APPLIED PHYSICS FOR

ENGENIERS

LAB REPORTS

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Contents
1 Measurement of variation in photoelectric current with the change in intensity of light ....... 5
1.1 ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 5
1.3 THEORY.......................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 APPARATUS .................................................................................................................. 6
1.5 DIAGRAM ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.6 PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................. 6
1.7 PRECAUTIONS .............................................................................................................. 7
1.8 GRAPHS: ......................................................................................................................... 8
1.8.1 GRAPH BETWEEN I AND 1/D2: ........................................................................... 8
1.8.2 GRAPH BETWEEN L AND I: ................................................................................ 8
1.9 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS: ................................................................. 9
1.10 LAB QUESTION(S): ................................................................................................... 9
2 Measurement of frequency of A.C supply by Medley’s Apparatus ..................................... 10
2.1 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 10
2.3 THEORY........................................................................................................................ 10
2.3.1 TRANSVERSE ARRANGEMENT, ...................................................................... 11
2.3.2 LONGITUDINAL ARRANGEMENT, .................................................................. 11
2.4 APPARATUS ................................................................................................................ 11
2.5 DIAGRAM ..................................................................................................................... 12
2.6 PROCEDURE ................................................................................................................ 12
2.7 PRECAUTIONS ............................................................................................................ 13
2.8 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS: ............................................................... 13
2.9 LAB QUESTION(S): ..................................................................................................... 13
3 Measurement of Resistivity and Conductivity of Copper Wire............................................ 14
3.1 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 14
3.2 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 14
3.3 THEORY........................................................................................................................ 14
3.4 APPARATUS ................................................................................................................ 15
3.5 DIAGRAM ..................................................................................................................... 15

1
 3.6 PROCEDURE ................................................................................................................ 16
3.7 PRECAUTIONS ............................................................................................................ 16
3.8 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS: ............................................................... 17
3.9 LAB QUESTION(S): ..................................................................................................... 17
4 Measurement of Resistivity and Conductivity of Eureka Wire ............................................ 18
4.1 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 18
4.2 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 18
4.3 THEORY........................................................................................................................ 19
4.4 APPARATUS ................................................................................................................ 19
4.5 DIAGRAM ..................................................................................................................... 20
4.6 PROCEDURE ................................................................................................................ 20
4.7 PRECAUTIONS ............................................................................................................ 21
4.8 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS: ............................................................... 21
4.9 LAB QUESTION(S): ..................................................................................................... 21
5 VOLTMETER AND AMMETER DESIGN USING GALVANOMETER ........................ 22
5.1 Objectives: ...................................................................................................................... 22
5.2 Equipment: ..................................................................................................................... 22
5.3 Abstract: ......................................................................................................................... 22
5.4 PART 1: VOLTMETER ................................................................................................ 22
5.4.1 Diagram: ................................................................................................................. 23
5.4.2 Measurement of the internal resistance: ................................................................. 24
5.4.3 Testing the designed voltmeter: .............................................................................. 24
5.4.4 Diagram................................................................................................................... 25
5.5 PART 2: AMMETER..................................................................................................... 26
5.5.1 Diagram: ................................................................................................................. 26
5.5.2 Testing the designed ammeter: ............................................................................... 27
6 MAGNETIC MODULE ....................................................................................................... 29
6.1 Figure: ............................................................................................................................ 29
6.2 Objectives: ...................................................................................................................... 29
6.3 Introduction: ................................................................................................................... 29
6.4 Lab procedure:................................................................................................................ 29
6.4.1 For Block A............................................................................................................. 29

2
 6.4.2 For Block B ............................................................................................................. 29
6.4.3 For Block C ............................................................................................................. 30
6.4.4 For Block D............................................................................................................. 30
6.4.5 For Block E ............................................................................................................. 30
6.5 RESULTS: ..................................................................................................................... 30
6.6 Conclusion:..................................................................................................................... 30
7 APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC DEVICES IN ALARM CIRCUIT................................. 31
7.1.1 Apparatus: ............................................................................................................... 31
7.1.2 Objectives: .............................................................................................................. 31
7.1.3 Steps: ....................................................................................................................... 31
7.1.4 Lab Procedure: ........................................................................................................ 31
8 Magnetic field strength ......................................................................................................... 33
8.1 Objectives: ...................................................................................................................... 33
8.2 Concept: ......................................................................................................................... 33
8.3 Lab Procedure: ............................................................................................................... 33
8.4 Conclusion:..................................................................................................................... 34
9 Magnetic Curves ................................................................................................................... 34
9.1 Objectives: ...................................................................................................................... 34
9.2 Concept: ......................................................................................................................... 34
9.3 Lab Procedure: ............................................................................................................... 34
9.4 Conclusion: ................................................................................................................... 35
10 Lenz’s Law and faraday’s Law ............................................................................................. 36
10.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 36
10.2 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 36
10.3 Procedure .................................................................................................................... 37
10.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 37
11 Ampere’s Rule ...................................................................................................................... 38
11.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 38
11.2 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 38
11.3 Procedure .................................................................................................................... 38
11.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 39

