Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

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Expert Systems With Applications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/eswa

Secure and optimized satellite image sharing based on chaotic eπ map and
Racah moments
Hicham Karmouni a, b, *, Mohamed Amine Tahiri c, Idriss Dagal d, c, Hicham Amakdouf e,
Mohamed Ouazzani Jamil f, Hassan Qjidaa c, Mhamed Sayyouri b
a
National School of Applied Sciences, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco
b
Laboratory of Engineering, Systems and Applications, National School of Applied Sciences, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, Morocco
c
Laboratory of Electronic Signals and Systems of Information LESSI, Dhar El Mahrez Faculty of Science, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah-Fez University, Fez, Morocco
d
Electrical Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
e
Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Institute of Sports Sciences, Fez, Morocco
f
Systems and Sustainable Environment Laboratory (SED), Faculty of Engineering Sciences (FSI) Private University of Fez (UPF), Fez, Morocco

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The objective of this paper is to contribute to the sharing, transfer, and secured indexing of large color images.
Racah moments Watermarking and digital encryption have emerged as alternative and complementary solutions to ensure
Schur decomposition authorized access, facilitate authentication of content, or prevent illegal reproduction. For this reason, we sug­
Singular value decomposition
gest a new system based on four techniques derived from various transformation and decomposition methods,
Discrete wavelet transform
Aquila optimization algorithm
such as the discrete orthogonal Racah moment transformations (DORMT), which allows the information capacity
to be reduced to a number of coefficients, as well as the discrete wavelet transform (DWT), which makes it
possible to decompose into a certain number of multilevel sub-bands, to have the sub-band that represents most
of the image information. In addition, Schur decomposition (SD) and singular value decomposition (SVD) have
been used to increase security. The proposed system consists of two main phases. The first phase is the inte­
gration of a color watermark, first applying DORMT-SD-SVD to a color host image and then applying DWT-SD-
SVD to achieve a compromise between capacity, invisibility and robustness in terms of quality and privacy. The
second phase is the encryption of the watermarked image with an eπ map to increase security for sharing,
transfer and indexing. This system uses an Aquila Optimization Algorithm (AOA) as an optimization procedure to
find the best set of DORMT parameters and provide a dynamic and adaptive scale factor. The experimental
results, in which the proposed system’s properties are tested and compared to those of other systems, make it
clear that the proposed system is useful in terms of its level of security, capacity, invisibility, and resistance to
attacks that use signal processing.

1. Introduction
Due to the rapid development of information and communication
technologies, which are now pervasive and used in all fields, informa­
tion is disseminated, stored and manipulated in all forms (images,
documents, audio) through communication networks (Tahiri et al.,
2022; Xia et al., 2021). Parallel to the development of communication
networks, fraud risk or intrusion has increased because the internet is
not a secure means of exchanging information (Wang et al., 2022;
Burstein et al., 2020). That is why it is absolutely necessary to have a
deeper understanding of the issues that arise in regard to security and
information confidentiality (Li et al., 2018; Hsu et al., 2022). To fulfil
the need for authenticating information transferred through public
communication channels, cryptography, shorthand and digital water­
mark techniques play a very crucial role (Luo, 2022; Liu et al., 2022). In
this context, many numerical images, in particular color images, are
very common in people’s lives, which makes them very convenient for
information processing and storage applications (Prabha and Shatheesh
Sam, 2020; Chen et al., 2022). However, many numerical images can be
broadcast without copyright owner permission, which poses a severe

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: h.karmouni@uca.ac.ma (H. Karmouni), mohamedamine.tahiri@usmba.ac.ma (M.A. Tahiri), idriss.dagal@std.yildiz.edu.tr (I. Dagal), hicham.
amakdouf@usmba.ac.ma (H. Amakdouf), ouazzani@upf.ac.ma (M.O. Jamil), hassan.qjidaa@usmba.ac.ma (H. Qjidaa), mhamed.sayyouri@usmba.ac.ma
(M. Sayyouri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2023.121247
Received 26 December 2022; Received in revised form 11 August 2023; Accepted 17 August 2023
Available online 25 August 2023
0957-4174/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

