear modulus (f).
The Austroads Pavement Design Guide uses the following simplifications to model subgrade
and unbound granular materials:
Eh = 0.5 Ev
νvh = νh = ν
f = Ev/(1+ν)
In this case, the material is defined simply by the vertical Elastic modulus, Ev, and a single
Poisson's ratio, ν.
For isotropic materials, only the Elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio need to be entered, as
they are assumed to be the same in all directions.
Cost Calculation
The unit costs for the materials laid and constructed in the layers can be specified using a
combination of both a volumetric (or weight) component and an areal component. The areal
component lets you take account of costs that are primarily a function of area, such as
surface treatments, subgrade stabilization and the like. The areal component can also be
used in circumstances where the relationship between total layer cost and thickness has a
non-zero component for zero thickness.
Chapter 2 Overview 29
By combining Automatic Parametric Analysis with the Cost Analysis feature you can fine-
tune layer thicknesses to optimise construction cost.
CHAPTER 3
Introduction
HIPAVE has a standard format Microsoft Windows menu, but most commands can be
accessed directly from the toolbar as shown below:
32 HIPAVE User Manual
Jobname.cls HIPAVE data file— this is used to save the details of your job.
All of these files are text files that can be opened by standard text editors.
Three icons on the toolbar allow you to create, open and save job files.
Icon Description
Closes the current job, prompting you to save any changes; then creates
a new job.
Closes the current job, prompting you to save any changes; then opens
an existing job.
You can also save your job under a different name by clicking on the File Menu, then clicking
Save As.
Database Approach
Some of the input data items are entered using very simple input forms. Most of the input
data is handled using a relational database approach. This is designed to eliminate re-entry
of data for design loads and material properties. You can tailor each of the databases to
contain specific sets of regularly used data.
The relational database approach gives maximum flexibility in data preparation. For
example, the data for a commonly used material need only be entered into the system once.
If this data is subsequently modified, all Layered systems that use that material and
subsequently all Jobs that use those layered systems will automatically access the modified
material properties.
Run Analysis
This invokes the analysis. During a long analysis you can switch to another application
(HIPAVE will continue to run at a lower priority using Microsoft Windows multi-tasking).
Plot Results
Usually, this command will produce a graph of the damage contribution from each vehicle
type and the overall total (damage contribution from all the traffic). This graph option shows
the variation of the CDF as a function of X, the distance from the centreline of the pavement
(i.e. X=0 corresponds the centrelines of the vehicles). Optionally you can graph the maximum
CDF as a function of Payload.
Options
The Options screen allows specification of the following folder:
location for all data files
(Defaults to the sub-folder, "data", in the folder in which HIPAVE has been installed.)
35
CHAPTER 4
When the analysis starts you will see a blue "progress bar" at the bottom left corner of the
screen.
When the analysis is complete the results for the damage factor (CDF) will be transferred to
the top table on the screen, as shown below.
Chapter 4 How to Start Using HIPAVE 37
38 HIPAVE User Manual
This graph option shows the variation of the CDF for the Subgrade as a function of X, the
distance from the centreline of the pavement (i.e. X=0 corresponds the centrelines of the
vehicles). Note that the results for the different payloads have been aggregated.
Optionally you can graph the maximum CDF as a function of Payload. Click on the Plot Type
combo box then click on CDF vs. Payload.
Chapter 4 How to Start Using HIPAVE 39
This graph option shows the maximum CDF for each Vehicle Model and Payload.
40 HIPAVE User Manual
As can be seen from the graph there is one result point for each combination of vehicle
model and payload.
The two graphs give results for the subgrade layer. You can switch to the CDF for the
asphalt layer by clicking on the combo box in the top left-hand corner.
You can print a copy of the chart by clicking on the Print icon on the toolbar.
You can also copy the graph to the clipboard and then paste into another application such as
Microsoft Word or Powerpoint. You do this via the context-sensitive graph menu that drops
down when you right click with the mouse pointer anywhere on the graph as shown below:
Chapter 4 How to Start Using HIPAVE 41
Then click on 'Export Dialog'. The 'Export Dialog' lets you export to a variety of formats, but
for most purposes select 'Metafile' to ensure that the graphics are scalable.