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12 Fleming’s Rule ...................................................................................................................... 39
12.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 39
12.2 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 39
12.3 Procedure .................................................................................................................... 40
12.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 40

4
1 Measurement of variation in photoelectric current with the change in
intensity of light

1.1 ABSTRACT
This study discusses the variations of photoelectric current with intensity of light. The
Photoelectric effect is dependent upon various factors including frequency of light, intensity of
Light, nature of material, energy of light and potential difference. However, even if the
Photoelectric effect is caused, the photoelectric current which is produced as a result of it may
vary. To determine the impact of changing light intensity on photoelectric effect while keeping the
other factors constant, an experiment was performed. The impact was seen by Changing the
distance of light source from photocell and the recording the readings on Micrometer. The
correlation and graphical analysis was done to draw the results. The Correlation analysis showed
a significant positive relationship between photoelectric current and Intensity of light. The
graphical analysis also highlighted a positive linear relationship. Therefore, it was concluded that
intensity of light directly affects the variations in photoelectric Current. We have also find the
mean value of intensity of light which is:
L = 3.477739682cd

1.2 INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was discovered by a German physicist Heinrich Rudolf
Hertz in 1887. There are some factors which impact the process of photoelectric effect including
frequency, energy and intensity of light. The variations in photoelectric current which is
produced as a result of photoelectric effect are caused by the intensity of light. Various studies
have been conducted to explain the relation between variations of photoelectric current and
intensity of light. According to Maxwell's equations, the magnitude of electric field increases as
the intensity of light increases because the magnitude of electric field vector of a light wave is
directly proportional to square root of the intensity of light. In short, equations of Maxwell
supports that intensity of light positively affects the variations in photoelectric current. I have
discussed further explanation in theory section.

1.3 THEORY
The photoelectric effect is defined as: Emission of electrons from the surface of matter including
metals, gases, liquids and nonmetallic solids when light of a certain frequency is incident on it is
known as photoelectric effect. Factors affecting photoelectric current is produced as a result of
photoelectric effect therefore understanding the factors which influences the photoelectric effect
is very important. The previous studied on photoelectric effect are presented the following factors
which may have a direct impact on photoelectric effects. Uses of photoelectric current
Photoelectric effects is a very useful phenomenon and its importance can be understood from

5
following uses of photoelectric current produced as a result of photoelectric effects used in
different types of photo diodes and photo transistors. Photoelectric current of positive or negative
charges is also produced in spacecraft due to photoelectric effect. Apart from all of above
mentioned uses, photoelectric current produced during photoelectric effect also has a great use in
night vision devices.

1.4 APPARATUS
a. Photocell fitted in a box having a lamp.
b. Meter rod.
c. Micro ammeter.
d. Resistor.
e. Intensity meter.
f. Solar cell
g. 220 volts main.
1.5 DIAGRAM

Photo Cell
semiconductor

metal
Light Source
d

RL
A -

1.6 PROCEDURE
a) I gave a supply of 220 V to the lamp.
b) I switched the lamp on and move from zero position toward the lamp.
c) I recorded this distance “d” and reading of photocell current “I”.
d) I reduced the distance “d” with an interval of 5 cm and then so on.
e) Now if the distance of lamp from photocell is denoted by “d” then the intensity of light L
is proportional to 1/d2.
So that it becomes, L= constant / d2
f) I plotted a graph between intensity “L” and current “I” and it is a straight line which
indicated that intensity of light is proportional to photo current.

6
 g) Now I performed the same experiment by directly measuring intensity of light at the
distances on which photocurrent has been measured. I plotted two graphs one between
“1/d2”and “I” another between “L” and “I”.
h) It confirmed that the graphs are same indicating that L∝1/d2.

1.7 PRECAUTIONS

It was a very simple experiment however, in order to avoid the impact of other factors on the
experiment, I took following precautions:
a) I took distance readings by placing the lamp at larger distance and then I changed the
lamp with regular steps. The reason was that the smaller values of distance might
have reduced the accuracy of readings.
b) The same light source was used for all readings to keep the frequency constant.
However, before conducting the experiment, I ensured that no other electric source
was attached to the apparatus and the light of right frequency was selected.
Furthermore, all other lights of the laboratory were switched off before performing
the experiment.
c) There are two kinds of photocells available in the laboratory including those which
have external voltage source and those which do not have external voltage source. I
performed the experiment by using the one without external voltage source.
d) To make my readings précised I used a Micro ammeter and my readings of current
were measured in Microampere. Although a sensitive galvanometer could be also
used however, a galvanometer is typically used to check the effect of photoelectric
effect only and it does not give precise measurements of current.
e) In order to avoid the inconsistency in data the distance of lamp from cathode was
changed linearly without changing the angle at which light falls on cathode.
f) The photocell was not exposed to stray light because it could have distorted the aim
of keeping the same frequency of light.