Table 1 and watermark images are scrambled using Arnold’s chaotic map, and
A collection of watermark methods based on color images. the security level of the proposed watermark system is significantly
Objectives Approaches Evaluation metric increased.
L. Decheng et al. (Liu et al., 2021) suggested a new quaternary blind
Proposed a double-blind DWT, SVD, Particle BER, NC, SSIM,
watermark for authenticating swarm optimization PSNR, execution watermark scheme for color images. The proposed system is based on
RGB images by adding an (PSO), Arnold transform time Schur decomposition (SD), Affine Transform (AT) and Quaternary
invisible and strong watermark Coding. S. Sourabh et al. (S. K, M. K, and P. Kora, 2020) suggested a
(Liu et al., 2021). robust color watermark image method in the field of transformation via
Proposed a blind watermarking QR decomposition, PSNR, SSIM, NC,
method by embedding a color Arnold, Message Digest execution time
artificial intelligence. The proposed system is based on a DWT, SVD,
image watermark inside a (MD5) security analysis chaotic map and metaheuristic optimization algorithm. S. Qingtang
color host image (Su et al., et al. (Su and Chen, 2017) proposed an improved pattern of blind color
2014). image watermarks. The suggested system is based on SD. A. Khan et al.
Proposed a color watermarking SVD, QR, MD5 PSNR, SSIM, NC
(Khan and Sarfaraz, 2019) introduced an imperceptible and robust
system for the protection and
authentication of medical image steganography scheme for secret communication. The proposed
images (Bideh et al., 2018). diagram hides secret information in the LSB or MSB of the cover image.
Proposed a dynamic DWT, SVD, JND, PSNR, NC, Security Z. Fangyan et al. (Zhang et al., 2019) introduced a new robust color
watermarking scheme for color symmetric encryption analysis image watermark approach using RGB channel correlations. The pro­
images (Lakrissi et al., 2018). AES
Proposed a nonblind DWT, SVD, Arnold PSNR, NC
posed scheme is based on Tucker decomposition and SVD. According to
watermarking scheme based transform this discussion, embedding a color watermark within a color host image
on channel coding (Tan et al., not only has the characteristics of fidelity and greater information but
2019). also has the potential to copyright protection solve the problem for some
Proposed a double watermarking WHT, DWT, SVD, PSNR, NC,
companies and communities that use a single identifiable color image as
system for color images to Genetic algorithm complexity
ensure that the image is secure analysis a corporate image. Table 1 contains a collection of watermarking ap­
for copyright protection ( proaches based on the color images and evaluation metrics adopted to
Darwish and Al-Khafaji, 2020). show their effectiveness.
Proposed a digital image DWT, SVD, Quick PSNR, NC Motivated by the concept of large image security in this paper, we
watermarking method to hide Response code
will suggest a new system based on the watermark and digital encryp­
important information in
digital color images ( tion of large color images. This system consists of the combination of
Patvardhan et al., 2018). different transformation and decomposition approaches, such as the
Proposed a hybrid watermarking stationary wavelet PSNR, SSIM, NC discrete orthogonal Racah moment transforms (DORMT), which allows
method by putting a color transforms (SWT), SVD,
us to reduce the information capacity into a number of coefficients. The
watermark image inside a Arnold transform
color host image (Pandey et al., DWT allows you to breakdown into a number of multilevel sub-bands to
2019). have the sub-band that represents most of the image information. The
Proposed a strong color image 1D Sine chaotic map, PSNR, MSE, BER, SD and SVD were used to add safety. The suggested system consists of
watermarking algorithm based moments de Fourier NC two main phases:
on new multichannel harmonies
(i) The integration of a color image watermark transformed into
fractional orthogonal moments
(Hosny and Darwish, 2022). DORMT in the large color host image transformed into DWT. The
Proposed a method to combine DWT, SVD, wolf PSNR, NC resulting coefficients of these two transforms are used as input for the SD
and integrate several color optimizer algorithm and then mined on the SVD. The watermark is eventually integrated into
watermarks at the same time (
the color host image by the scaling factor to achieve a compromise be­
Shen et al., 2021).
Proposed an algorithm that insert SVD, Genetic algorithm, PSNR, SSIM, NC,
tween capacity, invisibility and robustness in terms of quality and
two watermarks in color SWT BER privacy.
images (Sivananthamaitrey (ii) Encryption of the watermarked image with an eπ-map to make
and Kumar, 2022). the proposed system more secure for sharing, transfer and indexing. In
our system, we adopt an Aquila Optimization Algorithm (AOA) with the
threat to the information industry’s healthy development, especially in aim of finding the best set of DORMT parameters and providing a dy­
the fields of intelligent healthcare and military communication broad­ namic and adaptive scale factor.
cast monitoring (Ahmad and Hwang, 2015; Kumar and Girdhar, Jan. Experiments are presented where the properties of the proposed
2021). For this reason, it is currently of utmost importance to find a system are tested. A study was performed to compare the proposed
solution to the problem of information hiding and copyright protection system to other systems that are already out there. This clearly shows
of digital color images. The use of numerical watermarks has recently that the suggested system is useful in terms of its level of security, ca­
emerged as an effective technology that offers the possibility of a solu­ pacity, invisibility and resistance to a wide range of signal processing
tion for intellectual property rights protection and authentication of attacks. Before presenting the outline of this paper, we first focus on the
digital color image content (Zhang et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2018). It most important contributions of our paper:
should be mentioned that most existing watermark systems and methods
for color images use grayscale or binary images as a watermark, while 1. A new security system based on watermarks and color image
very few studies offer schemes with color watermarks. S. Sourabh et al. encryption is proposed.
(Sharma et al., 2019) proposed a new adaptive and robust watermarking 2. Introduce the discrete orthogonal Racah moment transformation
system. The system is based on the discrete wavelet transforms (DWT), (DORMT) into our proposed system.
the singular value decomposition (SVD) and the host and watermark 3. The AOA algorithm is used to determine the best scale factor and
image have the same sizes and dimensions. In addition, the color host DORMT parameters.

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2. Methods

In this section, we present the techniques that will be used in the

proposed safety system: the discrete orthogonal Racah moment trans­
formation (DORMT), the discrete wavelet transforms (DWT), the Schur
decomposition (SD), the singular value decomposition (SVD), and the eπ
map of the chaotic dynamic system. The use of these techniques can
improve the performance of the security system that will be presented
later in this paper.

2.1. Discrete orthogonal racah’s moments (DORMT)

Discrete orthogonal moments (Tahiri et al., 2022; Tahiri et al., 2020;

Tahiri et al., 2020) of an image are considered statistical quantities that
describe the distribution of pixels within the image space (Fig. 1)
(Karmouni et al., 2019). The two-dimensional (2D) discrete orthogonal
moments of order (n + m)th are defined by the following formula:

Fig. 1. Image projection following orthogonal polynomials. ∑

N− 1 ∑
M− 1
MMnm = ̃ n (x)P
P ̃m (y)f (x, y) (1)
x=0 y=0

Table 2
Data for DORPs.
ρ(s) Γ(a + s + 1)Γ(s − a + β + 1)Γ(b + α − s)Γ(b + α + s + 1)
Γ(a − β + s + 1)Γ(s − a + 1)Γ(b − s)Γ(b + s + 1)
( − 1/2 < a⩽b − 1, α > − 1, − 1 < β < 2a + 1)
ρn (s) Γ(a + s + n + 1)Γ(s − a + β + n + 1)Γ(b + α − s)Γ(b + α + s + n + 1)
Γ(a − β + s + 1)Γ(s − a + 1)Γ(b − s)Γ(b + s + 1)
d2n Γ(α + n + 1)Γ(β + n + 1)Γ(b − a + α + β + 1)Γ(a + b + α + n + 1)
(α + β + 2n + 1)n!Γ(α + β + n + 1)(b − a − n − 1)!Γ(a + b − β − n)
where P
̃ (x) is the nth discrete orthogonal polynomial normalized to a
n
discrete variable (Jahid et al., 2019).
To do this, we choose the discrete orthogonal Racah polynomials
(DORPs) optimized in (Zhu et al., 2007; Lakhili et al., 2019). The DORPs
of order n, discrete variable s and control parameters {α, β, a and b } are
introduced by the following hypergeometric function (Zhu et al., 2007):

( )
(a − b + 1)n (β + 1)n (a + b + α + 1)n − n, α + β + n + 1, a − s, a + s + 1
R(nα,β,a,b) (s) = 4 F3 ;1 , (2)
n! β + 1, a + 1 − b, a + b + α; 1

4. Introduce the chaotic dynamic system using the eπ map.

n = 0, 1, ..., N − 1 and s = a, a + 1, ..., b − 1
The rest of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents a
theoretical framework of the techniques that will be used in the pro­ where the parameters (α, β, a and b ) are restricted to − 12 ≺ a ≺ b,
posed security system. Section 3 will be devoted to the presentation of α ≻ − 1, − 1 ≺ β ≺ 2a + 1, and b = a + N. The DORPs satisfy the
the new digital color image security system. Section 4 introduces the following orthogonality relationship:
AOA algorithm. In section 5, we illustrate the results of the simulations. ∑
b− 1
The last section concludes the paper. R(nα,β,a,b) (s)R(mα,β,a,b) (s)ρ(s)[Δx(s − 1/2) ] = δnm dn2 ; n, m
s=a

= 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., N − 1 (3)

Fig. 2. 2D DORPs matrices.