42 HIPAVE User Manual
The X-axis is usually taken as the direction transverse to the direction of vehicle travel. The
Y-axis is then parallel to the direction of vehicle travel.
Two alternative formats are available for specifying the points to be used for results
calculation:
An array of equally spaced points along a line parallel to the X-axis;
A grid of points with uniform spacing in both the X-direction and the Y-direction.
Chapter 4 How to Start Using HIPAVE 43
Direction of Travel
X
0
Results points
Ymax Y
Ydel
Ymin
X
0
CHAPTER 5
Overview
HIPAVE offers a number of calculation options. Normally, you will calculate the damage
factors (CDF) for your pavement. You can automatically determine the optimum thickness of
a given layer. Alternatively, you can calculate results for any given displacement, stress or
strain component at selected Z-values (depths below the pavement surface).
3
46 HIPAVE User Manual
2 This table is a summary of the layered system including material titles and current
thicknesses. Also the current Cumulative Damage Factors (CDFs) will be shown if the
problem has been run previously. The current thickness of any layer can be changed from
this screen.
3 This table is a summary of the properties for those layers that have a performance
criterion.
Here the Traffic Multipliers are multipliers that are used in Equivalent Single Axle
(ESA) calculations (as described in the Austroads Pavement Design Guide, 1992, Section
7.5). These multipliers are necessary to take account of the material type and the actual
traffic mix. The multipliers are simply used to increase the ESA count (in the 'Movements'
field) that is specified in the Traffic Spectrum screen.
Traffic Multipliers are a consequence of the Equivalent Standard Axle approach and would
not generally be used for heavy duty pavements.
Chapter 5 Alternative Calculation Options 47
1 The thickness design capability is invoked by clicking on the checkbox that is labelled
'Design thickness of layer highlighted below'.
2 You select the layer you wish to design by moving the mouse pointer to the
appropriate layer and clicking the mouse button once. The layer selected will be highlighted
in blue.
3 By default, the design will use the maximum damage factor (CDFmax) from all the
layers that have a performance criterion. The design involves bringing the maximum
damage factor to 1.0 by varying the thickness of the highlighted layer.
3
48 HIPAVE User Manual
Minimum and maximum thicknesses can be specified for each layer, or these fields can be
left blank, so that no constraints are applied. If a specified maximum or minimum thickness
limit prevents attainment of a CDF of 1.0, the CDF for the thickness limit will be computed.
2
3
4
5
6
Chapter 5 Alternative Calculation Options 49
1 This option is invoked by clicking the button that is labelled 'Calculate selected results
at user-defined Z-values'.
2 You can choose the component that is to be plotted by first clicking on the
'Component type' tab. You can then define the component type (e.g. displacement, strain
etc.) by clicking on the down arrow on the right hand side of the 'component type' combo
box. This will invoke this drop down list:
3 The actual component (e.g., vertical, etc.) is specified by clicking on the down arrow
on the right hand side of the 'Component' combo box. A drop down list of alternatives will
appear:
4 Now you can define the Z-values. Each Z-value is added by clicking the New button
6.
You can delete any entry by clicking on it and then clicking the Delete button.
5 When a Z-value coincides with the interface between two layers, you can specify
which side of the interface is to be used (i.e. above the interface, or below the interface).
51
CHAPTER 6
Cost Calculation
Total Cost
Material Costs
The unit costs for the layers can be specified using a combination of both a volumetric (or
weight) component and an areal component. The areal component lets you take account of
costs that are primarily a function of area such as surface treatments, subgrade stabilization,
etc. The areal component can also be used in circumstances where the relationship
between total layer cost and thickness has a non-zero component for zero thickness.
