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Redeveloped Division Initiated Self-Learning Module

Department of Education – Division of Palawan

i
Earth and Life Science-SHS
Redeveloped Division Initiated - Self-Learning Module
Quarter 1 – Module 7: History of the Earth, Its Geologic Processes and Hazards
Second Edition, 2021

Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work
of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government
agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of
such work for profit. Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a
condition the payment of royalties.

Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in this module are owned by their respective copyright
holders. Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these
materials from their respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do not
represent nor claim ownership over them.

Published by the Department of Education, Division of Palawan

Schools Division Superintendent:
Roger F. Capa, CESO VI
OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendents:
Rufino B. Foz
Arnaldo G. Ventura

Development Team for

Development Team
Redevelopment Activity

Writer: Sheila Mae P. Ulzoron Writer: Sheila Mae P. Ulzoron

Content Editor: Liezel M. Camanga Content Editor: Jenny Loren M.
Language Editor: Kristine Hemor Echanes
Illustrator/Layout Artist: Harold D.
Management Team: Garcellano
Aurelia B. Marquez Reviewer: Jenny Loren M. Echanes
Rosalyn C. Gadiano
Rodgie S. Demalinao Management Team:
Aurelia B. Marquez
Rosalyn C. Gadiano
Rodgie S. Demalinao

Department of Education – MIMAROPA Region – Division of Palawan

Office Address: PEO Road, Barangay Bancao-Bancao, Puerto Princesa City
Telephone: (048) 433-6392
E-mail Address: palawan@deped.gov.ph
Website: www.depedpalawan.com

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Introductory Message
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our dear learners, can
continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities, questions, directions,
exercises, and discussions are carefully stated for you to understand each lesson.

Each SLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide you step-by-step
as you discover and understand the lesson prepared for you.

Pre-tests are provided to measure your prior knowledge on lessons in each SLM.
This will tell you if you need to proceed on completing this module or if you need
to ask your facilitator or your teacher’s assistance for better understanding of the
lesson. At the end of each module, you need to answer the post-test to self-
check your learning. Answer keys are provided for each activity and test. We trust
that you will be honest in using these.

In addition to the material in the main text, notes to the Teacher are also provided
to our facilitators and parents for strategies and reminders on how they can best
help you on your home-based learning.

Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks on any part of
this SLM. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises and tests. And
read the instructions carefully before performing each task

If you have any questions in using this SLM or any difficulty in answering the tasks
in this module, do not hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator.

Thank you.

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 Earth and Life History of the Earth, Its
Science
First Quarter Geologic Processes and
Week 7 Hazards

MELCs:
1. Describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to
determine the age of stratified rocks. S11/12ES-Ie-26
2. Explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the
subdivisions of geologic time. S11/12ES-Ie-27
3. Describe how the Earth’s history can be interpreted from the geologic
time scale. S11/12ES-Ie-29
4. Describe the various hazards that may happen in the event of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. S11/12ES-If-30
5. Using hazard maps, identify areas prone to hazards brought about by
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. S11/12ES-If-31
6. Describe the various hazards that may happen in the event of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. S11/12ES-If-33

Objectives:
1. Identify the different methods to determine the age of stratified rocks.
2. Describe how relative and absolute dating were used to subdivide
geologic time.
3. Explain how the Earth’s history can be interpreted from the geologic time
scale.
4. Explain the various hazards that may happen in the event of earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
5. Describe the various hazards that may happen in the event of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.

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 What I Know

Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. Which is NOT a basis of stratigraphy?

A. Principle of Verticality C. Principle of Faunal Succession
B. Principle of Superposition D. Principle of Original Horizontality

2. How the principle of original horizontality explains the ways on determining the
age of rock layers?
A. sediments are originally deposited in horizontal layers.
B. any part of previous rock layers, like a piece of stone, is older than the layer
containing it.
C. sedimentary layers or lava flows extend sideways in all directions.
D. In undisturbed rock layers, the oldest layer is at the bottom and the youngest
layer is at the top.

3. Which principle states that rock layers extend laterally and cover very broad areas,
especially if they formed at the bottom of ancient seas?
A. Principle of Faunal Succession C. Principle of Original Horizontality
B. Principle of Lateral Continuity D. Principle of Superposition
4. Which is used by geologists to help them correlate rock units?
A. Core B. Strata C. Sediments D. Texture
5. Which principle states that younger organisms replace older organism?
A. Faunal Succession C. Original Horizontality
B. Lateral Continuity D. Principle of Superposition
6. How is the age of the Earth determined?
A. Clock B. Absolute dating C. Fossils D. Relative dating
7. Which of the following is responsible for changing environments through time?
A. Plate tectonic B. Fire C. Sunlight D. Amount of rain
8. Which dating technique requires an extensive knowledge of stratigraphy?
A. Absolute dating C. Relative dating
B. Faunal dating D. Radiometric dating
9. If a sandstone in contact with a granite contains fragments of the granite, what can
you infer?
A. The sandstone and granite are of the same age.
B. The granite was intruded into the sandstone.
C. The granite is younger than the sandstone.
D. The granite is older than the sandstone.
10. Which is the largest division of geologic time?
A. Eon B. Era C. Epoch D. Period