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Fig. 3. Decomposing an image by DWT: (a). Image to be decomposed, (b). Level 1, (c). Level 2, (d). Level 3.

where Δx(s − 1/2) = 2s +1 > 0 for s > − 1/2, et d2n , ρn (s),ρ(s) are the
functions defined in the following Table 2 (Zhu et al., 2007; Imad et al.,
2018):
The orthonormalized DORPs are defined using the squared norm
( )
d2n and weight functions (ρ(s)) by the following relation (Imad et al.,
2018):
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
[ ( )]
(a,b,α,β) ρ(s) 1
̃
Rn (a,b,α,β)
(s) = Rn (s) 2
Δx s −
dn 2
The moments can capture the characteristics of an image in an effi­
cient and nonredundant way. Because we may evaluate them using
recurring relationships rather than describing them in terms of typical
powers, they also have the benefit of not requiring high levels of
calculation precision. We note that the existence of the gamma function
Γ(.) in the DORPs relations in the relation of recurrence with respect to
the variable s leads to three major problems: the infinite values from
Γ(n = 172), computational time consumption and numerical error
propagation when using recurrence relationships to compute high-order
DORPs (Daoui et al., 2022). Motivated by the challenge of resolving
these problems, modified recursive relationships of DORPs are pre­
sented in (Daoui et al., 2022). Fig. 2 shows that with very high n, x = 0,
1, ..., 2048 orders; all DORPs coefficients are in the orthonormalization
domain. In addition, the stabilization of DORPs in front of very high
orders will allow us to use this polynomial in the proposed security
system by processing large images.
2.2. Discrete wavelets transform (DWT)
In just a few years, DWT has become the most debated research topic.
It is an algorithm for calculating the representation of a signal in inde­
pendent frequency bands. The idea is to separate the original signal into
several frequency bands (low-frequency and high-frequency). The low-
pass part gives a compact representation of the initial image. This part
can be decomposed several times, and these successive decompositions
(4) correspond to the decomposition scales.
The DWT is a multiresolution/multifrequency representation (Tresor
and Sumbwanyambe, 2019; Ambadekar et al., 2019). This representa­
tion breaks down the data into several sub-bands in three separate di­
rections: vertically, horizontally, and diagonally, functions or operators
into high-frequency and low-frequency components using high-pass and
low-pass filters that must be orthogonal according to a resolution
adapted to the scale. This representation is particularly useful for image
processing.
A DWT application gives a digital image divided into four sub-bands.
It is an approximate subrange of LL and three sub-bands of details: HL,
LH, and HH corresponding, respectively, to the horizontal, vertical and
diagonal details. The letter L to that of the low pass applied separately on
rows and columns, and the letter H corresponds to the filtering passes
high. The approximation sub-band LL decomposition makes it possible
to obtain a representation in pyramidal form (Ambadekar et al., 2019).
Fig. 3 gives an example of the decomposition of a satellite image by three
levels of decomposition into DWT.

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H. Karmouni et al.
Fig. 4. The new digital color image security system’s flowchart.
2.3. Schur decomposition (SD)
A square matrix’s Schur decomposition (SD) f of size N × N, any
writing of f can be broken down into (Ahmadi et al., 2021):
f = Q × R × QT
where Q is a unit orthogonal matrix of size N × N then, QQ = I with
T systems have proven their effectiveness by their effective role (Erkan
Q− = QT , and R is an upper triangular matrix of size N × N.
1 et al., 2022). Most of the hundreds of coded primitives that make up the
In particular, since f and R are similar, the diagonal coefficients of R
are the eigenvalues of f.
2.4. Singular value decomposition (SVD)
A matrix is an array of numbers from which it is difficult to extract
the interesting characteristics to solve a given problem. An effective and
general strategy for highlighting the properties of a matrix is to
decompose it (or “factorize”) into a product of simpler matrices whose
characteristics are clearly identifiable and interpretable (Ahmadi et al.,
2021; S. Bagheri Baba Ahmadi, G. Zhang, S. Wei, and L. Boukela, 2021).
SVD is not only a powerful tool for analysing the effectiveness of
numerical inversion methods but also introduces the notion of pseu­
doinverses. SVD is a common mathematical tool widely used in nu­
merical image processing. This decomposition is widely used for
numerical watermarks because of its algebraic properties. All matrices f
of size N × N can be broken down into the following three matrices as a
product:
∑
n
SVD(f ) = USV T = λi Ui ViT
i=1
where U and V are orthogonal square matrices N × N and unitary,
respectively. We have UT U = I and V T V = I.
S is a diagonal matrix of size N × N composed of singular values λi
where the first N diagonal terms are positive in descending order on the
diagonal, and T is the transposition operator S = diag(λ1 , λ2 , λ3 , ..., λN ).
We can also write:
⎛ ⎞
λ1 ⋯ 0
⎝
S= ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎠
0 ⋯ λN
Note on λi the singular values (SVs) of f, such as λ1 ⩾λ2 ⩾....⩾λN > 0
where the matrix rank f is equal to the number of nonzero singular
values that the matrix f has, all the others being zero.
The main interest of this method comes from the fact that SVs are
very stable, i.e., when small information (disturbances) are added to the
digital image, their SVs do not alter substantially. SVD organizes the
maximum energy of the image in a minimum of singular values, which is
another benefit of this approach. The compression is therefore obtained
intuitively by forcing the lowest singular values to zero (Zhang et al.,
2019).
Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247
2.5. The eπ map
Due to the growing demand for more secure and efficient encryption
tools, it has become necessary to more broadly address the mathematical
theories that will help build these systems, and perhaps the most
(5)
important of these theories is chaos theory, since chaotic dynamical
design rely on monomorphic random maps. In general, chaotic maps
were used to create different sequences. The chaotic maps are subject to
the initial values and control parameters obtained from the secret key
when the latter is produced. Thus, the pixels of the image are confused
and processed according to chaotic sequences. In this paper, the eπ map
defined by Eq. (8) is used for the first time to encrypt color images
(Erkan et al., 2022).
⎧ ( 3
)
⎨ xi+1 = (xi )π e4 + uyi e10 mod 1
( ) (8)
⎩ yi+1 = (yi )π3 e4 + uxi+1 π9 , 1 mod 1
where u ∈ [0, ∞) is the control parameter and xi and yi are the initial
values.
After finishing the presentation of the preliminary section, we will
introduce the proposed security system, which will be a combination of
all the techniques presented previously.
3. New digital color image security system
(6) This section introduces the proposed security system, which adopts
watermarks and encryption of color images. This system is based on the
combination of techniques, namely, DORMT, DWT, SD, SVD and the eπ
map. The combination of these techniques in an appropriate way allows
us to develop an effective security system for sharing, transferring and
indexing large color images. Our proposed system consists of two
fundamental stages:
(i) The watermark integration into a color image to achieve a
compromise between invisibility, capacity and robustness in terms of
quality and privacy, where the cover image is required for watermark
(7) extraction.
(ii) watermarked image encryption for the purpose of increasing the
proposed system’s security level. Fig. 4 shows the overall scheme of the
proposed system, and further details are introduced below.
3.1. Insertion scheme
The host image fh (x, y) and watermark fW (x, y) are the inputs into the
process of embedding watermark in the encrypted image, as shown in
Fig. 5. The output is represented by fhw ∗
(x, y) an encrypted embedded
image. The sizes of fh (x, y), fW (x, y) and fhw
∗
(x, y) are, M × MN × N and
M × M, respectively, and the detailed steps for embedding watermarks
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H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

Fig. 5. Procedure for embedding the watermark.