Total Cost (layer no. i) ($/m2) = Unit Volumetric Cost (layer no. i) ($/m3) x Thickness (layer no. i) (mm) +
Unit Areal Cost (layer no. i) ($/m2)
1 Click to switch on Parametric Analysis. This will bring up the following form:
1 This combo box lets you specify the number of Independent Variables (i.e. the number of
Layers for which you are varying the thickness):
1. One Independent Variable, or
2. Two Independent Variables.
2 This section gives the details of the first Independent Variable.
3 This lets you choose which layer (thickness) is to be used as the first Independent
Variable.
4 Here you specify the range of thicknesses to be used for that layer:
The thickness will range from T1minimum to T1maximum in steps of T1step.
54 HIPAVE User Manual
To use two Independent Variables, click the combo box ( 1 on the screenshot below).
2 This section gives the additional details for the second Independent Variable
3 Here you specify which layer (thickness) is to be used as the second Independent Variable
4 Here you specify the range of thicknesses to be used for that layer:
The thickness will range from T2minimum to T2maximum in steps of T2step.
Example—Cost Optimization
In this example you will use the Automatic Parametric Analysis feature to automatically loop
through a range of thicknesses for one layer (Layer 3) and to determine which thickness has
the minimum Total Cost. For each Layer 3 thickness, you will get HIPAVE to automatically
design the thickness of Layer 2.
Step 1.
Open the sample file "Example for Cost Optimization".
Chapter 6 How to Use Advanced Features 55
Step 2.
2 Click the Parametric Analysis check-box. This will bring up the following form:
1 This combo box lets you specify the number of Independent Variables (i.e. the number of
Layers for which you are varying the thickness).
For this example you will use the default, One Independent Variable.
2 This section gives the details of the Independent Variable, the thickness of Layer 3.
3 This lets you choose which layer (thickness) is to be used as the first Independent
Variable.
For this example change this to "3". (as you are varying the thickness of Layer 3).
4 Here you specify the range of thicknesses to be used for Layer 3:
For this example, you will let Layer 3 vary in thickness from 700 mm to 1200 mm in steps
of 100 mm.
56 HIPAVE User Manual
Step 3.
Now set the automatic thickness design feature to Layer 2.
Click on the "Summary" tab (left of the "Variables" tab).
This plot shows the Minimum Total Cost condition for Layer 3 thickness is 220 mm (to a
resolution of 100 mm).
Step 5- Plot the CDF (for Layer 4, Subgrade) vs. Layer 3 thickness.
Click on the Parameter combo box.
Step 6- Plot the CDF (for Layer 1, Asphalt) vs. Layer 3 thickness.
Select CDF (Select Layer =>).
Click on the Layer combo box.
Select Asphalt- 3000 MPa, VB=11% (This is Layer No. 1).
Step 7- Plot the Layer 2 thickness (Design Layer) vs. Layer 3 thickness.
Click on the Parameter combo box.
Select Thickness (Layer used for Thickness Design).
Chapter 6 How to Use Advanced Features 59
60 HIPAVE User Manual
Further refinement.
So far we have used Layer 3 thicknesses that are multiples of 100 mm, at this resolution the
minimum Total Cost is given by Layer 3 thickness = 900 mm.
To refine this thickness we re-run the Parametric Analysis letting Layer 3 vary in thickness
from 800 mm to 1000 mm in steps of 20 mm. As shown this Total Cost graph, the minimum
Total Cost is given by Layer 3 thickness = 920 mm.
61
CHAPTER 7
Introduction
Units
In order for HIPAVE to deliver coherent results, all data must use this system of units:
Quantity Units
Length, mm
Displacement
Weight tonne
Force N
Moment N.mm
Strain mm/mm
62 HIPAVE User Manual
Sign Convention
Compressive direct stresses and strains are considered to be positive. Positive shear
stresses are defined on the basis that both the stress and strain tensors obey the right hand
rule. Displacements in negative coordinate directions are considered to be positive. Hence
a load causing a positive stress acts in the positive coordinate direction. The sign
conventions used in the rectangular coordinate system and cylindrical local coordinate
system are illustrated below.
The Figure below illustrates the relational database concept for the elastic material
properties. Here, each of the components that make up a Layered System is linked to
entries in the Elastic Material Properties database via an ID (index) field of up to 20
characters.
