Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

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Materials & Design

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Ultrasonic surface rolling strengthening and its parameter optimization on

bearing raceway
Yongjie Cheng a, Yanshuang Wang a, *, Zijun Wang b, Pengcheng Huang a, Pu Zhang a,
Qixian Guo a
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250353, China
b
Luoyang Bearing Science & Technology Co., Ltd, Luoyang 471039, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: For the first time, the ultrasonic surface rolling processing (USRP) technology was applied to a real bearing
Ultrasonic surface rolling raceway, and a finite element simulation model for USRP on a bearing raceway was established. Practical tests
Finite element simulation were conducted to evaluate the surface integrity of the bearing raceway before and after USRP treatment. The
Residual stress
USRP parameters were optimized using Taguchi-gray correlation analysis. The results show that the optimal
Surface roughness
process parameters for the 7224 bearing raceway are: an amplitude of 10 μm, a static pressure of 2400 N, a
Micro-hardness
Micro-structure spindle speed of 45 rad/min, and rolling times of 7. In the process of USRP, residual compressive stress results
from inhomogeneous elastic and plastic deformation. Adjacent tempered martensitic laths merge and deflect at a
certain angle along the rolling direction to form directional grain stacks, resulting in a flocculent plastic
deformation layer. The USRP based on the finishing mechanism of “peak-cutting and valley-filling” can improve
the surface micro-morphology, reduce roughness value Ra to approximately 0.16 μm, and effectively eliminate
microscopic cracks caused by grinding. The micro-hardness of the bearing raceway surface increased from 760
HV to 840 HV under the dual action of surface grain refinement and work hardening effect.

1. Introduction Currently, the effect of USRP on surface integrity, fatigue resistance,

As an important part of the bearing, the bearing ring will be sub­
jected to heavy load, cyclic fatigue stresses and sliding friction during
operation, resulting in fatigue failure, wear failure and strength failure,
which seriously impact the service life of the bearing [1]. Among them,
the surface integrity of the bearing raceway largely determines the
service performance of bearings, and has become the most important
indicator for evaluating the quality of bearings, as well as the basic
parameter for predicting the performance and life of bearings. In order
to improve the service performance, fatigue resistance and reliability of
bearings, surface modification technology is an effective method to
improve the surface performance of bearing raceways. Ultrasonic sur­
face rolling processing (USRP) is a novel and highly efficient technology
for surface modification, which generates nanostructures, high levels of
residual compressive stress, and low roughness on the workpiece sur­
face. It can enhance the fretting wear resistance and crack initiation
resistance of materials, and help to suppress the initiation and propa­
gation of cracks [2].
corrosion resistance, and wear resistance of various materials has been
investigated. After USRP treatment on Ti6Al4V alloy material, it was
found that the surface of the sample became smoother with an average
roughness Ra ≈ 0.231 μm, and an increase in surface micro-hardness by
44.7%. Additionally, A residual compressive stress field with a
maximum of approximately 1000 MPa and depth of roughly 0.7 mm was
introduced, and a plastic deformation layer with a thickness of
approximately 304.38 μm was formed [3]. Nie et al. [4] found that the
ultrasonic surface rolling treatment formed a gradient nanostructure
surface layer. The tensile strength of the Ti6Al4V alloy was enhanced
while maintaining its good bonding strength and ductility. Liu et al. [5]
verified that USRP significantly improved the fatigue resistance of
Ti6Al4V alloys through rotational bending fatigue tests. The corrosion
resistance of aluminum alloy materials was investigated after USRP
treatment, and it was concluded that the reduction in surface roughness,
introduction of residual compressive stress, and nanometerization of
surface grains can significantly enhance their corrosion resistance [6,7].
Ye et al. [8] found that the wear mechanism of the QAl10-3–1.5