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Fig. 6. The watermark Extraction Procedure.

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H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

and encryption are specified in the following steps: Selected:

1- Decomposition of the host and watermark image into three-color R
Shw = ShR + θ × SwR (28)
components R, G and B.
{ { }
fh (x, y) = fhR (x, y), fhG (x, y), fhB (x, y)
G
Shw = ShG + θ × SwG (29)
{ R } (9)
fw (x, y) = fw (x, y), fwG (x, y), fwB (x, y) B
Shw = ShB + θ × SwB (30)
2- Application of the DWT transformation for each color component ( )
8- The watermark matrices RRhw , RGhw , RBhw are generated using the
R, G and B of the host image up to the k-th level to have the sub-bands
SVD reverse, as follows:
using the HAAR filter. The use of the DWT reinforces the invisibility
of the proposed security system. RRhw = UhR × Shw
R
× VhR
′
(31)
[LLRk , LHkR , HLRk , HHkR ] = dwtk (fhR ) (10)
(32)
′
RGhw = UhG × Shw
G
× VhG
[LLGk LHkG , HLGk , HHkG ] = dwtk (fhG ) (11)
(33)
′
RBhw = UhB × Shw
B
× VhB
[LLBk , LHkB , HLBk , HHkB ] = dwtk (fhB ) (12)
9- Apply the SD reverse to acquire watermark strips (LLwRk ,
3- By applying DORMT to each watermark component R, G and B, LLwGk and LLwBk ) by the following equations:
this step allows us to reduce the information capacity of the inserted
watermark to a number of order moment coefficients (n, n): (34)
′
LLwRk = QRh × RRhw × QRh

MRwRnn = MR(fwR ) (13)

(35)
′
LLwGk = QGh × RGhw × QGh
MRwGnn = MR(fwG ) (14)
(36)
′
LLwBk = QBh × RBhw × QBh
MRwBnn = MR(fwB ) (15) 10- The watermark reconstruction image fhw using the DWT reverse
At this level, the DORMT transforms the pixel intensities of an image for each color image watermark component R, G and B, by the following
into an image containing moments, which is called a moment image. equations:
The use of this step allows us to insert large watermarks by calculating R
fhw = idwtk (LLwRk , LHkR , HLRk , HHkR ) (37)
the moments of these images up to the very reduced order since the
overall characteristics of an image are obtained from the first-order G
fhw = idwtk (LLwGk , LHkG , HLGk , HHkG ) (38)
moments. In particular, the efficient calculation of moments by
DORMT requires the use of local optimal parameters. B
fhw = idwtk (LLwBk , LHkB , HLBk , HHkB ) (39)
4- Schur decomposition, after the choice of an approximation sub-
( )
band LLRk , LLGk and LLBk : 11- Combine the R, G and B color components to form a watermarked
[ R R] color image.
Qh , Rh = Shur(LLRk ) (16) 12- Encrypt the image using the process of confusion and diffusion by
[ ] using the eπ map:
QGh , RGh = Shur(LLGk ) (17) a. Confusion.
Set the initial values X0 and y0 and the control parameter μ, and
[ ]
QBh , RBh = Shur(LLBk ) (18) continuously iterate the eπ chaotic map according to Eq. (40) to obtain
the sequences {KX} and {ky}.
5- Schur decomposition of the DORMT of watermark image
( ) Arrange the sequences {kx} and {ky } in descending order according
MRwRnm , MRwGnm and MRwBnm , which is presented by: to Eq. (40) and obtain the sequences of the Ux and Uy positions before
[ R R]
Qw , Rw = Shur(MRwRnm ) (19) sorting each element of the sequence.
{ ′ ′
[ ]
QGw , RGw = Shur(MRwGnm ) (20) [[ ∼, Ux ]] = sort(kx ′, descend ′) (40)
∼, Uy = sort(ky , descend )
[ ]
QBw , RBw = Shur(MRwBnm ) (21) Take the sequence values of Ux, Uy and their corresponding indices
( ) ( ) as the exchange coordinates of rows and columns, respectively, and
6- Apply SVD to RRh , RGh , RBh and RRw , RGw , RBw selected: perform row swap and column swap on each image watermark
[ R R R] component R, G, and B to achieve a better scrambling effect of the
Uh , Sh , Vh = SVD(RRh ) (22)
resulting matrices, fhw
R*
, fhw
G*
and fhw
B*
.
[ ] b. Diffusion.
UhG , ShG , VhG = SVD(RGh ) (23)
Convert the sequence {kl} (l-x or y) into a 2D matrix of M × M of the
R*
[ ] same size as fhw according to Eq. (41) and convert the values of the
UhB , ShB , VhB = SVD(RBh ) (24)
matrix in the range of 0 to 255 to use:
and { ( ( ) )
Kl = mod round kl × 104 , 256
[
UwR , SwR , VwR
]
= SVD(RRw ) (25) ′ (41)
Rl = reshape(Kl , M, M)
[ ]
UwG , SwG , Vw = SVD(RGw )
G
(26) Finally, by applying the XOR operation (⊕) to obtain encrypted ar­
rays of each RGB layer as follows:
[ ]
UwB , SwB , VwB = SVD(RBw ) (27) R
fhw
( R* )
(42)
cry = fhw ⊕ Rx ⊕ Ry
( ) ( )
7- Insertion of the SVD watermark of SRw , SGw , SBw in SRh , SGh , SBh

8
H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

( ) ( )
G
fhw cry
G*
= fhw ⊕ Ry ⊕ Rx (43) ⌢R ⌢G
MRwnm , MRwnm and MRwnm
⌢B
by the following equations:
( )
B
fhw B*
= fhw ⊕ Rx ⊕ Ry (44) ⌢R ⌢R
(61)
cry ′
MRwnm = QRw × Rw × QRw