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11. Which combination represents the Phanerozoic?
A. Cenozoic, Precambrian, Paleozoic C. Precambrian, Cenozoic, Eocene
B. Eocene, Cretaceous, Jurassic D. Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Paleozoic
12. Which dating technique uses animal bones to determine the age of
sedimentary layers and the materials embedded within those layers?
A. Absolute B. Fauna C. Relative D. Radiometric

13. Which block of geologic time spans the largest percentage of Earth’s
history?
A. Mesozoic B. Cenozoic C. Precambrian D. Paleozoic

14. Which of the following shows the correct order of period in Mesozoic era
from oldest to the most recent?
A. Cretaceous --Jurassic --Cenozoic C. Cenozoic -- Cretaceous-- Triassic
B. Jurassic --Triassic --Cretaceous D. Triassic --Jurassic -- Cretaceous
15. Which of the following is known to be the ‘’Era of Mammals’’?
A. Mesozoic B. Paleozoic C. Phanerozoic D. Cenozoic

HISTORY OF THE EARTH: DATING OF

LESSON 1
ROCKS AND GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

The history of the Earth is concerned with the development of the planet Earth
from its formation to the present day. In order to tackle Earth’s history, scientist utilize
methods to refer to the time periods in which events happened and organisms thrived.
With the information they gathered from fossil evidence and rocks and applying
Nicholas Steno’s principles, they were able to create a listing of rock layers from oldest
to youngest. Then, they divided the history of the Earth into blocks of time with each
block characterized by important events.

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 What is It

Within the rock formations that make up the Earth’ Crust lies the evidence of over
4.5 billion years if time. The clues found in them help scientists put together a picture of
how Earth has changed. As early as 1600’s, Nicolas Steno, a Danish scientist, studied the
relative positions of sedimentary rocks. He found that solid particles settle according to
their relative weight or size. The largest and heaviest settles first, the smallest and lightest
is the last one to settle. Slight changes in particle size or composition result in the
formation of layers. Layering is the most obvious feature of sedimentary rocks.
Stratigraphy Laws are basic principles that all geologists use in deciphering the age and
characteristics of rock layers. These laws were developed in the 17th to 19th centuries
based upon the work of Steno, James Hutton and William Smith. Dating techniques are
procedures used by scientists to determine the age of rocks. Geologists establish the age
of rocks in two ways: relative dating and absolute dating.

What are the Methods used in determining the age of stratified rocks?
A. Relative Dating is used to arrange geological events and the rocks they leave behind
in a sequence. It is based on the Principle of Superposition which enables scientists to
arrange geological events in order. Rock successions are sequences of rocks that are
established by the order in which they are deposited.

• Principle of Original Horizontality -

When sediments are deposited, they
form essentially horizontal or flat layers
(Figure 1). A corollary of this principle is
that tilted sedimentary rocks were
originally horizontal and that they must
have been subjected to rock
deformation (i.e. folding).

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 • Principle of Superposition - New rock layers
are always deposited on top of existing rock
layers (Figure 2). Therefore, deeper layers
must be older than those closer to the
surface. - The sediments poured into the pail
of water settles into horizontal layers. The
bottom most layer is the oldest and the
topmost layer is the youngest.

* Principle of Lateral Continuity - Rock layers

extend laterally and cover very broad
areas, especially if they formed at the
bottom of ancient seas. If there is sufficient
supply of sediments, the layer will continue
to extend further.

• Cross Cutting Principle- This principle

states that a layer or stratum must always
be older than any feature that cuts or
disrupts it. For example, if a layer is cut by
a fault, the layer is older than the fault
that cuts across it.

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 * Principle of Unconformity - An
unconformity is a surface of non-deposition
or erosion. Accumulation of sediments
continues until the supply of sediments is
cut off or if the area is subject to uplift and
erosion. Figure 6 illustrates the sequence of
events that can lead to the formation of an
angular unconformity. The horizontally
layered sedimentary unit on top is
separated from the underlying folded
rocks by an unconformity. Rocks above an
unconformity are younger than the rocks
below.

Guide.

Types of unconformities

✤ Angular Unconformity - attitude of

beds above and below the surface of
erosion or unconformity are not the same
(beds are not parallel to each other).

✤ Nonconformity - the layer below the

erosional surface is either a
metamorphic rock or an igneous rock. Source: UBC EOAS.
The layer above the erosional surface is https://www.eoas.ubc.ca/courses/eosc326/resources/Stratigr
aphy/unconformities-v2.htm
a sedimentary rock.

✤ Disconformity - sedimentary rock strata above and below the surface of erosion are
parallel to each other.

✤ Para conformity - strata or beds are parallel to each other. There is no discernible
erosion surface; however, there is a gap in the ages between the rock units. A Para
conformity represents a period of non-deposition.

B. Absolute Dating
With the discovery of radioactivity in the late 1800s, scientists were able to
measure the absolute age or the exact age of some rocks in years. Absolute dating
allows scientists to assign numbers to the breaks in the geologic time scale and get an
absolute age of a rock or fossil.

• Radiocarbon Dating- This is used to find the age of once living materials between
100 and 50,000 years old. It is usually used to determine ages of human fossils and
habitation sites.