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hkd_wang_yan_shuang@126.com (Y. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.112156
Received 14 March 2023; Received in revised form 25 June 2023; Accepted 9 July 2023
Available online 20 July 2023
0264-1275/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
Y. Cheng et al.
aluminum bronze alloy sample shifted from adhesive wear to abrasive
wear after undergoing USRP, resulting in a significant enhancement of
its wear resistance. From a large number of literature, it was found that
the research on USRP mainly focused on low-hardness alloy materials
such as titanium and aluminum, with comparatively less emphasis on
high-strength and high-hardness materials like bearing steel. Some re­
searchers carried out ultrasonic surface rolling treatment on the GCr15
bar and analyzed the influence of process parameters on roughness and
residual compressive stress. Results showed that increasing feed speed
and rotational speed led to an increase in sample roughness and a
decrease in residual compressive stress, while increasing static pressure
and rolling times resulted in an increase in residual compressive stress,
as well as initial decrease followed by an increase in roughness [9,10].
Duan et al. [11] investigated the microstructure evolution of high car­
bon and high chromium-bearing steel during the USRP process. The
results confirmed that grain refinement induced by USRP effectively
suppressed crack initiation and propagation, thereby enhancing the
wear resistance of the material. Wang et al. [12] studied the effect of
USRP on the surface integrity and tribological behavior of M50 bearing
steel, revealing that USRP facilitated the formation of a smooth friction
layer and enhanced friction performance. It is worth noting that previ­
ous studies have focused solely on flat or cylindrical samples made from
bearing steel material, with no literature yet available regarding USRP’s
effects on real bearing raceways.
Compared to experimental studies, finite element simulations pro­
vide real-time visualization of stress distribution and material defor­
mation during ultrasonic surface rolling treatment. This approach saves
significant amounts of manpower, materials, and time. Therefore, the
use of finite element simulation for USRP on bearing raceways has
become an indispensable tool in studying ultrasonic rolling technology.
The dynamic response of ultrasonic rolling has been extensively studied
using the elastic–plastic large-strain finite element theory. By utilizing
finite element analysis software such as ANSYS, ABAQUS and DEFORM,
simulations of ultrasonic surface rolling on various materials can be
conducted to obtain residual compressive stress fields, equivalent plastic
strains and microscopic grain sizes [13,14,15]. Zhu et al. [16] estab­
lished a three-dimensional finite simulation model to investigate the
evolution of material surface topography during ultrasonic surface
rolling. However, the effect of surface plastic flow during the rolling
process was disregarded. The accuracy of finite element simulation re­
sults can be influenced by various factors such as unreasonable mesh
division, inaccurate boundary conditions, and neglecting process
parameter interactions. To improve the calculation accuracy of finite
element simulation, Ren et al. [17] established the finite element model
by using a semi-infinite element grid to avoid the influence of stress
wave reflections on simulation results. Although the finite element
method has been widely used in prior research, While the finite element
method has been extensively employed in prior research, its application
to ultrasonic surface rolling simulations has been limited to planar or
cylindrical surfaces. To date, no relevant studies have investigated finite
element simulation analysis of USRP on bearing raceways.
Ultrasonic surface rolling can improve the surface integrity of
bearing steel samples. However, achieving optimal surface integrity
requires process parameter optimization. In the field of machining, most
actual process parameter optimization problems are multi-objective in
nature, with multiple objectives that interact and may even conflict with
each other. Lu et al. [18] used a multi-objective genetic algorithm to
optimize the cutting parameters of the NiTiHf high-temperature shape
memory alloy machining process, resulting in achieving the longest tool
life, lowest energy consumption, and highest surface quality. To make
the cutting performance of the machine tools better, Zuperl et al. [19]
used the radial basis function neural network (RBF) algorithm to
establish a process parameter optimization model and obtained the best
cutting parameters. This category of techniques is commonly referred to
as intelligent optimization methods, which yield a Pareto solution set
comprising numerous non-inferior solutions. Subsequently, the high-
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Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156
quality solutions within the Pareto solution set can be selected based
on processing requirements. However, this type of optimization method
entails significant computational complexity and necessitates careful
design of certain functions. The other type of optimization method in­
volves converting multi-objective optimization into single-objective
optimization using traditional methods, which are simpler in princi­
ple, easier to operate, and more commonly used. These include the
linear weighted summation, response surface analysis and grey corre­
lation analysis methods [20], among which the gray correlation analysis
method exhibits more advantages compared to other traditional opti­
mization techniques. The gray correlation analysis is a method for
measuring the degree of correlation based on changing trends between
response targets. Its advantages include producing optimization results
that are more consistent with qualitative analysis, not requiring exces­
sive sample sizes or typical distribution laws, and having a small
calculation amount [21]. At present, the most commonly used optimi­
zation methods for ultrasonic rolling processes are response surface
method and single factor analysis method. Through the response surface
method, Razi et al. [22] determined the optimal process parameters to
achieve maximum PEEQ value and effective depth after USRP copper
treatment. Through the single-factor analysis method, Wang et al. [23]
determined the optimal process parameters for achieving the highest
residual compressive stress after USRP on Ti-6Al-4 V alloy. However,
optimization through response surface method and single factor analysis
method is limited to experimental design schemes and cannot fully
analyze the influence of each factor interaction on the target. Therefore,
in order to obtain the best surface integrity of bearing raceway by USRP,
the multi-objective process parameter optimization of USRP is carried
out by using the grey correlation analysis method based on the Taguchi
test in this paper.
USRP can significantly improve the surface integrity, fatigue resis­
tance, corrosion resistance and wear resistance of materials. However,
current research on ultrasonic rolling technology has primarily focused
on samples such as bars or discs with planar or cylindrical surfaces. The
utilization of USRP on concave surfaces, such as actual bearing race­
ways, has yet not to be documented. At the same time, there is a lack of
relevant reports regarding the impact of USRP on the surface integrity of
bearing raceways and the process optimization for bearing raceways.
Therefore, in this paper, ultrasonic surface rolling processing is con­
ducted on the bearing raceway using self-developed equipment. A finite
element simulation model of USRP on the bearing raceway is established
and the surface integrity of the bearing raceway is tested. Using the
Taguchi-grey correlation analysis method, the process parameters for
ultrasonic surface rolling on bearing raceways were optimized to obtain
an optimal combination of process parameters. Furthermore, this study
analyzed the effects and mechanisms of ultrasonic surface rolling on
residual stress, surface morphology, micro-structure, and micro-
hardness of bearing raceways. The research findings presented in this
paper provide a theoretical foundation and important guidance for the
application of ultrasonic surface rolling on the bearing ring raceway.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The 7224 bearing is an angular contact ball bearing, which is mainly
used in photovoltaic silicon wafer cutting machines, reducers, gantry
cranes and other equipment. The specific size parameters of the inner
ring of the 7224 bearings are as follows: an inner diameter is 120 mm,
outer diameter of 215 mm, thickness of 40 mm, and a raceway curvature
radius of 13.59 mm (as shown in Fig. 1). Ultrasonic surface rolling is
performed on the inner ring raceway of the 7224 bearings, and the
material is GCr15 high carbon and high chromium steel. The chemical
composition of GCr15 steel is shown in Table 1.
Y. Cheng et al. Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram of USRP on bearing raceway, (b) Device of USRP on bearing raceway.

2.3. Surface integrity testing

Table 1
Main chemical composition of GCr15 steel (mass fraction, %).
The surface roughness of bearing raceways was measured using a
C Mn Si S P Cr specialized instrument (Mitutoyo, Japan). Ten points were measured at
0.95 ~ 1.05 0.20 ~ 0.40 0.15 ~ 0.35 ≤0.02 ≤0.027 1.30 ~ 1.65 both the bottom and edges of the raceway in the circumferential di­
rection, respectively, and an average value was calculated.
Non-destructive testing of residual stress in bearing raceways was
2.2. Ultrasonic rolling device and principle
conducted using a Canadian PROTO-LXRD X-ray stress analyzer. The
measurement accuracy of the stress analyzer conforms to the ASTM
The USRP device consists of a control system, ultrasonic generator,
E915 standard, with an error of less than ± 10 MPa for 10 consecutive
transducer, ultrasonic horn, rolling head, air pump, CA6140A horizontal
measurements of iron powder stress. The radiation source used is a Crka
lathe, fixtures and other ancillary parts (Fig. 1a). The ultrasonic gener­
target, with parameters set at 20 KV pipe pressure and 2 mA pipe flow.
ator converts the input alternating current signal into a high-frequency
The diametral plane of martensite diffraction is (2 1 1), and the same
oscillating electric signal. The transducer then transforms this electrical
inclination fixed ψ method was employed with Beta angles set at 20◦ ,
signal of high-frequency oscillation into mechanical vibration of the
11.8◦ , 5.91◦ , 0◦ , − 5.91◦ , − 11.8◦ and − 20◦ respectively, and the stress
same frequency, while amplifying its amplitude through an amplitude
constant was 5.81 × 10-6 mm/N. Firstly, the residual stress along the
transformer. Thus the dynamic impact on the rolling head is exerted.
axial direction of the bearing raceway surface is detected. Then, layer-
The rolling head is subjected to both static pressure generated by the
by-layer electrolytic corrosion is performed on the raceway surface
cylinder and dynamic impact force of ultrasonic vibration, while feeding
using a sodium chloride and glycerol solution with a corrosion depth of
along the axial direction of the bearing ring for performing ultrasonic
0.1 mm per layer. The residual stress at each corresponding point in each
surface rolling treatment on the raceway. The USRP device operates at a
layer is measured to obtain the residual stress value along the layer
system frequency of 28 KHz with an amplitude adjustment range be­
depth.
tween 5 μm-10 μm. Meanwhile, the adjustable static pressure range of
The three-dimensional surface topography of the bearing raceway
the cylinder ranges from 0 to 2400 N. The fixture designed for the 7224
was observed by a Bruker Contour Elite white light interferometer, and
bearing inner raceway is intended to prevent significant changes in the
the linear profile distribution of the cross-sectional position was ob­
shape and position tolerance of the bearing ring during ultrasonic roll­
tained. Meanwhile, the surface morphology of the bearing raceway was
ing, which could result in a failure of final process precision. Fig. 1 (b)
characterized by means of a scanning electron microscope (JSM-7610F).
illustrates the USRP device on the bearing inner raceway.
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to observe the micro-
structural changes at various depths of the raceway cross-section from
the top surface.