A similar hierarchy applies for the Traffic database. Each load group referenced by the
Traffic Spectrum is linked to a record in the Load Group data.
Worked examples in the following sections show how you can create new data.
Layer No. 1
Layer No. 2
Layer No. NL
∞
Rough rigid Smooth rigid Semi-infinite
base base base
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 65
In the Austroads pavement design method (1992 and 2004) cross-anisotropic properties are
used for subgrade materials and unbound granular aggregates and isotropic properties are
used for bound materials such as asphalt and cemented materials.
The moduli and Poisson's ratios are related by the following equation:
νvh/Ev = νhv/Eh
The condition that the strain energy must be positive imposes restrictions on the values of
the elastic constants:
To be able to model a cross-anisotropic material you need to specify five constants: the
vertical Elastic modulus (Ev), the horizontal Elastic modulus (Eh), the Poisson’s ratio (νvh), the
Poisson’s ratio (νh) and the Shear modulus (f).
The Austroads Pavement Design Guide uses the following simplifications to model subgrade
and unbound granular materials:
Eh = 0.5 Ev
νvh = νh = ν
f = Ev/(1+ν)
In this case, the material is defined simply by the vertical Elastic modulus, Ev, and a single
Poisson's ratio, ν.
For isotropic materials, only the Elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio need to be entered, as
they are assumed to be the same in all directions.
Click on the New button. A dialog box will appear as shown below. You should now type in
your ID (index) field of up to 20 characters and a descriptive title (up to 72 characters). For
this example you can type in 'MyLayers' as the ID and 'Example of creating a new Layered
System' as the Title. Click the OK button.
Now you can define the details of the layers in your layered system.
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 67
Click on the New button. A pop-up list will appear, as shown below.
You will now choose the Material Type. To select the Material Type, click on the appropriate
line then click the OK button.
A list of available materials will now appear. Select the required material by clicking on the
appropriate line, then click on the OK button.
A new record will be added at the bottom of the table and the cursor will be positioned in the
Thickness column. Enter the layer thickness. You repeat this process to add as many layers
as you require. The subgrade will extend to an infinite depth if you enter the thickness
as 0.0.
As explained in Overview of Layered System and Material Properties, interfaces between the
layers can be either fully continuous (rough) or fully frictionless (smooth), or a combination of
both types. You can specify any interfaces as fully frictionless.
1
68 HIPAVE User Manual
1 By default, all interfaces are assumed to be rough. You can change the condition for
the interface at the bottom of a given layer by clicking in the 'Interface Type' cell. You can
then click on the down arrow at the right of the cell to select a 'Smooth' interface. Note that
for a semi-infinite subgrade both 'Rough' and 'Smooth' are equivalent.
Move the blue highlight to the Layered System that you want to duplicate:
Then click the Duplicate button. You will then see a form that will let you define the ID and
Title of the newly duplicated Layered System:
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 69
The ID and Title that are provided are based on the original Layered System - make sure that
you modify the Title.
After you click the OK button you will be taken to the Layered System Components table so
that you can make your changes.
You now choose the material type to be used. Click on the material type combo box as
shown below to select from the available material types. Click on 'Subgrade (Austroads
2004)' for the Material Type.
Click on the New button. A dialog box will appear, as shown below. You should now type in
your ID (index) field of up to 20 characters. As you can see from the example below, the ID
is used to sort the data. For this example, you can type in 'Sub_CBR2.5'. Type in
'Subgrade, CBR=2.5' for the Title. Click the OK button.
70 HIPAVE User Manual
A new record will be added to the table. Select 'Anisotropic' in the column headed 'Aniso?'.
Then type in the moduli and Poisson's ratios as follows:
Ev = 25.0
νvh = νh = 0.45 (= ν)
f = 17.24 (= Ev/(1+ν))
b
⎡k ⎤
N=⎢ ⎥
⎣ε ⎦ (1)
k is a material constant
log10 ( N) = k − b ε
(2)
Equation (1) is called a Standard Damage Relationship Type and Equation (2) is called a
Log-Linear Damage Relationship Type.