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 • Potassium is common in many minerals, such as feldspar, mica, and amphibole.
With its half-life, the technique is used to date rocks from 100,000 years to over a
billion years old.
• Potassium-40 decays to argon-40 with a half-life of 1.26 billion years.
• Argon is a gas, allowing it to escape from molten magma. Thus, any argon that is
found in an igneous crystal probably formed as a result of the decay of potassium-
40. Measuring the ratio of potassium-40 to argon-40 yields a good estimate of the
age of that crystal. - Uranium-Lead Dating
• Two uranium isotopes are used for radiometric dating: • Uranium-238 decays to
lead-206 with a half-life of 4.47 billion years. • Uranium-235 decays to form lead-
207 with a half-life of 704 million years.
• Uranium-lead dating is usually performed on zircon crystals. When zircon forms in
an igneous rock, the crystals readily accept atoms of uranium but reject atoms of
lead. If any lead is found in a zircon crystal, it can be assumed that it was
produced from the decay of uranium.

C. Faunal Dating
Refers to the use of animal bones to determine the age of sedimentary layers and
the materials embedded within those layers. Scientists can determine an approximate
age for a layer by examining which species or genera of animals are buries in it. The
technique works best if the animals belonged to species that evolved quickly, expanded
rapidly over a larger area or suffered a mass extinction.

Dating of Rocks and the Geologic Time Scale

Scientists looked at clues within the rocks and determined the age of these rocks
in a comparative sense. This process is called Relative Dating, which is the process of
determining the comparative age of two objects or events. For example, you are
younger than your parents. It doesn’t matter your age or your parents as long as you
can establish that one is older than the other. As time progressed, scientists discovered
and developed techniques to date certain rocks as well as the Earth itself. They
discovered the earth was billions of years old (4.54 billion years old) and put a time frame
to the geologic time scale. This process is called Absolute Dating, which is the process of
determining the exact amount of time that has passed since an object was formed or
an event occurred.

Both absolute and relative dating have advantages and are still frequently used
by geologists. Dating rocks using relative dating allows a geologist to reconstruct a series
of events cheaply, often very quickly, and can be used out in the field on a rocky
outcrop. Relative dating also can be used on many different types of rocks, whereas
absolute dating is restricted to certain minerals or materials. However, absolute dating is
the only method that allows scientists to place an exact age to a particular rock.

Scientists studying rocks were able to piece together a progression of events

through time to construct the Geologic Time Scale. This time scale was constructed by
lining up in order rocks that had particular features such as rock types, environmental
indicators, or fossils.

7
Age of the Earth
The Earth has a very long history—4.6 billion years of history. The age of the Earth
is based on the radioactive isotopic dating of meteorites. The oldest dated rock from the
Earth is only ~3.8 billion years old.

Rocks and Fossils

1. The history of the Earth is recorded in rocks, but the rock record is inherently
incomplete. Some ‘events’ do not leave a record or are not preserved. Some of the rock
record may have also been lost through the recycling of rocks (recall the rock cycle).

2. Preserved in rocks are fossils or the remains and traces of plants and animals that have
lived and died throughout the Earth's history. The fossil record provides scientists with one
of the most compelling evidence for Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution (increasing
complexity of life through time).

Rocks, Fossils, and the Geologic Time Scale

1. The geologic time scale which is the timeline of the history of the Earth, is based
on the rock record.

2. Geologic time is subdivided into hierarchal intervals, the largest being eon,
followed by era, period, and epoch, respectively. The subdivision of geologic time
is based on the significant events in the Earth’s history as interpreted from the rock
record.
3. The mass extinction event, which led to the extinction of the dinosaurs
occurred around 66.4 million years ago, marks the boundary between the
Mesozoic era (age of the reptiles) and the Cenozoic era (age of mammals). This
mass extinction event may have been pivotal in the rise of the dominance of the
mammals during the Cenozoic era.
4. One of the first to recognize the correspondence between rocks and time is
Nicholas Steno (1638-1686). Steno’s principles, namely superposition, original
horizontality, and lateral continuity, became the foundation of stratigraphy, the
study of layered rocks.
5. Since the geologic time scale is based on the rock record, the first order of
business is to establish the correct succession of rocks. Initially, this was done using
relative dating techniques.
6. One of the earliest attempts to subdivide the rock record into units of time was
made by Abraham Gottlob Werner, a German geologist. Werner divided the rock
record into the following rock-time units (from oldest to youngest): primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Werner extensively used the Principle of
Superposition to establish temporal relationship among the rock units.
7. Fossils are also useful in determining relative ages of rocks. While working in a coal
mine, William ‘Strata’ Smith (1769-1839) observed that each layer or strata of
sedimentary rock contains a distinct assemblage of fossils, which can be used to
establish equivalence (correlation) between rock units separated by long
distances.
8. 8.Moreover, he observed that these fossils succeed each other vertically in a
definite order. Fossils are an essential in the subdivision of the geologic time.

8
 9. Biostratigraphy is a sub-discipline of stratigraphy, which deals with the use of fossils
in the correlation and establishments the relative ages of rocks.
10. Index fossils are marker fossils used to define periods of geologic time. Ideally,
index fossils are distinctive (can easily be identified and distinguished from other
fossils), widespread (distribution is not confined to a few locality) and have limited
geologic time range.