⌢G
3.2. Extraction scheme
⌢G
(62)
′
MRwnm = QGw × Rw × QGw

The watermark extraction process is shown in Fig. 6, and these ⌢B ⌢B

(63)
′
MRwnm = QBw × Rw × QBw
complete steps are described below:
1- First, apply the reverse encryption process to generate the real ⌢
9- The watermark image reconstruction f w using the DORMT reverse
watermarked image fhw decry (x, y).
for each color component R, G and B, by the following equations:
2- Decomposition of the watermarked image into three color com­ ( )
ponents R, G and B. ⌢R
f w = iMR MRwnm
⌢R
(64)
{ }
R
fhw decry (x, y) = fhw G B
decry (x, y), fhw decry (x, y), fhw decry (x, y) (45)
( )
⌢G ⌢G
3- Transformation in DWT for each R, G and B color component of f w = iMR MRwnm (65)
the host image until the k-th level to have the sub-bands:
( )
⌢B ⌢B
̂ Rk , LH w
[LL w ̂ Rk , HL w
̂ Rk , HH w
̂ Rk ] = dwtk (fhw
R
decry ) (46) f w = iMR MRwnm (66)

̂ Gk , LH w
[LL w ̂ Gk , HL w
̂ Gk , HH w
̂ Gk ] = dwtk (fhw
G
decry ) (47) It should be noted that the reconstruction of images by DORMT re­
quires the use of local optima parameters.
̂ Bk , LH w
[LL w ̂ Bk , HL w
̂ Bk , HH w
̂ Bk ] = dwtk (fhw
B
(48) 10- Combine the R, G and B color components to form a color image
decry )
of the watermark.
4- The SD decomposition after the choice of an approximation sub- After finishing the proposed schema presentation that generates
( )
̂ Rk , LL w
band LL w ̂ Gk and LL w
̂ Bk : encrypted and color images watermarked, it should be noted that the
[ ] effectiveness of our proposed schema strongly depends on the DORMT α,
̂R , R
Q ̂ Rhw = Shur(LL w
̂ Rk ) (49) β, a and b and scale factor θ parameters. The following section uses the
hw
AOA algorithm to find adaptive and optimal parameters to achieve a
[ ]
̂G , R
Q ̂ Ghw = Shur(LL w
̂ Gk ) (50) trade-off between invisibility, robustness and capacity.
hw

[
̂B , R
] 4. Aquila optimization algorithm (AOA)
Q hw
̂ Bhw = Shur(LL w
̂ Bk ) (51)
( R
5- Apply SVD to the selected R
̂ ,R ̂G , R
̂B :
) The Aquila Optimize Algorithm is inspired (AOA) by nature (Elaziz
hw hw hw
et al., 2021). It is a population-based method that is generated sto­
[ ]
⌢ R ⌢R ⌢R ⌢R chastically, and the proposed optimization rule starts with the popula­
U hw , S hw , V hw = SVD(Rhw ) (52)
tion of candidate solutions. At each iteration, the best solution obtained
[ ] thus far is determined as the approximately optimal solution. In­
⌢ G ⌢G ⌢G ⌢G dividuals in the algorithm of AOA swarms would catch prey with four
U hw , S hw , V hw = SVD(Rhw ) (53)
predation stages. The mathematical model of the proposed AOA algo­
[ ] rithm is presented as follows:
⌢ B ⌢B ⌢B ⌢B
U hw , S hw , V hw = SVD(Rhw ) (54) Step 1: Expanded exploration.
Aquila will search for and locate the target first as she flies over the
(
⌢R ⌢G ⌢B
) hunting area at a high altitude. It will dive vertically in the direction of
6- The watermark extraction from SVD’s Sw, Sw, Sw : the prey after it has been located. These are the details of this conduct
( )/ (Elaziz et al., 2021):
⌢R ⌢R ( )
Sw = S hw − SRh θ (55) 1
Xi (t + 1) = Xbest (t) × 1 − + XM (t) − Xbest × rand (67)
T
( )/
⌢G
Sw =
⌢G
S hw − SGh θ (56) where Xi (t + 1) is the position of the ith individual at iteration t + 1.
Xbest (t) and XM (t) are the best and average positions at the current iter­
( )/ ation, respectively:
⌢B ⌢B
Sw = S hw − SBh θ (57)
1 ∑N
XM (t) = Xi (t) (68)
( ) N i=1
⌢R ⌢G ⌢B
7- The matrices of the watermark Rw , Rw , Rw are generated using
where Xi (t) is the position of the i-th individual at iteration t, N
the SVD reverse as follows: represents the swarm population size, rand represents a random number
⌢R ⌢R in the Gaussian distribution in an interval of 0 to 1, and T is the
(58)
′
Rw = UwR × S w × VwR maximum number of iterations allowed.
Step 2: Restricted exploration.
Aquila will now transition from high-altitude flight to hovering over
⌢G ⌢G
(59)
′
Rw = UwG × S w × VwG
the prey’s head. You can put this position update as follows:
⌢B ⌢B
(60) (69)
′
Rw = UwB × S w × VwB Xi (t + 1) = Xbest (t) × Levy(D) + XR (t) + (y − x) × rand
8- Apply reverse SD to acquire the DORMT of watermark image where XR (t) is a randomly selected candidate for the current

9
H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

Fig. 7. Host images: (a) Image 1, (b) Image 2 and (c) Image 3 of sizes 2048 × 2048 pixels. Watermark images: (d) Watermark 1 and (e) Watermark 2 of sizes
128 × 128 pixels.

iteration. y and × are the spiral shapes and are presented as follows:
Xi (t + 1) = QF × Xbest (t) − G1 × Xi (t) × rand − G2 × Levy(D) + rand × G1
y = r × cos(λ) (70) (78)

x = r × sin(λ) (71) where QF stands for a quality function that is calculated using the
following equation and is used to balance the search strategy:
with
2×rand− 1
QF = t (1− T)2 (79)
r = r1 + U × D 1 (72)
G1 = 2 × rand − 1 (80)
λ = − ω × D1 + λ1 (73)
( t)
3π G2 = 2 × 1 − (81)
λ1 = (74) T
2
In the proposed security system based on watermark and encryption
where r1 represents a fixed number between 1 and 20. D1 represents
of large color images, the capacity, robustness and invisibility re­
an integer of 1 at the problem length. ω = 0.005 is a constant fixed
quirements are fundamental, and they are guaranteed when the system
number.
can survive common manipulations and attacks aimed at image
where D is the problem-solving dimensionality. Levy (D) are Levy
processing.
flights that would be determined using the formula below:
• The capacity of the watermarked image representation is measured
Levy(D) = s ×
μ×σ
(75) according to the following mean squared error (MSE) (Karmouni et al.,
2019):
1
|v|β
where µ and ν are random numbers between 0 and 1, and s = 0.01 1 ∑ M ∑ M ( )2
represents a constant parameter. σ is presented as: MSE(fh , fhw ) = fh − fhwi,j (82)
M 2 i=1 j=1 i,j
( )
Γ(1 + β) × sin π2β
σ = ( 1+β) β− 1 (76) In addition, PSNR can be calculated mathematically as follows
Γ 2 ×β×2 2 (Karmouni et al., 2019):
where β represents a constant value set at 1.5. k2
Step 3: Expanded exploitation. PSNR = 10log10 (83)
MSE
During the operating procedure, the Aquila can reset itself when it in
where k is the maximum level value of a pixel. PSNR is measured in
case the prey reduces the speed and fails to find the target. This initial
decibels (dB), and the value of PSNR must be maximum.
predatory behavior can be expressed as follows:
• Invisibility is typically measured by performance parameters such
Xi (t + 1) = ρ × [Xbest (t) − XM (t) ] + δ × [(UB − LB) × rand + LB ] − rand as the structural similarity index measure (SSIM) (Chowdhary et al.,
(77) 2020):
where [LB, UB] represent the defining domain of the given problem, μfh μfhw + d1 σ fh fhw + d2
with ρ and δ being two small fixed numbers. SSIM(fh , fhw ) = . (84)
μ2fh + μ2fhw + d1 σ 2fh + σ 2fhw + d2
Step 4: Restricted exploitation.
In this stage, Aquila flies to Earth to track the prey’s escape route, where μfh and μf represents the average of the host image fh and the
hw
hunt it, and ultimately attack it. This predatory conduct can be char­ watermarked host image fhw . σ 2fh and σ2f represent the variance of fh and
acterized as follows: hw