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Y. Cheng et al. Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

The surface roughness of the bearing ring raceway is measured using hardness with negligible deformation, thus qualifying as an analytical
a specialized roughness meter (Mitsuhiro, Japan), with the probe mea­ rigid body. The physical performance parameters of the bearing and
surement path scanning along the axial direction of the bearing ring, rolling head are shown in Table 2. Relevant physical performance pa­
which coincides with the feed path of ultrasonic surface rolling. rameters are provided by the bearing and rolling head manufacturers.
The phase structure and grain size of the raceway surface were In the finite element simulation of USRP on bearing raceway, a
characterized by a D8-ADVANCE X-ray diffraction system (XRD). The Johnson-Cook constitutive model is employed to accurately reflect high
diffraction system uses Cuk-α1 radiation source, XRD was measured at a strain rates, plastic mechanical properties and temperature-induced
current of 35 mA, a voltage of 40 KV, and a scan speed of 1◦ /min. The softening effects. The yield limit of the material is obtained by for­
scanning angle range is 30◦ ~ 90◦ . mula (1).
After polishing the bearing raceway sample section, the HXD- [ ( ) ][ ( )m ]
ε1 T − Tr
1000TMC Vickers microhardness tester was loaded for 15 s under a δ = (A + Bεn ) 1 + Cln 1 + 1− (1)
ε0 Tm − Tr
load of 0.25 N to detect the micro-hardness of the raceway cross-section
at different depths from the top surface. Where δ is the yield limit, A is the yield stress,ε is the equivalent
plastic strain, n is the strain hardening exponent, ε0 and ε1 are reference
strain rate and material strain rate respectively. B,C and m are strain
2.4. Preparation of characterization samples
power index coefficient, strain rate sensitivity coefficient and tempera­
ture sensitivity coefficient, respectively; T, Tr and Tm are sample tem­
Before conducting surface integrity testing, it is necessary to prepare
perature, reference temperature and melting point temperature,
the bearing raceway samples through wire cutting. To prevent excessive
respectively.
stress release caused by cutting and preparation, it is recommended that
The relevant parameters in the J-C material constitutive model of
the samples used for residual stress testing be as large as possible, as
GCr15 bearing steel are obtained by referring to the relevant literature
illustrated in Fig. 2(a). The bearing raceway samples for surface
[24], as shown in Table 3.
morphology, microstructure and microhardness testing are shown in
Fig. 2(b). The bearing raceway is equally cut into three parts along the
bearing axial direction to obtain the samples from the bottom as well as 3.2. Loads and boundary conditions
left and right edges of the raceway.
The micro morphology and XRD patterns of the raceway surface An ultrasonic rolling pressure measuring system is constructed,
were detected, and the microstructure and microhardness of the race­ which consists of a dynamic high-speed and high-frequency piezoelec­
way cross section were detected. tric sensor, a charge amplifier, and a data acquisition card. Under con­
stant static pressure and sinusoidal dynamic impact force in the same
3. Finite element simulation of the USRP on the bearing raceway direction, the rolling head is in contact with the surface of the bearing
raceway to complete the over-frequency vibration impact. At the same
3.1. Geometric model and material parameters time, the rolling of the rolling head completes the “peak-cutting and
valley-filling” on the surface of the bearing raceway.
The ABAQUS/Explicit module is used to perform the finite element The sinusoidal dynamic impact force generating ultrasonic rolling
simulation of the USRP on bearing raceway, and the total solution time
is closely related to the size of the model. To avoid the influence of Table 2
boundary conditions on the stress state of the impact area and reduce Physical performance parameters of 7224 bearing and rolling head.
solution time, a 1/36 bearing raceway was selected as the geometric
Parameter GCr15 Cemented carbide
model for finite element simulation. In the model, it is necessary to
Density (Kg/m3) 7830 14,600
extract the nodal displacement in order to calculate surface roughness
Elastic Modulus (GPa) 219 510
after USRP. Therefore, a linear reduced-integration C3D8RT unit type is Poisson ratio 0.3 0.3
used to solve nodal displacement. The 7224 bearing is made of GCr15 Specific heat capacity (J/Kg‧K) 460
steel, while the rolling head is composed of YG8 cemented carbide. In Thermal conductivity (W/m‧K) 44
the USRP process, the rolling head exhibits high wear resistance and

Fig. 2. Samples for surface integrity testing.

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Y. Cheng et al. Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

Table 3 from combined actions. The residual stress generally detected refers to
J-C constitutive model parameters of GCr15 bearing steel. the normal stress along the Z direction(as shown in Fig. 4), where the
A/MPa B/MPa C m n ε0/s− 1
Tr/K Tm/K positive value represents the residual tensile stress, and the negative
value represents the residual compressive stress. S22 illustrated in Fig. 4
1200 183 0.03 0.78 0.35 0.001 20 1668
(b) represents the axial residual stress distribution direction of the
bearing ring (Y-axis direction). Fig. 4(c) is the equivalent plastic strain
was set as follows: (PEEQ) nephogram of the bearing raceway after USRP. PEEQ is an
∑∞ important indicator to measure the degree of work hardening of a ma­
F(t) = A0 + n=1
(an cosnωt + bn sinnωt) (2) terial in the process of plastic deformation. The greater the PEEQ value,
the greater the degree of work hardening the material [25]. Fig. 4(d)
Where, A0 is constant, n is the number of harmonics, an and bn are the
shows the dent profile of the bearing raceway surface after ultrasonic
harmonic amplitude, ω is the angular frequency.
rolling, in which a node path along the circumferential direction of
When n = 1, an = 0, the loading waveform is sinusoidal, and the
bearing raceway (X-axis direction) created for calculating the surface
static pressure is defined by Fourier function A0 . The frequency of dy­
roughness value in the finite element simulation model, was presented.
namic impact force in the simulation model is set at 28 KHz. Static
We simulate the surface roughness Ra by extracting the displacement
pressure, dynamic impact force, feed motion and rotational constraints
changes in the Z-axis direction of the each node at the center of the dent.
are imposed on the center of mass of the rolling head, rotational con­
Ra is defined as the average distance from each node on the dent profile
straints are applied to the center of the bearing ring, and symmetrical
to its midline. The solution formula for Ra in finite element is shown in
constraints are applied to the end faces of the bearing ring. The contact
formula (3). Where Xi represents the Z-direction displacement of each
between the ultrasonic rolling head and the bearing raceway is set as
face contact, and the friction coefficient is 0.15 by using the contact node in the bearing raceway and X is the average Z-direction displace­
algorithm of the penalty function. The meshing, load, and boundary ment value of the nodes along the node path in the same circumferential
condition settings are shown in Fig. 3. direction. l is the number of nodes in the circumferential direction.