Geologic Time Scale

✓ Eon - Largest division of geologic
time.
✓ Era - Broad spans of time based
on the general type of life
existing during that time.
✓ Period - Shorter spans of time
based on evidence of major
disturbances in Earth’s crust and
on the characteristics of the
common rock formations.
✓ Epoch - Subdivisions of a periods.

• The Precambrian or Cryptozoic Eon

(4.6 Ga - 540 Ma)
o Represents 80% of Earth’s
history
o Also known as the eon of
“hidden life” due to obscure
fossil records.
Source: Pinterest.
https://www.digitalatlasofancientlife.org/learn/geological-
time/geological-time-scale/

• Hadean Eon (4.56 - 3.8 Ga)

o From “Hades”, Greek god of the underworld.
o Chaotic time because of several meteorite bombardment ๏ Atmosphere
reduction (methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide)
o Start of the hydrologic cycle and the formation of the world oceans
o Life emerged in this “hostile” environment

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 Source: Pinterest. https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/330592428878804533/

• Archean Eon (3.8 - 2.5 Ga)

o Anaerobic (lack of oxygen)
o No ozone
o Photosynthetic prokaryotes (blue green algae) emerged and started releasing
oxygen to the atmosphere.
o Life forms are still limited to single-celled organisms without nuclei (prokaryotes)
until 2.7 Ga when Eukaryotes emerged.
• Proterozoic Eon (2.5 Ga - 540 Ma)
o Oxygen level reaches ~3% of the atmosphere Rise of multicellular organisms
represented by the Vendian fauna. Formation of the protective ozone layer
• Phanerozoic Eon (540 Ma - present)
o Eon of “visible life”. Diversification of life. Many life forms are represented in fossil
records (with preservable hard parts).
• Paleozoic Era (540 - 245 Ma)
o Age of “ancient life”. Rapid diversification of life as represented by the Cambrian
fauna (Cambrian explosion)
o Dominance of marine invertebrates
o Plants colonize land by 480 Ma
o Animals colonize land by 450 Ma
o Oxygen level in the atmosphere approaches present day concentration
o Massive extinction at the end (end of Permian extinction).
o Appearance of Gymnosperms.

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• Mesozoic Era (245 - 65 Ma)

o Age of reptiles ๏ Dominance of reptiles and dinosaurs

o Pangaea starts to break-apart by 200 MA
o Early mammals (220 Ma) and First birds (150 Ma) appeared
o First flowering plants (130 Ma)
o Mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous (65 Ma)
• Cenozoic Era (65 Ma - present)
o Age of mammals. Radiation of modern birds
o Early primates (60 Ma)
o Continents near present-day positions (40 Ma)
o First hominids (5.2 Ma)
o Modern humans (0.2 Ma)
o Global ice ages begin (2 Ma)

What I Can Do

In the previous part of this modules you have learned about the different
strategies of Relative Dating. You use the things that you learned to answer the activity.

Activity 1: “Rocks as Time Machine’’

Directions: Using the diagram below, identify the age of the rock strata from youngest
to oldest. Write the letter of the corresponding strata in your answer sheet.

Photo credit:
https://www.rowan.k12.ky.us/userfiles/994/Classes/1493/Relative%20Dating%20Worksheet%20Whats%20Up%20Key.pdf

11
Guide Questions:

1. How will you describe the deposition of each layer?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Which layer is the oldest? Which layer is the youngest? How can you tell?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. What stratigraphic principle did you apply in arranging the order of layers?
_________________________________________________________________________________

4. How dating of rocks was used to determine the subdivisions of geologic time?
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________.

Were you able to identify the oldest and youngest rock strata? Great! It means
you already understand well how relative dating works and how it was used to
determine the subdivisions of geologic time.

Activity 2: “It’s a Matter of Time”

Directions: For this activity, you are going to make your personal timeline to understand
better the Geologic Time Scale. Prepare the following materials. Follow the procedure
of the activity below.
Materials:
Cartolina, Pentel pen or pen, coloring materials

Procedure:
1. Ask somebody to help you make your timeline diagram.
2. Use your arm span from fingertip of one hand to the fingertip of another hand.
3. Lie down with your arm stretched out to both sides
4. Have someone to trace the outline of your hands and arms. You may include
your head too.
5. Use this layout as the diagram where you will plot your personal timeline.
6. Choose the longest fingertip of one hand and label it your BIRTHDAY. Then,
label the fingertip of the other hand (on the other side) TODAY.
7. Divide your diagram into equal pieces just like a ruler that is divided equally into
inches.
8. Subtract the year you were born from the year today. This provides the scale of
your timeline which is expressed in years
9. Go back as far as you can remember in your life.
10. Identify the important events that have occurred in your lifetime and list them in
your diagram.

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 Guide Questions:

1. Do you see any similarity of your personal timeline to the geologic time scale of
the Earth’s history? _________________________________________________________
2. What kind of information did you need to get in order to put the events in
your life in a sequence?_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. How will you describe the technique used in creating your timeline?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. What are your realizations while creating your personal timeline?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

What’s More

Activity 3: “Let Us Make a Pie”

Directions: Create a pie chart to represent the percentage of each division of time with
respect to the geologic time scale in Table 1. Color each division of Geologic Time with
the corresponding color in the legend.

