Topic 7.

2: TRAnSCRIPTIOn
Sections of a Gene Gene Expression

A gene is a sequence of DNA which is transcribed into RNA Transcription Factors

• Most genes encode proteins, but some do not (e.g. tRNA)
A gene sequence has three main sections:
• Promoter (transcription initiation site)
• Coding sequence (the region transcribed)
• Terminator (transcription termination site)
As DNA is double stranded, only one strand is transcribed
• The antisense strand is transcribed into RNA
• The sense strand is not transcribed into RNA
Gene expression is regulated by proteins (transcription factors)
that bind to specific sequences associated with a promoter
• Activators bind enhancer sites ( ︎ rate of transcription)
• Repressors bind silencer sites (➡︎︎ rate of transcription)
The presence of regulatory proteins may be tissue-specific
or may be influenced by chemical signals (e.g. hormones)
Basal factors + Activator + Repressor

Transcription Normal levels High levels Low levels of

RNA polymerase binds to a promoter and unwinds DNA
• It breaks the H bonds between complementary bases
Nucleoside triphosphates bind to complementary bases
• In RNA, uracil pairs with adenine instead of thymine
RNA polymerase covalently joins the nucleotides together
• The two extra phosphates are released (provides energy)
Transcription occurs in a 5’ → 3’ direction (antisense strand)
• At the terminator site, RNA polymerase is detached and
the RNA sequence is released (and the DNA rewinds)
Splicing
of transcription of transcription transcription
Nucleosomes
Nucleosomes also help regulate transcription in eukaryotes
• Histones proteins have protruding tails that determine
how tightly the DNA is packaged within nucleosomes
Modifications to these tails alters the DNA packaging:
• Acetylation makes DNA less tightly packed
• Methylation makes DNA more tightly packed
Cells package DNA differently according to genetic needs
• Active genes remain unpackaged as euchromatin
• Inactive genes are tightly packed as heterochromatin

Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription has occurred
• Modifications must occur to produce mature mRNA
Non-coding regions within genes are removed (splicing)
• Introns are non-coding regions in genes (intruding)
• Exons are the coding regions of genes (expressing)
DNA Methylation
DNA can also be directly methylated to change expression
patterns of genes over time in response to external stimuli
• Increased methylation = decreased transcription
Methylation Patterns in Twins Over Time

Exons can be selectively removed to form different proteins

Twin Twin Twin Twin 90
from the same gene (this is called alternative splicing) A B A B 80
Number of differences

70
Exon 1 Exon 2 Exon 3 Exon 4 Exon 5 60
50
40

1 2 4 5 1 2 3 5 30
Alternative 20
Splicing 10
0

Protein A Protein B 3-year-old 50-year-old 3 years 50 years