1∑ l

3.3. Finite element simulation results Ra = Xi − X （ 3

l i=1

The finite element method is used to simulate the ultrasonic surface

4. Optimization of ultrasonic rolling process parameters on
rolling processing on a bearing raceway. Residual stress nephogram,
bearing raceways
equivalent plastic strain nephogram, and dent surface profile chart of
bearing raceway surface after ultrasonic surface rolling processing can
In order to obtain bearing raceways with high residual compressive
be obtained. Fig. 4 shows the simulation results under one of the com­
stress, high micro-hardness, and low surface roughness, a multi-
binations of process parameters.
objective optimization of USRP parameters was carried out using the
Fig. 4 (a) and (b) are the Mises stress nephogram and the residual
Taguchi-grey correlation method and finite element method. Fig. 5 gives
stress distribution nephogram along the layer depth of bearing raceway,
the flow chart of multi-objective optimization for USRP parameters.
respectively. The Mises stress, derived from the shear strain energy,
Initially, an orthogonal experimental parameter combination for USRP
conforms to the fourth strength theory of material mechanics and is
was established, followed by a finite element simulation of the bearing
commonly employed to characterize the intricate stress state resulting

Fig. 3. Mesh division, load and boundary condition setting for USRP on bearing raceway.

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Y. Cheng et al. Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

Fig. 4. Finite element simulation results: (a) Mises stress nephogram, (b) Residual stress distribution nephogram, (c) Equivalent plastic strain nephogram, (d) Surface
profile of rolling dents.

Fig. 5. Multi-objective optimization flow chart of USRP parameters.

raceway based on this combination. The surface integrity evaluation component analysis (PCA) was employed to quantitatively analyze the
parameters were used to calculate the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), which weight of influence of surface integrity evaluation parameters on grey
was then subjected to dimensionless (normalized) data processing in correlation grade (GRG), and the optimal parameter combination was
order to obtain the grey correlation coefficient (GRC). Principal obtained by calculating the GRG of surface integrity.

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Y. Cheng et al. Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

4.1. Design of process parameters There are m evaluation levels and n evaluation indicators, which can
constitute an output response matrix:
The process parameters were designed by using a 4-factor 5-level ⎡ ⎤
a11 a12 ... a1n
orthogonal table L25(45). The corresponding parameter levels are ⎢ a21 a22 ... a2n ⎥
shown in Table 4. A=⎢⎣ .
⎥ (8)
. ... . ⎦
am1 am2 ... amn
4.2. Determination of grey correlation coefficient According to formula (9), each response factor aij is transformed into
a standard response factor variable aij
The peak value of residual compressive stress and the degree of work
aij − μj
hardening can be converted to signal-to-noise ratio using formula (4), aij = (i = 1, 2, ..., m; j = 1, 2, ..., n) (9)
sj
where a larger value indicates better performance. Similarly, the surface
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
roughness can be converted into signal-to-noise ratio using formula (5), ∑ ∑m ( )2
where a smaller value implies superior quality. Where, μj = m1 m a ,
i=1 ij j s = 1
m i=1 aij − μj is the sample mean and
( ) sample variance of the j-th response.
1 ∑w
1
(S/N)ij = − 10log (4) ( )
w k=1 γ2ij
Calculate the correlation coefficient matrix R = rlj m×n
( ) ∑m
1 ∑w akl akj
(S/N)ij = − 10log γ2 (5) rlj = k=1 (l, j = 1, 2, ⋅⋅⋅, n) (10)
w k=1 ij m− l
Where, rll = 1, rlj = rjl , rlj is the correlation coefficient between the
Where, (S/N)ij is the signal-to-noise ratio value of the i-th group of
l-th response and the j-th response.
experiments of the j-th response; γ ij is the k-th measurement value of the
j-th response of the i-th group of experiments; w is the number of Calculate eigenvalues and eigenvectors
measurements.
In the grey correlation analysis, the signal-to-noise ratio of the re­ Calculate the eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 ⋯λn and the corresponding eigen­
sidual compressive stress, work hardening degree and surface roughness vectors μ1 , μ2 , ⋯μn of the correlation coefficient matrix R, where μj =
can be normalized by formula (6). [ ]T
μ1j , μ2j , ⋅⋅⋅, μnj , is composed of eigenvectors to form n new index
(S/N)ij − min(S/N)ij
Xij = (6) matrices. The feature vector corresponding to the large eigenvalue is
max(S/N)ij − min(S/N)ij called the main component, so as to obtain the main component index of
Where, Xij is the normalized signal-to-noise ratio value of the i-th the feature vector.
experiment of the j-th response; min(S/N)ij and max(S/N)ij are the min­ ⎧
⎪ z1 = μ11 a1 + μ12 a2 + ⋯ + μ1n an ,
⎪
imum and maximum signal-to-noise ratios of the j-th response, ⎨
z2 = μ12 a1 + μ22 a2 + ⋯ + μ2n an ,
(11)
respectively. ⎪
⎪ ⋯⋯
⎩
The normalized signal-to-noise ratio value can be converted into a zn = μn1 a1 + μn2 a2 + ⋯ + μnn an ,
grey correlation coefficient by formula (7).
Where, the new variable indicator z1 , z2 , …,zn is called the p principal
⃒ ⃒ ⃒ ⃒
min⃒X 0 − Xij ⃒ + ψ max⃒X 0 − Xij ⃒ component of the original variable indicator a1 , a2 , …,an .
GRCij = ⃒⃒ 0 ⃒ ⃒ ⃒ (7) (4) Calculate the principal component contribution rate, the p-th
X − Xij ⃒ + ψ max⃒X 0 − Xij ⃒
principal component contribution rate is:
Where, GRCij is the grey correlation coefficient of the i-th experiment
⃒ ⃒ λp
of the j-th response; ⃒X0 − Xij ⃒ is the deviation sequence value of the i-th bp = ∑n (p = 1, 2, ⋅⋅⋅, n) (12)
⃒ ⃒ ⃒ ⃒ k=1 λk
experiment of the j-th response; min⃒X0 − Xij ⃒ and max⃒X0 − Xij ⃒ are the
minimum deviation sequence value and the maximum deviation The cumulative contribution rate of the first p principal components
sequence value of the j-th response, respectively; X0 is the ideal is:
normalized value, taking 1; ψ is the resolution coefficient, usually taking ∑p
λk
1. dp = ∑k=1
m (13)
k− 1 λk

When the cumulative contribution rate reaches 85%-95%, the first p

4.3. Determination of weight coefficients principal components corresponding to the eigenvalues replace the
original data for analysis.
The influence weights of residual stress, surface roughness and de­ (5) Calculate the weight coefficient
gree of work hardening on surface integrity were quantitatively According to relevant research, the weight of the response is the
analyzed by principal component analysis (PCA). The calculation steps square of each eigenvector of the first principal component [26].
are as follows:
βj = z21j (j = 1, 2, ⋯n) (14)

Table 4 Where, βj is the weight of the j-th response; z1j is the eigenvector of
Taguchi orthogonal experimental factor level table. the first principal component.
Level Amplitude Static pressure Spindle speed(rad/ Rolling
(μm) (N) min) times

1 6 1600 45 1 4.4. Determination of grey correlational grade

2 7 1800 180 3
3 8 2000 300 5 From formula (15), the grey correlation degree of the responses
4 9 2200 450 7 (residual compressive stress, work hardening degree and roughness)
5 10 2400 600 9
under each process parameter combination can be calculated.

