1.

Electrostatic effect
The fundamental principle behind electrostatic field-based measurements is
Coulomb's Law, which describes the force between two charged objects. In these
instruments, two conductive plates are placed in a static electric field. When an
electric potential is applied across the plates, a force proportional to the product of
the charges on the plates and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them is generated, according to Coulomb's Law. This force creates a
deflecting torque on one of the plates, causing it to move and indicating the
measured quantity.

Example devices :
a. Electrostatic Voltmeters
b. Capacitance Sensors
c. Electrostatic Force Microscopy (EFM)

2. Electromagnetic effect
The fundamental principle behind electromagnetic field-based measurements is
electromagnetic induction, a phenomenon that forms the basis of numerous
advanced measurement techniques. Electromagnetic induction occurs when a
changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a nearby conductor, creating
a vital link between magnetic fields and electrical currents. This principle has
revolutionized various fields of measurement, providing precise and versatile tools
for scientists, engineers, and researchers. Here, we delve into the applications and
significance of electromagnetic induction in diverse measurement technologies.

Example devices :
a. Electromagnetic Flow Meters
b. Current Transformers (CTs)
c. Inductance and Capacitance Meters