Basics Element- One single atom from the Periodic Table. In chemistry, refers to a simple substance that cannot be broken down into smaller parts or changed into another substance. Compound (‘human’)- Two or more elements bonded together (essentially everything) Molecule (‘male’)- Two or more non-metallic atoms (02, H20, CH4) lonic bonds are not molecule, they make lattices Mixture- Two or more pure substances can be: Homogeneous ‘same’: salt water, sugar water Heterogeneous ‘diff’: oil and water, dirt Composite Mixture- A combination of two materials with different physical and chemical properties. A chemical change happens when one chemical substance is transformed into one or more different substances. Either a color, temperature change or precipitation, bubbles produced. This reaction is generally irreversible Properties A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of the substance. Physical properties of matter include color, hardness, malleability, solubility, electrical conductivity, density, melting point, and boiling point. Chemical properties of matter describe its potential to undergo some chemical change or reaction by virtue of its composition. The elements, electrons, and bonds that are present give the matter potential for chemical change Separating Mixtures Filtration(hetero)- Separates an insoluble solid from a liquid. Cant happen to solubles. Crystallisation (evaporation but slower, homo)- Separates a soluble solid from a liquid Simple Distillation (homo)- Separates a liquid from a dissolved solid (boiling points) Fractional distillation- Separates two or more liquids which have different boiling points Lewis Dot Structures Lewis dot structures also called electron dot structures are diagrams that describe the chemical bonding between atoms in a molecule. They reflect the electronic structures of the elements, including how the electrons are paired. Lewis structures are a useful way to summarize certain information about bondingLewis Structure for H2C . Oxygen contains 2 non-bonding pair of electrons, resulting in a bent shape for the water molecule. This is a polar covalent bond H NH3 Lewis structure H [H__ Nitrogen contains 1 non-bondiing pair of electrons, resulting in a trigonal pyramid molecular shape. This is a polar covalent bond N H CF, Lewis Structure As all valence electrons in the central carbon are involved in paired bonds, an overall symmetrical tetrahedral shape results. This is a non-polar covalent bond. Joni Bonding se om Detntion: lone Bonang se acostatic fore ofatactn |e emo appostny cerpdoneomesty decron vance” | Nott atoms gan electon 2+ 2. 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Ean ot ‘Sense by axons one The one one we °@ ‘tocen between en esere “Typical Physical properties of Ionic Compounds “trormetng sors Thee ae sora eects atactve ces betwee Ne gooey Sapecione nie ltce ‘ete mee nents wed sa meneenet foe bnd ene id al rl re [elie eon erences a meg coseBonding and Structure Bonding Samples Ten eiecronatic force oh ‘Sodtom enone stracten betwee Nagnesum onde ‘ppostaly charged ions Covalent: shared paicot | Simple molecular: Todine icons Withimemetecr eres nevees | lee ‘pee deve, pomarentdecledipde, | Caton dori hyctogen bonds) between mawcuee | Water ‘prea ang Nehane sian (ny use he words molecule a ntormolecla forces when aking about snl melons ubsianoos Prom Gintine cer no) | Taig andmang poms [ghia cigamtatceat | or toma veut rane g Meena decrest | bomern coats leectyopeeg e Sse |Rea, 3 acs war Gey ood cemea B 3 Tenant wienvasd— paowcntnoniecam | pas alae anion ean te ‘Sauces np) : a} z Tenants | go canoe vooTom a|F poea are cama as rer) A a\e lonic bonds are electrostatically attracted, not directional, they form lattices. The strength is dependent on ion charge/size Covalent is opposite. Strength dependant on type of non metal Metallic strength dependant on cation charge/size Trends Atomic Radius- As you go down, atomic radius increases since more shells As you go right, atomic radius decreases. The stronger electromagnetic force pulling the electrons in. Atomic radius increases from top right, to bottom left. Helium is the PERIODICITY: TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE ATOMIC RADUS MELTING POINT pie Socom % IONSATION ENERGY 6080068608808888 (00000000000000smallest, whilst Francium is largest Sizes of atoms and their ions in pm scorn eT eee TS lonic Radius- “¢ Pe Tp? 9” (ge | lonic radius gauges the size of an 0 s34ls0% solar” sais WP r26hn1 x) Maggs WalNo= Wola Alls ge Sci electrically charged atom. ¢ <é 9 5410 Pas Bal I 1 aT Xena coloe" Case om Se = Largest F = Small fe ‘Smallest F = Large é RD Rb|Sr oy Se fin? in| Te lonization Energy- successive ionization energies (kJ/mol) The energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from the atom. The further away an Na Mg. P s aan electron is from the nucleus, the easier it is to 1st 1e 495 738578 oz 1,000 1251 pull it away. Complete opposite of atomic and te 145118171577 