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Y. Cheng et al.
∑n
GRGi = β GRCij (15)
j=1 j
Where, GRGi is the grey correlation grade of the i-th group of exper­
iments. The higher the grey correlation grade, the more significant the
impact of process parameters.
5. Results
5.1. Selection of initial process parameters
Selection of initial process parameters of USRP: ultrasonic frequency
28 KHz, static pressure 2000 N, amplitude 7 μm, spindle speed 45 rad/
min, feed speed 0.1 mm/rad, rolling 4 times.
5.2. Verification of the accuracy of finite element simulations
The residual stress extracted from finite element simulation and
measured through experiments in the text both refer to normal stress
along the Z direction as shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 6 presents a comparison
between the finite element simulation results and experimental testing
results for a single point located at the bottom of the raceway along the
layer depth direction, under initial USRP process parameters. It can be
seen from Fig. 6(a) that the simulation results of residual stress are
consistent with the experimental measurement results, with a maximum
error of approximately 3.8%. The finite element simulation and exper­
imental results for surface roughness are shown in Fig. 6(b). The
roughness of the raceway bottom and the raceway edges calculated by
the simulation model are 0.1868 μm and 0.1905 μm, respectively, while
the measured values are 0.16575 μm and 0.2043 μm, respectively. This
Fig. 6. (a) Residual stress versus distance from top surface (b) Surface roughness value of the bearing raceway. (c) PEEQ value and micro-hardness value versus
distance from top surface.
8
Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156
results in a calculation error of 7.3% for the bottom and 7.2% for the
edge. Fig. 6(c) presents a comparison between the measured micro-
hardness values of the bearing raceway along its depth direction and
the finite element calculation results of equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ).
The micro-hardness value of the bearing raceway is approximately 750
HV. It can be seen from the figure that both the PEEQ and the micro-
hardness values gradually decrease along the layer depth direction of
the raceway, and their variation patterns are consistent. This indicates
that PEEQ value is a suitable indicator for assessing work hardening
degree.
The error between the simulation and experimental measurement
results of residual stress comes from several factors, including the
assumption of an ideal isotropic material in the finite element simulation
model, stress hysteresis and release resulting from strain rate effects, as
well as experimental electropolishing. The surface profile displacement
is influenced by the degree of mesh refinement and the shape of mesh
elements, while the roughness calculation results are subject to devia­
tion due to the extraction path of mesh nodes, resulting in a certain
discrepancy between calculated roughness from simulation models and
experimental measurements. The reliability of the simulation model
established in this paper has been verified by comparing the calculated
values of residual stress, surface roughness and degree of hardening to
the experimental measurement values.
5.3. Determination of optimal process parameters
The eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be calculated by formula (12),
as shown in Table 5 and Table 6. By using the eigenvectors of the first
principal component from Table 6, one can determine the weights for
Y. Cheng et al. Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

Table 5 surface integrity, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the

Principal component eigenvalue and contribution rate. grey correlation grade values with a confidence level of 95%. The results
Principal Characteristic Contribution Cumulative of variance analysis are shown in Table 7 (in the table, DF is the degrees
component value contribution of freedom, Seq SS is the order sum of squares of deviations, Adj SS is the
1 1.9561 0.652 0.652 adjusted sum of squares of deviations, Adj MS is the adjusted mean
2 0.9169 0.306 0.958 square of deviations, F is the ratio statistic, P is the significance proba­
3 0.1270 0.042 1.000 bility). In the analysis of variance, the F value serves as a statistic for
testing significance. A higher F value indicates a more significant impact
of process parameters on surface integrity. According to Table 7, the F
Table 6 value indicates that static pressure and amplitude have the most sig­
Principal component eigenvector and weight. nificant impact on the integrity of bearing raceway surfaces, followed by
Response index Feature vector Response rolling times and spindle speed with contribution rates of 38.94%,
weight 27.35%, 23.55%, and 5.54% respectively.
First Second Third
principal principal principal
component component component 5.4. Influence and influence mechanism of USRP on the surface integrity
Peak value of 0.626 − 0.444 0.641 0.391 of bearing raceways
residual
compressive The influence and influence mechanism of grinding (before USRP),
stress
Surface − 0.364 − 0.893 − 0.263 0.132
USRP under initial process parameters (Initial-USRP), and USRP under
roughness optimized process parameters (Optimize-USRP) on surface integrity
Work hardening 0.689 0.069 − 0.721 0.477 were compared and analyzed (See Table 8). The parameters are as
(PEEQ) follows:

5.4.1. Residual stress

residual compressive stress peak value, surface roughness, and degree of
Fig. 8 shows the residual stress distribution curves for a single point
work hardening to be 0.391, 0.132, and 0.477 respectively. Based on the
located at the bottom of the raceway along the layer depth direction
formula (15) and the gray correlation coefficient, one can obtain the
under different machining conditions. After the grinding process, the
value of grey correlation grade. The response graph of the grey corre­
surface residual compressive stress layer of the bearing raceway is only
lation grade was obtained by principal component analysis method, as
0.2 mm, with a maximum residual compressive stress concentration
shown in Fig. 7. A higher value of grey correlation grade indicates a
located on its top surface at approximately 500 MPa. After Initial-USRP,
closer proximity to the expected target. From Fig. 7, it can be obtained
the residual compressive stress layer on the surface of the bearing
that the optimal process parameters for USRP are as follows: an ampli­
raceway is about 0.73 mm, with the maximum residual compressive
tude of 10 μm, a static pressure of 2400 N, a spindle speed of 45 rad/min,
stress reaching around 1000 MPa and located at a depth of 0.2 mm
and a rolling time of 7 cycles.
beneath the top surface. After Optimize-USRP, a residual compressive
To assess the statistical significance of USRP process parameters on
stress layer of about 0.84 mm is formed on the surface of the bearing

Fig. 7. Response graph of grey correlation degree.