13
 Your Pie Chart

Legend:

Hadean - Navy Blue

Archean- Red

Proterozoic- Green

Paleozoic Era- Purple

Mesozoic Era- Sky Blue

Cenozoic Era- Orange

Activity 4. Learning Check!

You already know that Geologic Time Scale is the “calendar” for events” in Earth
history. It subdivides all time into named units of abstract time called eons, eras,
periods, epochs, and ages. Answer the following questions. Write your answer in your
answer sheet.

1. What is the name given to the largest divisions of geological time?__________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Name the three of these divisions which extend throughout Earth history.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

3. During which of these divisions has almost all the noticeable evolution of life
occurred? _________________________________________________________________________

4. Name the smaller divisions into which this eon has been divided. ___________________

5. Explain the relationships among eons, eras, epochs and periods of the geologic time
scale.______________________________________________________________________________

6. How did scientists account for fossils and other geological evidence as they develop
the geologic time scale? ___________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

14
 What I Have Learned

Directions: Match the description in Column A with the terms in Column B. Write your
answers in your answer sheet.

Column A Column B

____1. Start of the hydrologic cycle and the A. Paleozoic

formation of the world of oceans. B. Hadean
____2. Rise of multicellular organisms C. Cenozoic
represented by Vendian Fauna. D. Triassic
____3. Eon of Visible life. E. Angiosperm
____4. Represents 80% of the Earth’s History. F. Permian
____5. Era of Reptiles and dinosaurs. G. Proterozoic
____6. Rapid diversification of life as H. Precambrian
represented by the Cambrian fauna. I. Mesozoic
____7. Age of mammals J. Cretaceous
____8. Oldest period in the Mesozoic Era K. Phanerozoic

____9. Seed plants which first appeared on the L. Gymnosperm

Paleozoic Era. M. Cambrian

____10. Most recent period of Paleozoic Era. N. Jurassic

GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND

LESSON 2
HAZARDS
Earth is a living dynamic planet. Its surface is constantly modified by geological
processes such as earthquake, landslides and volcanic eruptions. These geological
processes greatly affect the whole planet particularly the terrestrial ecosystem and man.
They are highly destructive because they cause deaths and destroy properties. It is very
important to know and understand the various hazards caused by these geological
processes. Armed with knowledge, we could make intelligent decisions in terms of how
we could mitigate and adapt to these processes.

15
 What is It

Hazards due to Earthquake

The release of all energy from

earthquakes beneath the surface of the
Earth poses little direct danger to the
individual person. Humans are not
“shaken to death” by earthquakes. The
greatest danger comes from the
interaction between the ground motion
caused by earthquakes and man’s own
structures. The dangers of being crushed
in a falling building, getting burned by
fire, being swept away and drowned in a
flood from a burst reservoir, or getting
buried beneath earthquake-induced
landslides are very real. Earthquake. Source: Disaster Pages of Dr. George, PC
http://www.drgeorgepc.com/Tsunami1976Phillipines.html
The magnitude of the earthquake describes the extent and severity of the
damage it may cause. In describing an earthquake, it is important to differentiate
magnitude from intensity as these terms are totally different from one another.

o Magnitude- measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake at

certain location.
o Intensity- is determined from the effects on people, human, structures and the
natural environment.

The type of hazard depends on the strength of seismic activity, along with such
factors as local topographic and built features, subsurface geology and groundwater.
A large earthquake will always be followed by a sequence of aftershocks.

Earthquake-caused damages include the following aspects:

• Ground shaking is simply vibration of the land surface. It occurs if an earthquake

generates enough shaking intensity. It is generally the most severe direct cause of
damage. Crowded buildings that cannot be evacuated quickly may collapse during
ground-shaking and result in a major loss of life as well as property.

• Surface rupture is also known as surface faulting. It is the horizontal or vertical

displacement of the ground surface along the narrow fault zone. It is also the offset or
tearing of the ground surface by differential movement along fault during an
earthquake.

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• Rock avalanches originate on over- steepened slopes in weak rocks. It is a stream of
very rapidly moving debris derived from the disintegration of a fallen rock mass of very
large z=size; speed of rock avalanche often exceeds 100 km/h and its volume is
commonly greater than 1x 106m3. It is considered most hazardous landslide phenomena
due to the speed, size and run-out distance.

• Rock fall is a sudden, steep drop of rock fragments or debris. Rock fall commonly
occurs on steep cliffs and may involve a single rock or mass of rocks. As rock falls down,
it may plummet freely through the air or may strike and loosen other rocks in the cliff
face.

• Mudflows are rapidly moving wet earth flows that can be initiated by earthquake
shaking or heavy rainstorm. Mudflow triggered by an earthquake occurs when the soil is
saturated with water or the water content of the soil is high. It becomes more destructive
if the soil is drenched by rainwater. Mudflow causes siltation of rivers and lakes affecting
eater and food supply of the community.

• Liquefaction is a phenomenon on which the strength and stiffness of a soil are reduced
by the earthquake shaking. Many historical structures and landmarks around the world
have been destroyed by liquefaction. When it occurs, the strength of the soil decreases
and the ability of soil deposit to support foundation for buildings and bridges is reduced.
These structures collapse because the soil where their foundation rest is weakened. The
soil cannot hold their weight any longer.