fhw . σfh fhw represent the covariance of fh and fhw . d1 and d2 represent two
variables that are used to stabilize division with a low denominator.

10
H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

Fig. 8. Effect of parameter selection on proposed watermarking scheme results.

11
H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

Table 3 The robustness of the original and extracted watermarks is often

Objective results found by different optimization algorithms. evaluated using normalized correlation (NC), which is determined by
Algorithms PSNR (dB) NC SSIM (Pourjabbar Kari et al., Jan. 2021):
AOA 67.86 0.9946 0.9912 ( ) ∑N ∑N ⌢

AO 60.86 0.9902 0.9104

⌢ j=1 fWi,j f Wi,j
(85)
i=1
NC fW (x, y), f W (x, y) = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
SSA 55.43 0.9889 0.9045 ∑N ∑ N ∑N ∑ N ⌢2
SCA 50.85 0.9804 0.9086 f 2wi,j f wi,j
ABC 42.54 0.8601 0.9579 i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1

GWO 45.65 0.8851 0.9678 ⌢

PSO 46.28 0.8982 0.9864 where fW (x, y) and f W (x, y) are the original and extracted image
watermarks, respectively.
The objective function FO defined by Eq. (86), which is used to

Fig. 9. Watermarks extracted from attacked watermarked images.

12
H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

Table 4 analysis in the simulation section, we sought to assess (i) the adaptive
Parameters of the used attacks. scaling factor of the watermarks and the parameters of the DORMTs that
Attack Specification Parameters are found by the AOA algorithm thanks to the analysis of these param­
eters by an objective function Eq. (86). Then, adaptive watermark scale
Filter attack Wiener filter Window size 3 × 3
Median filter factors and optimal DORMT parameters are used in the experiments. (ii)
Gaussian filter The effectiveness of the suggested filtering method, PSNR with SSIM are
Noise attack Gaussian noise V = 0.001 generally used, which is considered to be an effective criterion for
Salt and pepper noise 0.001 estimating the imperceptibility, and NC, which is considered a robust­
Compression attack JPEG compression QF = 40
JPEG 2000 compression CR = 8
ness evaluation criterion. (iii) The performance of the eπ map in terms of
Rescaling attack Rescaling 1 ×0.25 encryption robustness is generally used in four analyses: (a) security
Rescaling 2 ×4 analysis, (b) histogram analysis, (c) correlation analysis and (d) entropy
Rotation attack Angle Degree = 2 analysis.
Sharpening 1-Sharpening 0.2
Note that we used color host images with large sizes of 2048 × 2048
pixels belonging to the satellite database “NASA Earth Observatory”
optimize the set of parameters θ , α, β, a and b , are presented as follows: (Nemani, 2020) in the experiments; as shown in Fig. 7 (a, b, c). In
addition, two color watermark images with sizes of 128 × 128 pixels
FOopt
(1 − MSE) + SSIM + NC
(86) (Nemani, 2020) are used as watermark images (Fig. 7 (d, e)). The
α,β,a, b ,θ =
2 starting population size of the AOA algorithm is set to 30, and the
maximum iteration that can occur during the experiment is 220. All of
the experiments are carried out using MATLAB® R2021a.
Algorithm 1: Steps of the pseudocode algorithm to optimize the parameter using AOA

Inputs: fh , fw , objective function (FOopt α,β,a, b ,θ )Output: DORMT parameters and optimal
( ) 5.1. Watermark image processing
scaling factor αopt , βopt , aopt , bopt , θopt
Initialization parameters,SA = 30 (Search agents’ number),MNiter = 220 (Iterations
maximum number),Dim = 5 (Problem dimension),Lb = [-1, − 1, − 1/2, N, 0], A. Selection of optimal parameter analysis.
⌢
Ub = [N, 2a + 1, b, a + N, 1],Initialize a set of SADoCalculate fhw , f w for each SA,
To demonstrate the effect of the choice of scale factor and DORMT
Evaluate the following objective function SSIM et NC for each SA using Eq. (86), parameters on the color watermark embedding and extraction process.
Search and find the target using Eq. (67), (step 1: Extended exploration),Update the We used four images: two images represent the color host images of size
position using Eq. (69), (step 2: Restricted exploration),Reset the position using Eq. 2048 × 2048 pixels (Fig. 7 (a, b)), and two-color images represent the
(77), (step 3: Extended exploitation),Attack the prey using Eq. (78), (step 4:
watermarks of size 128 × 128 pixels (Fig. 7 (d, e)). Fig. 8 shows that the
Restricted exploitation),while (it < MNiter )Return the best solution that was found
until the global optimum is attained insertion and extraction processes are highly dependent on the choice of
parameters {α, β, a, b and θ}. Therefore, the optimal settings for the pa­
rameters are those that enable us to achieve a good balance between
imperceptibility and robustness. In this context, we have adopted the
It should be mentioned that all the optimal parameters αopt , βopt , aopt , bopt ,
AOA algorithm with an objective function FOopt α,β,a, b ,θ to select the best
θopt are obtained by maximizing objective function FOopt
α,β,a, b ,θ . Algorithm
parameters {α, β, a, b and θ}.
1 describes the optimization of scale factor parameters used in the
Table 3 contains an external comparison with other optimization
watermark insertion and extraction process and DORMT α, β, a , b pa­
algorithms known in the literature: particle swarm optimizer (PSO)
rameters from the AOA algorithm.
(Şenel et al., Oct. 2019); arithmetic optimization algorithm (AO)
The efficiency of our proposed system strongly depends on the
(Abualigah et al., Apr. 2021); grey wolf optimizer (GWO) (Ibrahim et al.,
DORMT parameters and the scale factor. For this, we used the AOA al­
2020); salp swarm algorithm (SSA) (Castelli et al., Mar. 2022); sine
gorithm to find the adaptive and optimal parameters to reach a
compromise between the invisibility, which is measured by performance
Table 6
parameters such as SSIM, the robustness of the original and extracted
A comparative study on the average times (s) and ETIR percentage found via
watermarks, which is evaluated by using NC, and the watermarked
other methods.
image representation capability, which is measured according to MSE.
Average Time Computation ETIR
For this, we combined the three criteria in a single equation (86) to
Method- Method- Method- Proposed ETIRPR1 ETIRPR2 ETIRPR3
search for the optimal parameters of DORMT and scale factor to reach a 1 2 3
compromise between invisibility, robustness and capacity. (Liu (Ansari (Sharma
et al., et al., et al.,
5. Simulation results 2021) 2016) 2019)