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Y. Cheng et al. Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

Table 7
ANOVA results of grey correlation degree values.
Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F Value P Value Contribution

Amplitude(μm) 4 0.073 0.727 0.018 11.86 0.002 27.35%

Static pressure(N) 4 0.104 0.104 0.026 16.89 0.001 38.94%
Spindle speed(rad/min) 4 0.015 0.015 0.004 2.40 0.135 5.54%
Rolling times 4 0.063 0.063 0.016 10.22 0.003 23.55%
Error 8 0.0122 0.0122 0.0015 4.61%
Total 24 0.3036 100.00%

residual stress detection point is illustrated in Fig. 9(a).

Table 8 Fig. 9 (b) shows experimental results of residual stress distribution
Initial and optimize parameters for USRP of bearing raceway.
along the axial direction of a bearing ring at varying distances from its
Amplitude Static Spindle Rolling Amplitude top surface after USRP. It is evident that the residual compressive stress
(μm) pressure speed times (μm)
at the bottom of the raceway exceeds that at the edges on both sides of it.
(N) (rad/min)
The residual stress values at both side edges are essentially identical and
Grinding / / / / / symmetrically distributed. As depth increases, there is a gradual in­
Initial- 7 2000 45 rad/ 0.1 mm/ 4
USRP min rad
crease in residual stress differential between the bottom and edge of the
Optimize- 10 2400 45 rad/ 0.1 mm/ 7 raceway. The greater residual stress at the bottom of the raceway
USRP min rad compared to that at the edge is attributed to the contact force between
the rolling element and bearing raceway surface, as illustrated in Fig. 10.
As the rolling head gradually transitions from the bottom to the edge of
the raceway, there is a reduction in applied rolling force (static pressure
+ dynamic impact force) on the bearing raceway. At the bottom of the
bearing raceway, vertical application of maximum rolling force occurs.
Rolling head moving towards the edge of the bearing raceway causes the
contact position between the rolling head and the bearing raceway to
shift from center to edge, resulting in a decrease in contact force applied
to the bearing raceway surface and a corresponding reduction in resid­
ual stress.
Under the optimized process parameters, the finite element simula­
tion for the USRP on the bearing raceway was conducted. Fig. 11 dis­
plays the residual stress nephogram, which illustrates the residual stress
distribution along the axial of the bearing ring (Y-axis direction) on both
the bottom and edge surfaces of the bearing raceway. The maximum
residual compressive stress along the depth direction of the bottom and
edges of the bearing raceway appears at depth of about 0.2 mm below
the top surface. The residual stress nephogram also reflects the stress
state of the transition zone located between USRP strengthened area and
non-strengthened area. The maximum residual compressive stress gen­
erates on the top surface of the transition zone, which is much larger
Fig. 8. Experimental measurement results of residual stress versus distance
than that on the top surface of the strengthened area by USRP. This is
from impacted surface under different machining conditions.
because the top surface of the transition zone undergoes plastic defor­
mation under the extrusion pressure from the USRP strengthened area,
raceway, with the maximum residual compressive stress approximately
which increases the specific volume of the surface metal. Due to the
1198 MPa and located at the depth of 0.2 mm beneath the top surface. It
restriction of the elastic deformation of the material in the non-
can be seen that the ultrasonic surface rolling treatment can increase the
strengthened area, a large residual compressive stress will be gener­
surface residual compressive stress and the thickness of the residual
ated on the top surface of the transition zone.
compressive stress layer, and the position of the maximum residual
compressive stress shifts from the top surface to the subsurface.
5.4.2. Surface micro-morphology and roughness
In the USRP process, the continuous impact of the rolling head and
Figs. 12 and 13 show the 2D and 3D surface micro-morphologies of
static pressure exertion result in severe plastic deformation on the sur­
the bearing raceway sample under different machining conditions. The
face of the bearing raceway. Consequently, compressive residual stress
sample of bearing raceway in the middle of Fig. 2 is taken, with a length
generated by USRP is greater and deeper than that produced by
of 8 mm, a width of 13 mm and a raceway radius of 13.59 mm. It can be
grinding. Furthermore, simultaneous elastic deformation occurs in
seen from Fig. 12(a) that different depths of grinding furrows were
subsurface material while plastic deformation takes place on the surface
generated on the surface of the bearing raceway, and small grinding
of the bearing raceway. The prevention of plastic deformation impedes
cracks, spalling and slight smearing phenomena were observed on both
the recovery of elastic deformation, resulting in surface material
sides of the furrows. Fig. 12(b) shows the surface micro-topography of
compression and subsurface tension. As a result, residual compressive
the Initial-USRP on bearing raceway. Compared to Fig. 12(a), the
stress is induced in the depth direction of the bearing raceway surface,
grinding furrows on the surface of the raceway became shallower and
leading to maximum residual compressive stress [27]. Compared to
narrower, the grinding micro-cracks and slight smearing disappear, and
Initial-USRP, Optimize-USRP generates a greater magnitude of residual
the surface of the raceway became smooth. Fig. 12(c) shows the surface
compressive stress and a deeper layer of residual compressive stress,
micro-topography of the Optimize-USRP on bearing raceway. Compared
which is more conducive to enhancing the fatigue life of bearings.
to Initial-USRP, the grinding furrow is further shallower and narrower,
After USRP on the bearing raceway, the residual stress is uniformly
but a deeper rolling mark appears locally. The above phenomenon
detected along the axial direction of the bearing. The location of the

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Y. Cheng et al. Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

Fig. 9. (a)Residual stress detection point of the raceway. (b) Experimental results of residual stress distribution along the axial direction of a bearing ring at varying
distances from its top surface.

Fig. 10. Force analysis diagram of rolling head during USRP process.

Fig. 11. Residual stress distribution along the axial of the bearing ring on both the bottom and edge surfaces of the bearing raceway.

shows that USRP can significantly improve the surface micro-
morphology of the bearing raceway and improve its surface quality,
but the selection of USRP process parameters affects the improvement of
surface quality.
In order to investigate the feasibility of utilizing USRP for enhancing
the surface quality of bearing raceways, a thorough analysis is con­
ducted on the mechanism of “peak-cutting and valley-filling”. Fig. 13
shows the 3D surface micro-topography, surface profile curve along the
section line, and roughness map of the bearing raceway under different
machining conditions. It is evident that the grinding furrows formed by
grinding exhibit distinct periodic peaks and valleys, with a certain
number of pits and micro-crack defects present on the surface. The
roughness of the ground surface measures approximately 0.4 μm. After
Initial-USRP, the surface peaks became shorter, the valleys were filled,