Before you add a new Performance Criterion you need to choose the appropriate Material
Type. For each Material Type, all Performance Criteria use the same Damage Relationship
Type.
5
⎡ 6918(0.856 V + 1.08) ⎤
N = RF ⎢ B ⎥
⎢ S 0.36 µe ⎥
⎣ mix ⎦
For this example, assume VB = 12.9 and Smix = 1600 MPa, so that the above equation
simplifies to:
N = [ 5889 / µε]5
You now choose the material type to be used. Click on the material type combo box (as
shown on the first screenshot in Adding a new Elastic Material (on page 69)) to select from
the available material types. For this example click on 'Asphalt'.
Click on the New button. Now type in your ID (index) field of up to 10 characters and the
Title (up to 72 characters). For this example type in 'Asph1600' for the ID. Type in 'Asphalt-
1600 MPa, Vb=12.9%' for the Title. Click the OK button.
A record will be added to the table and you can type in the relevant data as follows:
Here you specify the particular displacement, stress or strain component to be used. You
can select the component from a dropdown list by clicking on the button. If there are
more entries than will fit in the listbox, there will be a slider bar on the right hand side. You
can move down the list by clicking on the down arrow or by dragging the slider down. For
this example select the ‘Max. Horizontal Tensile Strain’ (maximum horizontal tensile strain).
The Location field defines the location (relative to a layer of this material) at which the
criterion is to be applied. Click on the button to choose between ‘Top’ and ‘Bottom’. For
this example Location should be 'Bottom'.
The entries for the remaining two parameters define the fatigue relationship N = [5889 / µε]5.
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 73
Note carefully that strains in HIPAVE must be specified in dimensionless units (i.e.,
length/length, mm/mm). As HIPAVE assumes that the fatigue relationship is of the form N =
[k / ε]b , the parameter µ (micro) must be replaced by 10-6 giving:
N = [k / ε]b
The new record should be identical to the bottom row in the figure below:
You now choose the material type to be used. Click on the material type combo box (as
shown below) to select Cemented (Log-Linear) from the available material types.
Click on the New button. Now type in your ID (index) field of up to 20 characters and the Title
(up to 72 characters). For this example type in 'CTB15000' for the ID. Type in 'CTB,
E=15000MPa' for the Title. Click the OK button.
A record will be added to the table and you can type in the relevant data as follows:
74 HIPAVE User Manual
k = 10
b = 80000
The relevant strain component that is to be used is the maximum horizontal tensile strain at the
base (bottom) of the layer.
Note: Equation (2) expresses the strain component as a unitless (i.e. length/length, mm/mm)
quantity. If you are converting from an expression that uses microstrain, b must be adjusted
appropriately.
Move to the Component field by clicking on it or using the tab key. The screen should now
look like this (the black highlight is on the new entry):
Here you specify the particular strain or stress component to be used (in this example it will
be the maximum horizontal tensile strain. You select the component from the drop-down list by
clicking on the button. If there are more entries than will fit in the list box there will be a
slider bar on the right hand side. You can move down the list by clicking on the down arrow
or by dragging the slider down.
The location field defines the location (relative to a layer of this material) at which the
relationship is to be applied.
You can add new material types. To add a new material type, Click on the button.
Click New to create a new entry. A dialog box will now appear and you can enter the ID
(index) field of up to 20 characters and Title field (up to 72 characters). Click the OK button.
You will now choose the Generic Material Type for your new Material Type:
You will now be given an opportunity to select a Sub-Layering scheme. To select a Sub-
Layering scheme, click the checkbox next to ‘use sub-layering’, then click on the appropriate
sub-layering scheme. Click on the OK button.
76 HIPAVE User Manual
Introduction
Seven inter-related databases are used for the Traffic data. The databases form a hierarchy:
Traffic Spectrum;
Traffic Spectrum Components;
Load Groups;
Load Group Components;
Load Locations;
Payload Distributions;
Payload Distribution Components.
Depending on whether or not the components you need already exist, the steps required are
described in the following sub-sections.
Vehicle Specifications
The HIPAVE vehicle library consists of so-called "Standard" vehicle specifications that are
provided by Mincad Systems and "Custom" vehicles that you can define.