Hazards due to Landslides

A landslide is general term used to
describe the downslope movement of soil,
rock and organic materials under the effects
of gravity and also the landform that results
from such movement. It is classified into
different types based on the movement and
the type of material involved. The material is
either rock or soil or both.
Landslide. Source: iStock.
https://www.istockphoto.com/illustrations/mudslide

Types of Landslide

• Rational Slide- is slide in which the surface of rupture is curved concavely upward,
and the slide movement is roughly rational about an axis that is parallel to the
ground surface and transverse across the slide
• Translational slide- moves along a roughly planar surface with little rotation or
background tilting.
• Block Slide- is a translational slide in which the moving mass consists of a single
unit or a few closely related units that move downslope as relatively coherent
mass.
• Fall- abrupt movements of masses of geologic materials such as rocks, boulders
which become detached from steep slopes or cliffs.
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 • Topple- forward rotation of a unit or units about some pivotal point, below or low
in unit, under the actions of gravity and forces exerted by adjacent units or by
fluids in cracks.
• Debris avalanche- rapid to extremely debris flow.
• Debris flow- is a form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose
soil, rock, organic matter, air and water mobilize slurry that flows downslope.
• Earthflow- the slope material liquefies and runs out, forming a bowl or depression
at the head. Mudflow is an earthflow.
• Creep- is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope-forming
soil or rock.
• Lateral spreads- are distinctive because they usually occur on very gentle slopes
or flat terrain. The mode of movement is lateral extension accompanied by shear
or tensile fractures.

Hazards due to Volcanic Eruptions

There are many different kinds of
hazards associated with volcanic eruptions,
depending on the type of volcano and
eruption. Some volcanoes typically produce
highly explosive.

• Lava flows are what they sound like: lava

(molten rock) flowing directly from a volcanic
vent or fissure. Deaths and injuries from lava
flows are not common because flows are
typically quite slow (walking-running pace or
slower). However, the high temperatures of
lava flows may cause fires, and anything in the
path of the lava flow will become encased in
a thick layer of rock.

Volcanic Eruption
Source: Lamy. https://www.alamy.com/stock-
photo/volcano-eruption.html?blackwhite=1

• Pyroclastic flows are a mixture of ash, volcanic gas, rocks, and lava that generally
reaches temperatures of 390-1300°F (200-700 °C). These flows are mainly
associated with volcanoes that have explosive eruptions, and they move down
the volcanic slope at speeds greater than 50 miles per hour (80 kilometers per
hour). The flows generally travel three to ten miles (five to fifteen kilometers) from
the volcano. A pyroclastic flow will destroy almost everything in its path, cause
fires and floods, and bury everything under a mixture of rock, ash, and
accumulated debris. Serious injuries and deaths are often associated with
pyroclastic flows due to their high speeds and destructive effects.

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 • Debris flows on volcanoes are a mixture of rock, ash, soil, vegetation, and water
that flow down the slope of a volcano, sometimes funneling into river valleys. They
can occur either during an eruption or at other times in response to high rainfall
events. Lahars are a type of fast-moving volcanic debris flow consisting mostly of
water, ash, and rock fragments with the speed of a fast-moving river but the
consistency of cement. Lahars are mainly associated with steep-sided volcanoes
and they can vary in their size and speed.

• Landslides are masses of rock and soil that slide rapidly due to gravity. In contrast
with a lahar, a landslide involves failure of the slope of the volcano itself.

• Tephra and ash are composed of varying sizes of rock particles ejected into the
air from volcanic eruptions. Tephra refers to larger rock fragments (from pebbles
up to the size of a car or house) that typically land close to the volcano, while ash
is made up of small particles (sand size or smaller).

• Volcanic gases start out dissolved in magma and are released as the magma
rises towards the Earth’s surface. These gases include sulfur dioxide, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and many others. The release of gas can make a
volcanic eruption more explosive, and some volcanoes produce large amounts
of gas. The gases can pose a variety of dangers to surrounding populations in
sufficiently high concentrations. Sulfur dioxide (SO 2) can irritate the skin, eyes, and
respiratory system. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is denser than air, and large releases of
CO2 can be lethal if breathable air is displaced. Volcanic smog is a term used to
describe the smog that forms from a complex series of chemical reactions
involving volcanic gases (especially sulfur dioxide), air, and sunlight. Volcanoes
can also produce toxic gases such as hydrogen sulfide (H 2S).

Hazards due to Tsunami

A tsunami is a series of
ocean waves that sends surges
of water, sometimes reaching
heights of over 100 feet (30.5
meters), onto land. These walls of
water can cause
widespread destruction when Tsunami
they crash ashore. Source:
123RF.https://www.123rf.com/photo_77503680_stock-
vector-house-with-tsunami-concept-.html
What Causes a Tsunami?
These awe-inspiring waves are typically caused by large,
undersea earthquakes at tectonic plate boundaries. When the ocean floor at a plate
boundary rises or falls suddenly, it displaces the water above it and launches the rolling
waves that will become a tsunami.

Most tsunamis–about 80 percent–happen within the Pacific Ocean’s “Ring of

Fire,” a geologically active area where tectonic shifts make volcanoes and
earthquakes common. Tsunamis may also be caused by underwater landslides or

19
volcanic eruptions. They may even be launched, as they frequently were in Earth’s
ancient past, by the impact of a large meteorite plunging into an ocean.