77.19 96.28 112.54 24.95 67.67% 74.08% 77.83%

Based on subjective visual observation and objective quantitative

Table 5
A comparative study on the value of NC found via other methods.
Attacks Parameters Method-1 Method-2 Method-3 Proposed
(Liu et al., 2021) (Ansari et al., 2016) (Sharma et al., 2019)

Median filter Window size 3 × 3 0.9626 0.9734 0.9959 0.9992

Gaussian filter Window size 3 × 3 0.9675 0.9784 0.9957 0.9994
Gaussian noise V = 0.001 0.9843 0.8018 0.9963 0.9996
Salt and pepper noise 0.001 0.9943 0.9783 0.9976 0.9998
JPEG compression QF = 40 0.9882 0.9808 0.9965 0.9994
JPEG 2000 compression CR = 8 0.9838 0.9852 0.9963 0.9995
Rescaling1 ×0.25 0.9963 0.9912 0.9903 0.9999
Rescaling 2 ×4 0.9934 0.9989 0.9957 1
1-Sharpening 0.2 0.9763 0.9239 0.9836 1

13
H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

cosine algorithm (SCA) (Mirjalili, 2016), and artificial bee colony opti­
mizer (ABC) (Xing and Jia, 2019). The superiority of the proposed

DWT, SD, SVD, DORMT

method is demonstrated by the findings of conventional performance

security of DORMT
indicators such as PSNR, NC, and SSIM.

2D eπ-map þ key

Satellite images
B. Invisibility and robustness analysis.

2048 £ 2048
To maintain the confidentiality of the information, the watermarked

128 £ 128
Proposed

image must be invisible to human eyes. Therefore, the degree to which

0.9998
70.453
0.9996
AOA
the watermark is visible is an essential criterion to consider when

and
evaluating the invisibility of the suggested approach. In general, a
watermarked image is considered acceptable if its PSNR is greater than
Ref (Shen et al., 2021)

Arnoldtransformation
40 dB, which means that the watermark is not invisible to the human
visual system. In addition, when the SSIM is greater than 0.94, the

Generalimages
Tucker + SVD

watermarked image and the host original image are slightly different
512 × 512

from one another(Wang et al., 2022; Tuli et al., 2022). In general,

32 × 32

0.9983
64.976
0.9993
robustness refers to the ability of a system to cope with and avoid any
and

– change without the need to adjust its basic configuration. In addition, it

has the ability to extract watermarks from host original images that have
Affine transform

been watermarked while being subjected to various attacks.

Generalimages
Ref (Liu et al.,

Using the following situation, we assess the robustness of our sug­

512 × 512

gested approach. First, we subject image 3 shown in Fig. 7 (c) that has
32 × 32

0.9994
62.875
0.9993
2021)

Schur

been watermarked with a color watermark of size 128 × 128 pixels

and

shown in Fig. 7 (e) to a variety of attacks (Fig. 9). In the second, we

remove the watermark and calculate the NC values. The recovered
Ref (Sharma et al.,

watermarks and their corresponding NC values are presented in Fig. 9.

Arnold transform
RDWT and SVD

Generalimages

This result was obtained using the static parameters listed in Table 4 and
the optimum parameters generated by the AOA algorithm.
512 × 512

32 × 32

0.9995
60.567
0.9993

According to Fig. 9, the average NC value is 0.9991 after performing

2019)

ABC
and

the three filter attacks on the watermarked images and extracting the
watermark. For all three noise attacks, the average NC value after
watermark extraction is 0.9994. For both rescaling attacks, the average
value of NC after watermark extraction is 0.9999. For both compression
General + Medical + Aerial

attacks, the average value of NC after watermark extraction is 0.9998.

Ref (Hu et al., 2020)

For other attacks, including motion blur, rotation, cropping, HE and

sharpening, the NC values after watermark extraction are 0.9598,
Chaotic map

0.9495, 0.9878, 0.9140 and 1.0000, respectively. In conclusion, almost

and 64 × 64

DWT + SVD
512 × 512

all the watermarks recovered from these attacks had excellent visual
0.9992
59.563
0.9990
images

clarity. Although some of the recovered watermarks are blurry, the

ABC

essential details they contain can still be distinguished.

In Table 5, a comparison is made between the robustness of the
method that has been proposed and the robustness of previous methods
Arnoldtransform

Generalimages
Ref (Hu et al.,

that have been built on transformation and decomposition techniques.

and 64 × 64
A comparison of the value of NC, SSIM, and PSNR discovered using other methods.

512 × 512

In method 1 (Liu et al., 2021), the authors design a method of filtering

0.9985
57.987
0.9982
2020)

color images based on decomposition into eigenvalues. According to the

SVD

authors of method 2 (Ansari et al., 2016), SVD and IWT are used to
–

create a filtering method for color images, and in addition, the authors
use ABC to optimize the scale factor to have good results. In method 3
Arnoldtransform

Generalimages
Ref (Su et al.,

(Sharma et al., 2019), SVD and RDWT are used to create a color image
and 32 × 32
512 × 512

filtering method, and in addition, the authors use ABC to improve the
0.9982
54.873
0.9985
2013)

scale factor, and they also add Arnold’s chaotic map to increase the level
SVD

of security.
–

According to Table 5, all the results of NC are greater than 0.99,

which shows the effectiveness of these methods, but it should be
Ref (S. K, M. K, and P.

mentioned that the remarkable superiority of our method is due to the

use of DORMT, which has a high performance in the representation of
DWT and Schur

Medicalimages
and145 × 250

large images with a very low redundancy of information.