You can browse by clicking on the Type and Manufacturer combo boxes.
To see the specifications for any listed vehicle click on that row, then click on the Load
Components and Locations tab.
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 77
To do this, click on the icon. You will then see a status screen like the one below.
The status screen shows the number of Vehicle records that have been imported/updated.
But if required, here are details on how you define your own vehicle models directly:
Make sure you make the correct choices for the Type and Manufacturer combo boxes, as
shown below:
Contact Mincad Systems for a Library Update if the combination of Type and Manufacturer that
you want to use is not available.
The remaining details depend on the vehicle type, i.e. Fork Lift or Straddle Carrier.
78 HIPAVE User Manual
For this example you can type in 'HysterHxyz' as the ID and 'Hyster Hxyz' as the Title. Click
the OK button.
Now click on the Load Components and Locations tab. This will bring up a form that lets you
specify the axle load characteristics and wheel positions.
The axle load versus payload characterstics are illustrated by the following graph:
Assuming the tyre pressure is 0.9 MPa for all tyres, after you enter the axle load
characteristics the screen will look like this:
80 HIPAVE User Manual
You can now add the Wheel Locations. Usually we only model one side of the vehicle.
Click the New button to add each wheel. After adding the 2 wheels on the Front Axle
(Component No. 1) and the one wheel on the Rear Axle (Component No. 2), the Wheel
Locations table will look like this:
For this example you can type in 'KalmESCxyz' as the ID and 'Kalmar ESCxyz (fictitious)' as
the Title. Click the OK button.
Now click on the Load Components and Locations tab. This will bring up a form that lets you
specify the axle load characteristics and wheel positions.
Vehicles such as straddle carriers are assumed to have equal loads on each axle. In this
case the vehicle loading characteristics are specified in terms of the unladen weight of the
vehicle, the number of axle rows (i.e. the number of axles seen from one side of the vehicle),
the total number of wheels on the vehicle and the tyre pressure.
After you enter these axle load characteristics the screen will look like this:
Usually we only model one axle and only one side of the axle.
Click the New button to add the wheel details. After adding the one wheel, the Wheel Locations
table will look like this:
82 HIPAVE User Manual
Traffic Spectrums
HIPAVE is designed to let you conveniently specify a Traffic Spectrum in terms of a mix of
different vehicle models. For each vehicle in the spectrum you specify the number of
movements and the payload distribution. For each load case the wheel loads are
automatically calculated from the vehicle characteristics and the payload.
For an overview of the concepts see How HIPAVE handles Traffic Distributions (on page
15).
If the Traffic Spectrum screen is not already active, click on the button.
Click on the New button. A dialog box will appear as shown below. You should now type in
your ID (index) field of up to 20 characters and a descriptive title (up to 72 characters). For
this example you can type in 'TrafficTry' as the ID and 'Example of creating a new Traffic
Spectrum' as the Title. Click the OK button.
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 83
Click New for each vehicle model you wish to include. This will activate a pop-up list of
possible choices:
You can browse by clicking on the Type and Manufacturer combo boxes.
You can move the highlight to the vehicle that you wish to use by positioning the mouse
pointer on it and clicking once. If there are more entries than will fit in the listbox there will be
a slider bar on the right. You can move down the list by clicking on the down arrow or by
dragging the slider down. You finally select the vehicle by double clicking on it.
For this example, choose the Hyster Forklift model H40.00E-16CH. A new record will be
added at the bottom of the table and the cursor will be positioned in the Movements column.
84 HIPAVE User Manual
Enter the number of vehicle movements (or passages) over the desired design life. For this
example, enter 100,000 movements.
The Graph Label is an optional string of up to 20 characters that is appended to the Vehicle
Model Plot Label used for the Legend when plotting the results. This is useful when you
need to have more than one Spectrum Component that uses the same Vehicle Model, for
example your spectrum may include the same model twice, once with unloaded containers
and once with loaded containers.
You will now choose the Standard Payload Distribution. To select the Standard Payload
Distribution, click on the appropriate line then click the OK button.
