Lesson 9: Moral Theories (Chapter 4, Lesson 2 on our Ethics book)

Lesson Objectives (KSA):

At the end of the session, students should be able to:
a) Express the meaning of moral theories
b) Specify sample situations of each moral theory
c) Demonstrate thoughtfulness on which moral theory is appropriate to a
given moral situation

What is a Moral theory?

- It explains why a certain action is wrong, or right or why we ought to
act in certain ways.
- It is a theory of how we determine right from wrong conducts.

Moral Theories:
1. Moral Absolutism (used by Religion) (from my old notes)
- states that there is always one right answer to any ethical
question.
- Opposite of Moral Relativism.
2. Consequentialism
- Authored by Jeremy Bentham (1789), John Stuart Mill (1861), and Henry
Sidgwick (1907).
- holds that acts are deemed to be morally right or wrong solely on the
basis of their consequences.
- A person should choose the action that maximizes good consequences.
- For example: most people would agree that lying is wrong, but if
telling a lie would help save a person' s life, consequentialism says
it’s the right thing to do.
- This is useful when faced with a moral dilemma: A person should choose
the action that maximizes good consequences and lessens harm or
damage.
- The most common form of consequentialism is utilitarianism.

3. Moral Subjectivism
- Holds that there are no objective moral properties and that ethical
statements are in fact arbitrary because they do not express immutable
truths.
- Moral statements are made true or false by the:
 o attitudes, opinion, personal preference or feeling held by of
someone (PERSONAL SUBJECTIVISM)
o and/or conventions of the observers (SOCIETAL SUBJECTIVISM)

Types of Moral Subjectivism:

1. Simple Subjectivism:
- the view that ethical statements reflect sentiments,
personal preferences and feelings rather than objective
facts.
2. Individualist Subjectivism:
- the view originally put forward by Protagoras, that there
are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are
individuals in the world.
- It is effectively a form Of Egoism, which maintains that
every human being ought to pursue what is in his or her
self-interest exclusively.
3. Moral Relativism:
- the view that for a thing to be morally right is for it to
be approved of by society, leading to the conclusion that
different things are right for people in different societies
and different periods in history.
4. Ideal Observer Theory:
- the view that what is right is determined by the attitudes
that a hypothetical ideal observer (a being who is perfectly
rational, imaginative and informed) would have.
- Adam Smith and David Hume espoused early versions of the
Ideal Observer Theory, and Roderick Firth (1917-1987) is
responsible for a more sophisticated modem version.
5. Ethical Egoism:
- Right and wrong is determined by what is in your self-
interest. Or, it is immoral to act contrary to your self-
interest.
- Ethical Egoism is usually based upon Psychological Egoism,
that we, by nature, act selfishly.
6. Utilitarianism
- also known as consequentialism
- popularized by British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John
Stuart Mill in the 19th century.
- the best way to make a moral decision is to look at the
potential consequences of each available choice.
- pick the option that increases happiness or that which
lessens suffering
- Often summed up as a philosophy of “The greatest good for
the greatest number of people.
7. Deontology
- It focuses on the rightness or wrongness of actions
themselves.
- What makes a choice right is its conformity with moral
norms: ‘Right takes priority over Good.’
 - The right thing to do is that which is in adherence with
rules.
- Deontology is derived from the 2 Greek words:
o ‘deon’ for duty
o ‘logos’ for science (or study).
- It is a duty-based moral theory. For example: society needs
rules in order to function, and that a person can only be
called moral to the extent that he abides by those rules.
- According to deontology, you need to focus on the act, such
as protecting your family, and not the likely death it will
mean for the intruder.
- Immanuel Kant: the most famous and eloquent exponent of
deontology.
 Kant’s Categorical Imperative helps people decide which
actions should be governed by rules.
o "Act only according to that maxim by which you can
also will that it would become a universal law."
o People should only do things that they would be
happy to see everyone does.
o For example, people shouldn't lie, because if
everyone lies all the time then society would
collapse.
8. Virtue Ethics
- Virtue ethics emphasizes an individual's character as the
key element of ethical thinking, rather rules about the acts
themselves (Deontology) or their consequences
(Consequentialism)
- Only good people (virtuous)can make good moral decisions.
- Therefore, the best way to be moral is to constantly seek to
improve oneself by practicing virtues.
- Sample Virtues: (vices opposite)
o wisdom, prudence, loyalty, honesty, temperance,
bravery, magnanimity, justice and many more.
- If a person tries his best to embody these traits, then by
definition he will always be in a good position to make
moral judgments: Moral ascendancy.
- Its goal is what kind of person we are and should be.
- Elements of Virtue Ethics:
1. Eudaimonism
- holds that the proper goal of human life is eudaimonia (happiness,
well-being or good life. This goal can be achieved by:
o a lifetime of practicing "arête" (the virtues) in one's
everyday activities
o subject to the exercise of "phronesis" (practical wisdom) to
resolve any conflicts or dilemmas which might arise.
- Aristotle – promoter of Virtue Ethics
- He categorized virtues: a) moral and b) intellectual (this will be
discussed further on another topic about Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics)
2. Ethics of Care
 - was developed by a Feminist writer Annette Baier (1987) in the
second half of the 20th century
- was motivated by the idea that men think in masculine terms such as
justice and autonomy, whereas women think in feminine terms such as
caring.
- It calls for a change in how we view morality and the virtues,
shifting towards virtues exemplified by women, such as taking care
of others, patience, the ability to nurture, self-sacrifice, etc.,
which have been marginalized because society has not adequately
valued the contributions of women.
- It emphasizes the importance of solidarity, community and
relationships rather than universal standards and impartiality.
- It argues that instead of doing the right thing even if it requires
personal cost or sacrificing the interest of family or community
members, as the traditional consequentialist and deontological
approaches suggest, we can, and indeed should, put the interests of
those who are close to us above the interests of complete
strangers.
2.1 Agent-Based Theory
- was developed by Michael Slote (1993)
- It is based on our common-sense intuitions about which
character traits are admirable (e.g., benevolence, kindness,
compassion, etc.),
- Character traits we can be identified by looking at the
people we admire, our moral exemplars.
2.2. Theory of Natural Rights
- Popularized by John Locke
- Locke claimed that every person is endowed with certain
inalienable rights, such as the right to life, the right to
own property, and the right to liberty.
- Natural rights theorists argue that these rights are self-
evident, and would exist even if nobody believed in them.
- Right to Property
o without the right to own property, there is no incentive
to create property and therefore there is no mechanism
by which society can advance (Pangle, 1988).
- Right to Life
o the human law of nature is the preservation of mankind.
To serve that purpose, he reasoned, individuals have
both a right and a duty to preserve their own lives.
Murderers, however, forfeit their right to life since
they act outside the law of reason.
- Right to Liberty
o individuals should be free to make choices about how to
conduct their own lives as long as they do not interfere
with the liberty of others.
3. Moral Relativism
- No one person’s morals are better or worse than any other.
 - A person’s moral code is shaped by the society in which he/she was
raised, and that no society is inherently better or worse that any
other.
REFERENCE:
Leaño, Gubia-on, Ocampo, (2018). Ethics for College Students. Mindshapers Company
Incorporated. Manila, Philippines.