1024 × 1024
Kora, 2020)

RGB image
RGB image

Fast systems are desirable in a wide range of image processing,

0.9997
63.473
0.9994

computer vision and image security applications, especially for real-time

PSO

applications. For this, we will compare the computation time of our

–

method proposed by three methods: Method-1 (Liu et al., 2021),

Optimization algorithms
Watermarking Domaine

Method-2 (Ansari et al., 2016); and Method-3 (Sharma et al., 2019),

Dimension of host and

using the “Host image 1″ of size 2048 × 2048 pixels and ”Watermark 1″
Watermark image

of size 128 × 128 pixels, as shown in Fig. 7. The execution time

Methodology

watermark

improvement rate (ETIR) is used as a criterion (Tahiri et al., 2022). This

Test dataset
Host image

ratio is defined as ETIR%=(1 − Time1/Time2) × 100, where Time1 and

Security
Table 7

PSNR

Time2 are the execution times of the proposed and existing methods. It is
SSIM
NC

clear that ETIR% = 0 if the two execution times are identical. We have

14
H. Karmouni et al.
Fig. 10. Sensitivity of the key with a change of 10−
only shown the ETIR criterion of the proposed method compared to
method 1, method 2 and method 3 by using the symbols ETIRPR1,
ETIRPR2 and ETIRPR3, respectively. Note that all our numerical experi­
ments were carried out using a PC with Intel® Core i5-4200 M 1.60 GHz
processor and 4.00 GB of RAM and operated by Windows 10 Profes­
sional 64 bits. The executed code is designed using MATLAB R2021a.
The time and the execution time improvement ratio (ETIR) are
included in Table 6. The results obtained indicate that the proposed
method has better performance than the other methods because the
transformations and decompositions used in our proposed method are
calculated by matrix calculation, which gives us a considerable reduc­
tion in terms of calculation time because our method is desirable in real-
time applications.
C. Comparison to Related Work.
In this subsection, to validate and authenticate the results that were
found by our method, the proposed scheme that is based on DWT, SVD,
SD and DORMT as well as the eπ chaotic map is compared with several
other related methods on several essential characteristics such as
imperceptibility, capacity and robustness. Within the context of this
discussion, various properties are taken into account. Some of these
properties are the type and size of the input images, the working
15
Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247
15
.
domain, the level of security, and the way the scaling factor is calcu­
lated. The values in Table 7 make it clear that the work that has been
proposed is significantly more effective than the other methods. This is
demonstrated by the fact that the PSNR, SSIM and NC values are all
significantly higher. The fact that DORMT has a good performance in the
representation of the image while also having a very low level of in­
formation redundancy may help to explain these results. In addition, the
proposed scheme uses the AOA algorithm to optimize the parameters of
the DORMT and scale factor, which guarantees good results, as shown in
the table below.
Notably, most of the sizes used in other methods are smaller than the
ones we used in our method, which is 2048 × 2048 pixels for the host
image and 128 × 128 pixels for the watermark, with all of that, we found
significant results compared to the other methods. Therefore, if we use
sizes equivalent or similar to those of other methods, we will necessarily
find more efficient results compared to other methods.
5.2. Encrypted image processing
A- Security analysis.
To provide some degree of protection against attacks, robust
H. Karmouni et al.
Fig. 11. Encrypted images accompanied by the histogram of each channel (R, G, B).
encryption needs to be exceedingly sensitive to even the smallest
changes in the private key. In other words, an attacker with a key esti­
mate is unable to reveal the original image (Singh, 2018). The security
key generated by the eπ map KEY = {x(0), y(0), u} is defined as part of
the algorithm presented in section 3.
To determine the sensitivity of the keys, the following scenario is
used. First, the original image (Image 3 shown in Fig. 7 (c)) is encrypted
by the security key “KEY” (Fig. 10 (a)) to produce the RGB encrypted
image (Fig. 10 (b)). Second, the security key “KEY” is modified with a
minor change in ”KEY*“, and then the encryption of the original image
(Fig. 10 (c)) is performed using the modified key KEY* to obtain a sec­
ond encrypted image (Fig. 10 (d)). The influence of KEY and KEY* is
measured by adopting the PSNR based on the results presented. In
Fig. 10, it is noted that the PSNR = 7.2448 value of the decrypted image
using the disturbed key (KEY*) is very low compared to that decrypted
using the real key (KEY) PSNR = 70.1256, indicating that the proposed
technique is extremely sensitive to changes in the security key.
B- Analysis of histograms.
Histogram analysis is another technique used to evaluate the
robustness of the eπ map against statistical attacks. This technique
makes it possible to graphically represent the distribution of pixel values
in the image (Zhao et al., 2022). In this context, it is necessary that an
encrypted image has a uniform distribution of pixel values on both axes;
to put it another way, an effective encryption method will generate
encrypted images that have a histogram that is as consistent as feasible
(Kaur et al., Sep. 2020). The histograms of the three channels (R, G and
B) of the encrypted image (Image 1 displayed in Fig. 7 (a)) are practi­
cally flat, as shown in Fig. 11, which indicates that the proposed
approach is able to effectively avoid statistical attacks.
C- Correlation analysis.
Analysing the correlation between pixels in the horizontal, vertical,
and diagonal dimensions is a classic method that may be accomplished
through the use of correlation analysis. The following is the formula (Eq.
(87) for computing the correlation values of each pair of data points
(Kumar and Girdhar, Jan. 2021):
cov(X, Y)
r(X, Y) = ∈ [ − 1 , +1] (87)
σ (X)σ(Y)
16
Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247
when
{
r(X, Y) = − 1 or + 1 ; indicate a high correlation
(88)
r(X, Y) = 0 ; indicate an absence of correlation
To more intuitively compare the correlation of the satellite image
(Image 2 shown in Fig. 7 (b)) before and after encryption. Fig. 12 shows
the point maps of the correlation coefficient of the adjacent horizontal,
vertical, and diagonal elements of the three channels R, G and B. From
the figures, we can conclude that the strong correlation between the
pixels of the original image is destroyed after encryption, which means
that the attack by statistical analysis is practically ineffective.
To support this observation, we calculated the correlation value of
another satellite image of size 2048 × 2048 pixels (Nemani, 2020) using
other chaotic maps used in the literature (Table 8). It appears from this
comparative study that the correlation coefficients for the encrypted
image are close to 0, which proves that there is a low correlation and
thus no similarity.
D- Entropy analysis.
Entropic analysis is considered a test of uniformity for encrypted
images. It should be noted that a good encryption method has an entropy
value of eight, while a bad encryption method has an entropy value of
zero (Ge et al., 2019). The formula for calculating entropy for a single
channel R, G, or B of a color image that has i = 256 grayscale is as follows:
∑
i
H= − p(i)log2 p(i) (89)
i=0
with, is the probability of occurrence of the gray value.
To perform this test, we choose a satellite image in Table 8, and then
we calculate the corresponding entropy value. To support the result, we
make an external comparison, and we adopt another chaotic map known
in the literature. Table 9 shows that the information entropy of the
encrypted image in the three channels R, G and B is very close to the
theoretical maximum value of the information entropy 8, so the adopted
eπ map can effectively withstand attacks based on the entropy of image
information.
H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

Fig. 12. Correlation point map of the RGB channel of the original and encrypted image.

17
H. Karmouni et al. Expert Systems With Applications 236 (2024) 121247

Table 8 Declaration of Competing Interest

Encrypted image correlation coefficients.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

The authors do not have permission to share data.

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