The part of the screen that relates to the choice of Payload Distribution looks like this:
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 85
Click the Select button if you want to choose another Standard Payload Distribution.
See Standard Payload Distributions (on page 88) for details on how to create your own
standard payload distributions and how to browse the details of existing ones.
After you enter the last row of data, the screen should look like this:
86 HIPAVE User Manual
Values in the columns that are labelled Normalized Movements and Actual Movements are
calculated from the values in the Count column. The Normalized Movements are given by
normalizing the values of Count - so that the sum of the Normalized Movements values is
1.0. The Actual Movements values are scaled so that the total matches the total number of
movements (100,000 in this example) defined for the current Spectrum Component.
The absolute magnitude of the Count values is not important, as they are normalized (i.e.
scaled so that they add up to 1.0) when you run a HIPAVE analysis. This gives you a lot of
flexibility in how you define your Count values - for example they could be based on historical
data or could be simply actual movements.
The calculated columns are not updated while you type the data on a particular row - but are
updated when you press the Enter key when in the Count cell. The following screendump
shows the updated calculated columns after pressing the Enter key.
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 87
Move the blue highlight to the Traffic Spectrum that you want to duplicate:
Then click the Duplicate button. You will then see a form that will let you define the ID and
Title of the newly duplicated Traffic Spectrum:
The ID and Title that are provided are based on the original Traffic Spectrum - make sure
that you modify the Title.
After you click the OK button you will be taken to the Traffic Spectrum Components table so
that you can make your changes.
88 HIPAVE User Manual
To see the actual distribution for any entry in the list click on that row, then click on the
Distribution Details tab.
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 89
If the Payload Distributions screen is not already active, click on the button.
Click on the New button. A dialog box will appear as shown below. You should now type in
your ID (index) field of up to 20 characters and a descriptive title (up to 72 characters). For
this example you can type in 'TermXExport' as the ID and 'Terminal X - Loaded Export' as
the Title. Click the OK button.
90 HIPAVE User Manual
After you enter the last row of data, the screen should look like this:
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 91
Values in the column that is labelled Normalized Movements are calculated from the values
in the Count column. The Normalized Movements are given by normalizing the values of
Count - so that the sum of the Normalized Movements values is 1.0.
The absolute magnitude of the Count values is not important, as they are normalized (i.e.
scaled so that they add up to 1.0) when you run a HIPAVE analysis. This gives you a lot of
flexibility in how you define your Count values - for example they could be based on historical
data or could be simply actual movements.
The values in the Normalized Movements column are not updated while you type the data on
a particular row - but are updated when you press the Enter key when in the Count cell. The
following screendump shows the updated Normalized Movements column after pressing the
Enter key.
You can now use your new Standard Payload Distribution in any Traffic Spectrum,
see Creating a new Traffic Spectrum (on page 82).
92 HIPAVE User Manual
If the Traffic Spectrum screen is not already active, click on the button.
To use Dynamic Load Factors, Click on the Use Dynamic Load Factors checkbox.
You will now see the current Traffic Spectrum Components. For each Component, you can
define Dynamic Load Factors for each axle, as shown below:
Chapter 7 How to Modify the Databases 93
Wander Options
If the Traffic Spectrum screen is not already active, click on the button.
The wander is assumed to follow the bell-shaped frequency distribution given by the Normal
(or Gaussian) distribution. The degree of wander is given by the Standard Deviation. Some
additional parameters define the numerical approximation used to model the effects of
Wander. Normally the default values of these can be used.
94 HIPAVE User Manual
The parameter XWDEL is used to subdivide the wander distribution. For acceptable accuracy
XWDEL must be no greater than 100 mm. The parameter XWMAX sets the limiting value used to
approximate the Normal distribution. For acceptable numerical accuracy XWMAX needs to be
2.7 times the maximum Standard Deviation of wander, or greater.
4500
XWDEL (=100 mm)
4000
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
00
00
00
00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
80
60
40
20
00
80
60
40
20
00
20
40
60
80
-8
-6
-4
-2
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
-3
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
This screen has fields for specifying the locations for which results are to be computed and
the method for treating damage pulses.