Tsunamis race across the sea at up to 500 miles (805 kilometers) an hour—about
as fast as a jet airplane. At that pace, they can cross the entire expanse of the Pacific
Ocean in less than a day. And their long wavelengths mean they lose very little energy
along the way. In deep ocean, tsunami waves may appear only a foot or so high. But
as they approach shoreline and enter shallower water they slow down and begin to
grow in energy and height. The tops of the waves move faster than their bottoms do,
which causes them to rise precipitously.

What Happens When It Hits Land?

A tsunami’s trough, the low point beneath the wave’s crest, often reaches shore
first. When it does, it produces a vacuum effect that sucks coastal water seaward and
exposes harbor and sea floors. This retreating of sea water is an important warning
sign of a tsunami, because the wave’s crest and its enormous volume of water typically
hit shore five minutes or so later.

Recognizing this phenomenon can save lives. A tsunami is usually composed of

a series of waves, called a wave train, so its destructive force may be compounded as
successive waves reach shore. People experiencing a tsunami should remember that
the danger may not have passed with the first wave and should await official word
that it is safe to return to vulnerable locations. Some tsunamis do not appear on shore
as massive breaking waves but instead resemble a quickly surging tide that inundates
coastal areas.

The best defense against any tsunami is early warning that allows people to
seek higher ground. The Pacific Tsunami Warning System, a coalition of 26 nations
headquartered in Hawaii, maintains a web of seismic equipment and water level
gauges to identify tsunamis at sea. Similar systems are proposed to protect coastal
areas worldwide.

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 What I Can Do

In the previous part of this modules, you have learned about the different
geological hazards. You use the things that you learned to answer the activity.

Activity 2.1. ‘’Describe Me!’’

Directions: Complete the table below by identifying the geological hazards based
from the illustrations. Then, describe each geological hazard. Write your answer in your
answer sheet.

Illustrations Geological Hazards Description

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Activity 2.2.’’ Identify Me!’’
Directions: You already know the terms to remember and this time, we are going to test
your understanding. Identify which word is being described on the following statement.
Choose the correct word in the word box. Write your answer in your answer sheet.

WORD BANK

Lava flows Creep Magnitude

Block slide Rock fall Transitional slide

Ground shaking Intensity Mud flow

Liquefaction Volcanic eruption Tsunami

______1. Lava (molten rock) flowing directly from a volcanic vent or fissure.
______2. The imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope-forming soil
or rock.
______3. Slide that moves along a roughly planar surface with little rotation or
background tilting.
______4. A phenomenon on which the strength and stiffness of a soil are reduced by
the earthquake shaking.
______5. A sudden, steep drop of rock fragments or debris.
______6. Determined from the effects of earthquake on people, human, structures
and the natural environment.
______7. Rapidly moving wet earth flows that can be initiated by earthquake
shaking or heavy rainstorm.
______8. Measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake at certain
location.
______9. Series of ocean waves that sends surges of water, sometimes reaching
heights of over 100 feet (30.5 meters), onto land.
_____10. Simply vibration of the land surface. It occurs if an earthquake generates
enough shaking intensity.

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 What’s More

Activity 2.3: “Is Our House Earthquake Safe?’’

Directions: Using the checklist below, determine whether your house is earthquake safe
or not? Answer each question and identify your point per question based from the points
given per answer. Then, total your scores and see the rating below. Write your answer in
your answer sheets.

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24
Guide Questions:

1. Is your house earthquake safe? Explain your answer based on your score.
2. If it is not, what are the steps your family should do to strengthen your house and
make it more resilient to strong earthquake?
3. Why is it important that your house is built by a licensed civil engineer or architect
and not just by neighbor who knows about carpentry and has experienced building
houses?

Activity 2.6: Make your own Action Plan

Directions: Make your own action plan on how to give awareness to people about the
various hazards that may happen in the event of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
tsunami and landslide. Follow the template of the action plan below, write as many
goals as you want. Plot your action plan in a short bond paper.

Objectives Tasks Success Criteria Time Frame Resources

(List of (What you need (How you will (by when you (What or who
Goals) to do to achieve identify your need to can help you
the goals?) success?) complete the complete the
tasks) tasks?)

What I Have Learned

Activity 2.5:’’Meta cognition for stating knowledge’’

Directions: You already know the different geological processes and it’s time to share it
to us. Complete the sentences based on your learnings about the topic. Write your
answer in your answer sheet.
My chosen word is ____________________________________________
I know that
_________________________________________________________________________________________

First, I know
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

In addition, I know
_________________________________________________________________________________________

Finally, I know
_________________________________________________________________________________________

Now you know something that I know

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

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 Assessment

Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. In what era where mammals became abundant?

A. Cenozoic B. Mesozoic C. Paleozoic D. Precambrian

2. Which of the following is known to be the ‘’Era of Reptiles’’?

A. Mesozoic B. Paleozoic C. Phanerozoic D. Cenozoic

3. What is an era?
A. Subdivision of a geologic period
B. Largest division of geologic time.
C. Shorter spans of time based on evidence of major disturbances Earth’s crust.
D. Broad spans of time based on the general type of life existing during that time.