11
Y. Cheng et al.
Fig. 12. Bearing raceway surface microtopography: (a) Grinding, (b) Initial-USRP, (c) Optimize-USRP.
Fig. 13. (a) 3D surface topography of bearing raceway surface. (b) Profile curve of the cross-section surface. (c) Surface roughness of the bearing raceway.
and the differences between peaks and valleys significantly reduced. The
surface roughness values decreased from 0.4 μm to about 0.18 μm.
Under the optimize-USRP, the overall differences between the peaks and
valleys of the bearing raceway surface further reduced, and the surface
roughness has little change compared to that under the Initial-USRP.
5.4.3. Micro-structure
The bearing ring is made of GCr15 hypereutectoid steel that has
undergone spheroidizing annealing, quenching, and low-temperature
tempering. Its microstructure mainly consists of tempered martensite
(M) and a significant amount of undissolved carbide (UC) particles (refer
to Fig. 14a). According to the size of carbide particles, they are classified
into primary carbides (PCs; size > 1 μm), large secondary carbides
(LSCs; 0.2 μm < size ≤ 1 μm), and small secondary carbides (SSCs; size
≤ 0.2 μm). The micro-structure images of the near-surface layer of the
bearing raceway, obtained under different machining conditions, are
shown in Fig. 14. It is observed that the orientation distribution of
tempered martensite in the near-surface layer of the bearing raceway
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Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156
after grinding is disordered, and the carbide particles are relatively
large. Following USRP treatment, a plastically deformed layer charac­
terized by refined grains emerges on the top surface. The thickness of
this plastic deformation layer measures approximately 4.2 μm under
Initial-USRP and about 4.5 μm under optimize-USRP.
The plastic deformation layer generated in the GCr15 bearing steel
by ultrasonic surface rolling is much thinner compared to that in the
alloy materials with low hardness such as TC4, TC11, 40Cr and so on
[28,29]. In the plastic deformation layer, adjacent tempered martensitic
laths appear to merge and deflect at a certain angle along the rolling
direction. The grain boundaries become blurred due to plastic defor­
mation, and the plastic deformation layer looks like flocculent as a
whole. During the USRP process, a high-frequency dynamic impact force
and static pressure are applied to the rolling head to maintain direc­
tional rolling motion. The resulting rolling force and tangential shear
force cause grains in the near-surface layer to deflect in the same di­
rection, forming a directional grain stack that leads to plastic deforma­
tion. In addition, it has been observed that the coarse carbide particles in
Y. Cheng et al. Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

Fig. 14. Near-surface micro-structure of bearing raceway: (a) Grinding, (b) Initial-USRP, (c) Optimize -USRP.

the near-surface layer are eliminated after USRP treatment, and the
density of carbide particles is significantly increased, indicating a
refinement of carbide particles in the near-surface layer of bearing
raceway.
In order to study the refinement mechanism of carbide particles by
USRP, high-magnification SEM images of the cross-sections of bearing
raceway under different machining conditions are shown in Fig. 15.
Observations show that there was no change in carbide distribution and
size along the depth direction on the cross-sections of bearing raceway
after grinding. The numbers of LSCs and SSCs exhibited a significant
increase, while the size distribution of carbides displayed a gradient rise
along the depth direction on the cross-sections of bearing raceway after
USRP. For the Initial-USRP sample, the coarse carbide particles (PCs)
within a layer depth of 200 μm were refined into varying sizes of LSCs
and SSCs particles, with their respective sizes gradually increasing as the
layer depth increased. At approximately 200 μm, PCs reappeared but
were extruded into laths. For the Optimize-USRP sample, no coarse PCs
have been observed in the layer depth up to 400 μm, indicating a deeper

Fig. 15. High-magnification SEM images of the cross-section of bearing raceway under different machining conditions.

13
Y. Cheng et al. Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156

plastic deformation layer of the bearing raceway and better refining

effect on carbide under optimal process parameters.
Based on the relevant research on the mechanisms of carbide fracture
and dissolution [30,31], Carbide particles in steel will gradually dissolve
and fracture as a result of their interaction with moving dislocations
during plastic deformation. After USRP, carbide particles will undergo
plastic deformation with martensite lath matrix. At this stage, high-
density dislocations will accumulate at the interface between the car­
bide and matrix, leading to a significant stress concentration phenom­
enon due to their interaction with the interface. This process ultimately
facilitates dislocation nucleation within the carbide. Parallel dislocation
slip occurs within the carbide, leading to the formation of microcracks
along and within the slip band. Microcracks propagate through the
carbide, ultimately resulting in its fracture. Under stress, the carbide
undergoes dissolution and experiences a reduction in cross-sectional
area. Fracture occurs when the minimum critical cross-section is
reached due to this dissolution process. In the USRP system, the raceway
Fig. 17. The size of grain on the bearing raceway surface under different
surface layer experiences a significant accumulation of impact energy machining conditions (calculated by XRD spectrum obtained from experimental
due to the combined effects of ultrasonic dynamic impact force and measurements).
static pressure. This results in prominent plastic strain and intensified
dislocation movement. With increasing depth, the impact energy grad­
nm, respectively. Relevant researchers believe that grain refinement is a
ually attenuates, accompanied by a decrease in strain rate and disloca­
common situation in rolling. USRP combines ultrasound on the basis of
tion movement. Consequently, the degree of carbide dissolution and
rolling to stimulate the acceleration of dislocation motion, which can
fracture weakens, leading to a gradual decline in carbide refinement
further refine grains [34]. The grain refinement effect under the optimal
along the depth direction.
USRP parameters is the most significant.
The XRD pattern in Fig. 16 reveals that the (1 1 0) diffraction peak
exhibits the highest intensity, while the second peak (2 1 1) displays
5.4.4. Micro-hardness
asymmetric Martensite double peaks. Through the magnified view of the
Fig. 18(a) displays the micro-hardness distribution measured along
primary peak (1 1 0) and secondary peak (2 1 1) depicted in Fig. 16 (b)
the depth direction on the cross-section of the bearing raceway under
and (c), it was observed that the diffraction peaks of the bearing race­
various machining conditions. It is evident that the surface micro-
way, namely primary peak (1 1 0) and secondary peak (2 1 1), underwent
hardness of the bearing raceway remains almost constant at approxi­
significant shifts following ultrasonic surface rolling treatment, resulting
mately 750 HV throughout its depth after grinding. After undergoing
in broadening of Bragg diffraction peak. After optimizing the USRP
USRP, the surface micro-hardness of the bearing raceway increased from
parameters, not only is there an increase in displacement of the main
760 HV to 825 HV and 840 HV under initial and optimized process
peak (1 1 0) and secondary peak (2 1 1), but also an enlargement in width
parameters, respectively. This resulted in a hardened layer with a
and area of the diffraction peak. Generally speaking, the broadening of
thickness of approximately 750 μm. However, there was a decrease in
X-ray diffraction peaks is mainly caused by grain refinement and lattice
micro-hardness along the depth direction. The equivalent plastic strain
distortion [32]. Therefore, it can be inferred that the grains on the
nephogram in Fig. 18(b) reveals that the bearing raceway surface ex­
bearing raceway surface are significantly refined after USRP, and the
periences a greater degree of plastic deformation and work hardening
grain refinement degree reaches the nanometer level. The average grain
under optimal USRP parameters compared to initial ones.
size was calculated from the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the
During the ultrasonic surface rolling process, plastic deformation
Bragg diffraction peak of the main peak (1 1 0) according to the Scherrer-
accumulates and leads to significant grain refinement, while a residual
Wilson equation [33]. The grain size comparison chart on the bearing
stress field is formed on the bearing raceway surface. According to the
raceway surface is shown in Fig. 17. The surface grain sizes under
Hall-Petch theory, the refinement of grains increases the deformation
grinding, Initial-USRP and Optimize-USRP are 137 nm, 123 nm and 107

Fig. 16. XRD patterns of the bearing raceway surface under different machining conditions.