Two alternative formats are available for specifying the points to be used for results
calculation:
An array of equally spaced points along a line parallel to the x-axis; or
A grid of points with uniform spacing in both the x-direction and the y-direction.
97
CHAPTER 8
Appendices
99
References
Austroads (1992). Pavement Design – A Guide to the Structural Design of Road Pavements.
Austroads Publication No. AP-17/92.
Austroads (2004). Pavement Design - A Guide to the Structural Design of Road Pavements,
Report AP-G17/04.
British Ports Association/Interpave (1996). The Structural Design of Heavy Duty Pavements
for Ports and other Industries, 3rd ed., Interpave, Leicester.
Mincad Systems and Pioneer Road Services (2007). Heavy Duty Industrial Pavement Design
Guide. (Web: http://www.mincad.com.au/hdipdg/).
Pereira, A. T. (1977). Procedures for development of CBR design curves. Instruction Report
S-77-1, US Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.
Rodway, B. (1995a). Design Of Flexible Pavements For Large Multiwheeled Aircraft. Int.
Conf. on Road & Pavement Technology, Singapore, 27-29 September, 1995.
Rodway, B. and Wardle, L.J. (1998). Layered Elastic Design of Heavy Duty and Industrial
Pavements. Proc. AAPA Pavements Industry Conf., Surfers Paradise, Australia.
Rodway, B., Wardle, L.J. and Wickham, G. (1999). Interaction between wheels and wheel
groups of new large aircraft. Airport Technology Transfer Conference, Atlantic City, U.S.A.,
April 1999, Federal Aviation Administration.
Wardle, L.J. (1977). Program CIRCLY User’s Manual. CSIRO Australia. Division of Applied
Geomechanics, Geomechanics Computer Program. No. 2.
Wardle, L.J. (2004). Program CIRCLY Theory and Background Manual. Mincad Systems,
Australia.
Wardle, L.J. and Rodway, B. (1998). Recent Developments in Flexible Aircraft Pavement
Design using the Layered Elastic Method. Third Int. Conf. on Road and Airfield Pavement
Technology, Beijing, April 1998.
Wardle, L.J., Rodway, B. and Rickards, I. (2001). Calibration of Advanced Flexible Aircraft
Pavement Design Method to S77-1 Method. in Advancing Airfield Pavements, American
Society of Civil Engineers, 2001 Airfield Pavement Specialty Conference, Chicago, Illinois, 5-
8 August 2001 (Buttlar, W.G. and Naughton, J.E, eds.), pp. 192-201.
Wardle, L.J., Youdale, G. and Rodway, B. (2003). Current Issues For Mechanistic Pavement
Design. in 21st ARRB and 11th REAAA Conference, Cairns, Australia, 18 - 23 May, 2003,
Session S32, ARRB Transport Research.
100 HIPAVE User Manual
The location of the circular load is described by a ‘global’ coordinate system, while 'local'
coordinate systems are used to describe each of the loads. The 'global' system is
cartesian, with axes X, Y, Z. Note the use of uppercase X, Y, Z for Global coordinates and
lowercase x, y, z for Local coordinates. You can choose the origin of the 'global' coordinate
system to be any point on the upper surface of the layered system and the X and Y axes as
any two mutually perpendicular axes that lie in this horizontal plane. The Z-axis in the
positive direction is taken as vertically downwards.
Each 'local' coordinate system may be cartesian (x, y, z) or cylindrical (r, θ, z) and has its
origin at the centre of the load it describes. In terms of the 'global' coordinate system the
origin of each 'local' coordinate system is specified by Xload, Yload. For loads that are
symmetrical about a horizontal axis this axis is taken as the x-axis. The orientation of the
load is defined by the angle (θload) between the directions of the X-axis and the x-axis. For
loads that are symmetrical about their centre point the x-axis may have any orientation,
though, for convenience, it may be taken as parallel to the X-axis so that θload is then zero.
The location and orientation of a load are therefore specified by Xload, Yload and θload.