19032251 2207 2665 radius. Francium is easiest to separate whilst sraie 6912 Helium is hardest to separate. AthiE | 9543 10540 2745 3231 2912 3361 382 3931 4356 4956 456k 5188 5.770 SthIE | 13353 13,600 14890 6273 7013 6540 7,238 eth ie | to610 17995 18376 19781 Baa] 59s ose 5781 Electronegativity- reve lanai. sm 2537-En 100098 The ability of an atom to hold electrons tightly. A smaller atom like fluorine, with a higher effective nuclear charge will hold electrons best. Most Noble gasses do not form compounds, they do not have electronegativities. lonization energy and electronegativity are both related to the behavior of electrons in atoms and molecules, but they measure different aspects of electron behavior. lonization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom or ion in its gaseous state. This process is called ionization, and the energy required to ionize an atom or ion depends on the strength of the attraction between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron. Elements with higher ionization energies require more energy to remove an electron, indicating that the electrons are. more strongly bound to the nucleus. lonization energy tends to increase across a period of the periodic table and decrease down a group. Electronegativity, on the other hand, is a measure of the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond. It is a relative measure, with the most electronegativeelement, fluorine, assigned a value of 4.0 on the Pauling scale. Electronegativity tends to increase across a period of the periodic table and decrease down a group While ionization energy and electronegativity are related, they measure different aspects of electron behavior. An element with a high ionization energy will tend to have a high electronegativity because it holds its valence electrons tightly and is more likely to attract electrons from other atoms. However, there are some exceptions to this trend, particularly for elements in the d-block of the periodic table. Metals a ol C a Metals Metalloids ~Non-Metals. Transition Metals x Se |e |S St ee & a i] & i ne Characteristics of Metals: Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. They are malleable (can be made into sheets) and ductile (can be made into wire). Most of the metals are solids at room temperature. Emission of radiation or light energy by excited electrons makes a metal shiny in appearance. Bonding of Metals: Metallic bond is a type of covalent bond where the atoms in metals are held together by forces caused by the valence electrons. In metals, electrons are delocalized (detached) from the parent atom forming a type of cloud of dissociated or wandering electrons in the metal. This makes the atoms cations (positively charged). The positive nuclei and cloud of valence electrons creates a cohesive (united) force causing a lattice crystal like pattern in the arrangement of metal atoms Characteristics of Non-Metals: Nonmetals are poor conductors of heat and electricity, and are not malleable or ductile, many of the elemental nonmetals are gasses at room temperature, while others are liquids and others are solids. Non metals usually have 4,5,6 and 7 valence electrons. Metalloids: Metalloids are chemical elements whose physical and chemical properties fall in between the metal and non-metal categories Metalloids and non-metals not only form covalent bonds by sharing, but can form ionic bonds either by losing or gaining electrons. However, transition metals tend to form coordinate covalent bonds due to their smaller sizes. Orbital GeometryAufbau Principle: An electron occupies the lowest energy orbital available. The energy level diagram is used as a guide to the lowest available energy level Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. Therefore, each orbital can contain at most two electrons, each with a different spin. Hund’s Rule: Orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any one orbital is occupied by a second electron. Also, all electrons in singly occupied degenerate orbitals must have the same spin. Covalent Network/Lettuce Chemical Bond Properties sonee [irs ean) [grnegmey Jeer any | went ‘Type of Bond | Properties Example | [sci [oor = me ee Terie ‘Gases rade oo NaCl xo [el By er vertew | 2)Mh nein bang pers : 5 7 mn conto whine erdeeoasin Ho. | Sat o 1988 ih E at a 5} Genoa fond tom oppose das fh pros ‘Shien rot) ole a me vie Covalent Teen oe remeron | GQ, a a i = 5) Poo ecaeal coasters phases Cerone [ane a a = ‘ay cae nop ga rat ater = ler = ‘ow namin Polar Covalent |) Pos coset sie a acd exons — 2) Glas sach ofthe cls 8,0, and Ea janis crv matt cova ior 5) Gees eet ane oedes ERE om Metalic "7 Geo conducos at ne aac) Al 2) Bows ae ett mle ro ‘A eovalot late tone __ 5) hang poet ‘anew satiny scans she Aaneont at coat mote covalent ation © sate Covalent networks, also known as covalent network solids, are a type of chemical bonding where atoms are connected together in a three-dimensional lattice structure by covalent