14
Y. Cheng et al.
Fig. 18. (a) Micro-hardness distribution along the depth direction on the cross-section of the bearing raceway under different machining conditions. (b) Equivalent
plastic strain nephogram of bearing raceway.
resistance of grain boundaries, which is beneficial to improve the micro-
hardness of the material [35]. In addition, during the USRP process,
dislocation movement occurs within the material, resulting in the
intersection and proliferation of dislocations as well as a reduction in
carbide size. Additionally, ultrafine carbides can be pinned to generate a
work-hardening effect. The dual action of grain refinement and work
hardening effect significantly increases the micro-hardness of the
bearing raceway. But higher strains lead to more carbide dissolution and
a higher proportion of recrystallized grain formation, which limits the
increase in micro-hardness. Therefore, the micro-hardness decreases
slowly along the depth direction, and it is difficult to further increase the
hardness after reaching a certain depth.
6. Discussions
Grinding is primarily employed to enhance the surface quality of
bearing ring raceways. However, due to the stochastic nature of abrasive
particle size, shape and distribution, grinding furrows of varying depths
may appear on the raceway surface. This can result in localized stress
concentration on the surface which, if it exceeds material fracture limits
at a given position, can lead to grinding cracks and ultimately spalling
under severe conditions. Additionally, when the temperature in the
grinding contact zone reaches a certain level, some of the grinding
debris will melt and adhere to the surface, resulting in smearing. Typi­
cally, the bearing raceway by grinding has a rough surface with high
peaks and deep valleys. During rolling contact in bearing, these peaks
are contacted first which can lead to stress concentration and reduce
bearing fatigue life [36]. During the grinding process, the mechanical
action of abrasive grains results in plastic deformation on the surface
layer of the workpiece. A Hertzian stress field is formed near the contact
point between the bearing raceway and abrasive grain tip, leading to
residual compressive stress formation in the surface layer of the work­
piece [37]. But this mechanical action only generates residual
compressive stress in the extremely thin layer on the surface.
After the ultrasonic surface rolling process of the bearing ring race­
way, the rolling head is used to roll the peak of the raceway surface,
causing plastic flow of the peak material and filling in the valley of the
raceway surface, thereby improving its surface morphology. The convex
peaks on the raceway surface fill in the valleys, reducing the height
difference between them and thus decreasing surface roughness. This
weakens stress concentration and effectively prolongs the rolling contact
fatigue life of bearings. At the same time, the bearing raceway is
continuously impacted by the rolling head, and the raceway surface
layer will produce a certain degree of elastic–plastic deformation. The
resulting elastic deformation cannot be recovered due to the plastic
deformation, which leads to large residual compressive stress in the
15
Materials & Design 232 (2023) 112156
surface layer of the bearing raceway. Under the influence of rolling
pressure, tempered martensite laths coalesce to form a flocculent plastic
deformation layer. Moreover, coarse carbide particles also undergo
plastic deformation, resulting in dislocation formation within the car­
bide. The carbide particles gradually dissolve and fracture due to their
interaction with moving dislocations during plastic deformation. The
grain size of the surface layer of the bearing raceway has been signifi­
cantly refined, and the dislocation movement in the process of plastic
deformation has resulted in the improvement of the microhardness of
the bearing raceway, which effectively increases the wear resistance and
fatigue resistance of the bearing raceway surface.
After optimizing the process parameters of USRP, an increase in
static pressure and rolling times results in further smoothing of the
bearing raceway, but may also lead to deep rolling marks in localized
areas. Compared to initial USRP, optimized-USRP introduces a larger
residual compressive stress and deeper residual compressive stress layer.
The refinement degree of carbide particles and work hardening degree
are also greater, which confirms the necessity of process parameter
optimization.
Due to the concave surface of the bearing ring raceway, there is a
greater residual compressive stress at the bottom of the raceway than at
its edges on both sides. To improve the uneven stress distribution, the
feed path of the rolling tool may be designed to rotate at a corresponding
angle with the change of its contact point with the bearing raceway
along the circumferential direction to ensure that the center point of the
rolling head is always in contact with the raceway surface, which will be
the development direction of a rolling head.
7. Conclusions
The inner ring raceway of the 7224 bearings was processed by ul­
trasonic surface rolling, and the finite element simulation model for
USRP on bearing raceway was established. The reliability of the finite
element model was verified by comparing the results of the finite
element simulation analysis to the experimental results. Based on the
finite element simulation results and Taguchi-gray correlation analysis
method, the process parameters of ultrasonic surface rolling were opti­
mized. The bearing raceway surfaces under different machining condi­
tions were compared and studied, and the influence and influence
mechanism of USRP on the surface integrity were analyzed. Several
main conclusions can be drawn as follows:
(1) The optimal process parameters for the USRP on the inner ring
raceway of 7224 bearings are as follows: an amplitude of 10 μm, a
static pressure of 2400 N, a spindle speed of 45 rad/min, and
rolling times of 7 cycles. The most significant factors affecting the
Y. Cheng et al.
surface integrity of the bearing raceway are static pressure and
amplitude, followed by rolling times and spindle speed.
(2) The formation of residual compressive stress during USRP is
attributed to the inhomogeneous elastic and plastic deformation.
Following ultrasonic rolling, a layer of residual compressive
stress with a depth of approximately 0.84 mm from the top sur­
face is formed in the bearing raceway, with a maximum value
reaching about 1198 MPa.
(3) The USRP based on the finishing mechanism of “peak-cutting and
valley-filling” can improve the surface micro-morphology, reduce
roughness value Ra to about 0.2 μm, and effectively eliminate
microscopic cracks caused by grinding on bearing raceways.
(4) After undergoing USRP, the adjacent tempered martensitic laths
merge and deflect at a certain angle along the rolling direction,
resulting in a directional grain stack and generating a flocculent
plastic deformation layer. The carbide particles are also signifi­
cantly refined, with their size distribution changing gradiently
along the layer depth.
(5) The micro-hardness of the bearing raceway surface increased
from 760 HV to 840 HV due to the combined effects of surface
grain refinement and work hardening. However, excessive strains
can cause carbide dissolution and a higher proportion of recrys­
tallized grains, which limits the increase in micro-hardness.
Therefore, there is a gradual decrease in micro-hardness along
the layer depth direction.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgments
Thanks for the support from the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (Grant No. 52075274) and the Shandong Provincial Key
Research and Development Program (Major Science and Technology
Innovation Project) (Grant No. 2022CXGC010304 and
2020CXGC011003).
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