4. Which block of geologic time spans comprises 80%t of Earth’s history?

A. Mesozoic B. Cenozoic C. Precambrian D. Paleozoic

5. Relative and absolute dating was used to determine the subdivisions of

geologic time. How are you going to explain its application in the field of geology?
A. Relative dating is the basis for absolute dating.
B. The information gathered from the fossils based on dating and the
application of principle was used to divide the Earths’ history.
C. Relative and absolute dating were both used in uncovering beyond the layers
of the Earth.
D. The history of the Earth into blocks of time was purely based on
geologist exploration and observation.

6. How the principle of inclusion explains the ways on determining the age of rock
layers?
A. Sediments are originally deposited in horizontal layers.
B. Sedimentary layers or lava flows extend sideways in all directions.
C. Any part of previous rock layers, like a piece of stone, is older than
the layer containing it.
D. In undisturbed rock layers, the oldest layer is at the bottom and the
youngest layer is at the top.

7. Which of the following shows the correct order of era from oldest to the
most recent?
A. Paleozoic-- Mesozoic --Proterozoic
B. Mesozoic -- Paleozoic -- Cenozoic
C. Proterozoic -- Cenozoic-- Mesozoic
D. Paleozoic -- Mesozoic – Cenozoic

26
8. What does the geologic time scale confirmed about the major even happened
during the Cretaceous period?
A. Opening of red sea
B. Formation of Rocky Mountains
C. Formation of early super continent
D. Beginning of mountain building in North America
9. Which of the following is TRUE about landslide?
A. It can trigger lahars but cannot trigger tsunamis.
B. It is only associated with volcanos flowing materials.
C. It is a mass movement of rock fragments, soil and debris downslope
D. Debris from a landslide mixes with water it will break apart and
stop flowing.

10. The geologic time scale is a record of _____________.

A. The rate of fossil formation
B. The thickness of sedimentary rock layers
C. The time since the evolution of dinosaurs
D. The life forms and geologic events in Earth’s history

11. How did Earth change about 2.5 billion years ago when many organisms began
using photosynthesis to make food?
A. Rainfall increased
B. Oceans became larger
C. Mass extinctions occurred
D. The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere increased
12. Which combination represents the Phanerozoic?
A. Cenozoic, Precambrian, Paleozoic
B. Eocene, Cretaceous, Jurassic
C. Precambrian, Cenozoic, Eocene
D. Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Paleozoic

13. Why is it beneficial to be able to predict when and where natural hazards
will occur?
A. Communities can be notified to evacuate
B. So that we can stop them from happening
C. Scientists know where to go in order to study them
D. So that we can harness their power for renewable energy
14. Which is best way you can help prepare for natural disasters?
A. Watch your pets for any unusual behavior
B. Keep the windows of your house closed at all times
C. Always carry a pint of water with you
D. Makes an emergency supply kit with your family

15. Which of the following is known to be the ‘’Era of Ancient Life’’?

A. Mesozoic B. Paleozoic C. Phanerozoic D. Cenozoic

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 28
What I can do (Lesson 2) What I can do (Lesson 1)
I. A, B, C, D, M, E, F, G, H
Assessment
II.
Activity 2.1 1. Answers may vary
1. A 11. D 1. Landslide 2. Oldest is layer A and
2. A 2. Volcanic Eruption the youngest is layer
12. D
3. Tsunami H. It is based from the
3. D 13. A 4. Earthquake positions of rock
strata.
4. C 14. D Activity 2.2 3. (any of these
principles)
5. B 15. B 1. Lava flows
Cross cutting principle
2. Creep
Principle of
6. C 3. Transitional slide superposition
4. Liquefaction Principle of original
7. D 5. Rock fall horizontality
6. Intensity Principle of
8. B
7. Mud flow unconformities
9. C 8. Magnitude 4. Dating rocks using
9. Tsunami relative dating allows a
10. D 10. Ground shaking geologist to
reconstruct a series of
events in the Earth’s
History.
What’s more What I have
learned
What I Know
1. B
1. C 11. D
2. G
2. A 12. B
3. K
3. B 13. C
4. H
4. B 14. D
5. I
5. D 15. D
6. A
6. B
7. C
7. A
8. D
8. C
9. L
9. D
10. F
10. A
Answer Key
References

Balce, et al, 2016. Geologic Hazards in the Philippines; A Definition and on Overview.
Taylor. Francis Online. HTTPs://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/
09617353.1988.11691173?journalCode=tsar20

Earth and Life Science for Senior High School, Rex Bookstore. 2016

Senior High School Earth and Life Science Teaching Guide, Commission on Higher
Education, 2016

Tarbuck, E. J., & Lutgens, F. K. (2008). Earth: An introduction to physical geology (9th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

United States Geological Survey. (1997). Geologic Time: Contents. Retrieved from
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/contents.html

University of California, Berkeley. (n.d.). Geologic Time. Retrieved from

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/explorations/tours/geotime/gtpage
1.html

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For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:

Department of Education – SDO Palawan

Curriculum Implementation Division Office

2nd Floor DepEd Palawan Building
Telephone no. (048) 433-3292

Learning Resources Management Section

LRMS Building, PEO Compound
Telephone No. (048) 434-0099

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