bonds. In a covalent network, every atom is bonded to its neighboring atoms with strong covalent bonds, resulting in a very stable and rigid structure. Covalent network solids have high melting and boiling points, are hard and rigid, and are typically poor conductors of electricity and heat. These properties are a result of the strong covalent bonds holding the atoms together in a stable and rigid structure. The main difference between covalent molecular and covalent network structures is the way the atoms are arranged and bonded together. In a covalent molecular structure, atoms are bonded together by covalent bonds to form molecules. These molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces, such as Van der Waals forces or dipole-dipole interactions. Examples of covalent molecular compounds include water (H20), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CHA). In contrast, in a covalent network structure, atoms are bonded together by strong covalent bonds to form a three-dimensional network structure. Every atom in the network is bonded to its neighboring atoms, resulting in a very stable and rigid structure. Examples of covalent network solids include diamond, silicon dioxide (quartz), and graphite.Other differences between covalent molecular and covalent network structures include their physical properties. Covalent molecular compounds tend to have lower melting and boiling points, are typically soft and malleable, and can be good conductors of electricity and heat if they have mobile electrons. Covalent network solids, on the other hand, have high melting and boiling points, are hard and rigid, and are typically poor conductors of electricity and heat. Melting/Boiling Points & Conductors Melting/Boiling Points The melting and boiling points of elements are primarily determined by the strength of the attractive forces between the atoms or molecules in a substance. The stronger the attractive forces, the higher the melting and boiling points will be There are several factors that contribute to the strength of the attractive forces in a substance, an example would be Atomic or molecular size. The larger the atoms or molecules in a substance, the more closely they can pack together, increasing the strength of the attractive forces. Compounds with stronger intermolecular forces, larger masses, and less branching will have higher boiling points. Conductivity The ability of an element to conduct electricity is primarily determined by its electronic structure and the presence of mobile charge carriers. In general, metals are good conductors of electricity because they have a unique electronic structure that allows their valence electrons to move freely through the material. Conduction in metals occurs due to the presence of a "sea" of delocalized electrons that can move freely throughout the metal lattice, When a voltage is applied to a metal, these electrons can move through the lattice, carrying electrical charge with them. This is why metals are good conductors of electricity. lonic bonds are good conductors of electricity in the molten or aqueous state, but not in the solid state. In an ionic compound, such as sodium chloride (NaCl), the positively charged ions (Na+) and negatively charged ions (Cl-) are held together by strong electrostatic forces. In the solid state, these ions are locked in place and cannot move freely, so ionic compounds are poor conductors of electricity. However, when an ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the electrostatic forces between the ions are weakened and the ions become mobile, allowing them to carry electrical charge. This is why molten NaC! and aqueous NaCI solutions can conduct electricity. Covalent bonds are not generally good conductors of electricity. This is because in a covalent bond, two atoms share electrons to complete their valence shells and form a stable molecule. The shared electrons are tightly held by both atoms and are not free to move throughout thematerial, so covalent compounds typically do not have mobile charge carriers that can conduct electricity. However, there are some exceptions to this general rule. Some covalent compounds, such as graphite and graphene, can conduct electricity due to their unique structures. a)799 2420 3660 25000 32800 b)736 1450. 7740 10500 13500 18000 21700 25600 ©) 1000 2250 3390 4540 6990 8490 27100 31700 (marks) Element a is in group 3 due to the large increase in ionisation energy (possibly Al) ‘As the s2 and 1 electron from the p atomic orbital are lost to give a noble gas configuration. Element bis in group 2 due to the large increase in ionisation energy (possibly Mg) As the £2 atomic orbital is lost to give a noble gas configuration, Element cis in group § due to the large increase tion energy (possibly S) ‘As the s2 and 4 electrons from the p atomic orbital are lost to give a noble gas configuration, Further elections must he removed from the next lower level, requiring significantly higher energy.