7
 1.8 GRAPHS:
1.8.1 GRAPH BETWEEN I AND 1/D2:

5 Graph Between I and 1/d2

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
Current

1
0.5
0
0 2 1/d^2 4 10 16

1.8.2 GRAPH BETWEEN L AND I:

5 Graph Between I and INTENSITY

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
Current

1
0.5
0
0 2 4 10 16
INTENSITY

8
1.9 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

S.No Distance From Current Intensity Of Light Intensity

Cell I( µA) L∝1/d2 L=mW/cm2
d(cm)
1 65 0 2.3668 2.36686

2 60 2 2.777 2.77777

3 55 4 3.3057 3.30578

4 50 10 4 4

5 45 16 4.93827 4.93827

Mean Value of Intensity L = 3.477 cd

1.10 LAB QUESTION(S):

a) To what extent 1/d2 and current are directly proportional?

9
2 Measurement of frequency of A.C supply by Medley’s Apparatus

2.1 ABSTRACT
The purpose of this lab experiment, to observe a standing wave produced on a string fixed at
both ends and to determine the wave’s speed and frequency, was achieved. Using the data
collected from the experiment, the average frequency of the vibrator was calculated. The average
frequency was found to be
Mean Frequency found: f = 46.445 Hz. With a percentage error of 7.8 %
Throughout this experiment, I used our knowledge about transverse waves, standing waves and
nodes to determine natural frequency. I used vibrator, string and pulley to determine the
frequency of A.C.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

Melde’s Vibrating String experiment is an elegant way to find the frequency of A.C and to get
the concepts of waves. The apparatus consists of a string and an oscillator to generate different
frequencies. Melde’s experiment is ideal to study the behavior of standing waves. Students can
even visually determine wavelength, period and amplitude of waves.

A string undergoing transverse vibration illustrates many features common to all vibrating
acoustic systems just like the vibrations of a violin or guitar string. To adjust the tension of the
string, various amounts of mass can be placed in the tray that hangs off the side of a table or lab
bench with the use of the included pulley. In this experiment the change in frequency produced
when the tension is increased in the string – similar to the change in pitch when a guitar string is
tuned can be measured.

2.3 THEORY

A string can be set into vibrations by means of an electrically maintained tuning fork, thereby
producing stationary waves due to reflection of waves at the pulley. The end of the pulley where
it touches the pulley and the position where it is fixed to the pulley to the prong of tuning fork.

10
2.3.1 TRANSVERSE ARRANGEMENT,

For the transverse arrangements the frequency is given by:

1 𝑇
𝑛= √
2𝑙 𝑚

Where “𝑙" is length of thread in fundamental mode of vibrations. “T” is tension in string and “m”
is the mass per unit length of string.
If there are “p” number of loops in string then frequency will be :

p 𝑇
𝑛= √
2𝑙 𝑚

2.3.2 LONGITUDINAL ARRANGEMENT,

For the transverse arrangements the frequency is given by:

p 𝑇
𝑛= √
𝑙 𝑚

Where “𝑙" is length of thread in fundamental mode of vibrations. “T” is tension in string and “m”
is the mass per unit length of string and “p” is number of loops formed in thread.

2.4 APPARATUS

h. Melde’s Apparatus.
i. A.C Supply.
j. Pulley with stand.
k. Two small optical pins.
l. Light string.
m. Weight box.
n. Meter scale.

11
2.5 DIAGRAM

semiconductor

metal
d

RL
A -

2.6 PROCEDURE
a) The apparatus is arranged according to diagram by me.
b) I divided the measured mass of string with length to get mass per unit length “m” of
string.
c) I measured the mass of pan m1.
d) I tied the one end of string to iron strip of melde’s apparatus and other end I passed over a
frictionless pulley.
e) Then I attached this string to pan with some mass.
f) I stretched the string by placing some mass m2 in pan .
g) I adjusted the length of string by moving the melde’s apparatus or position of strip.
h) Now optical pins are placed by me where nodes are formed.
i) Then I noted the number of loops formed between optical pins.
j) Then I changed the masses so on and repeated the experiment.
k) I found the frequency by this formulae.
1 𝑀𝑔
𝑓= √
2𝑙 𝑚

12
2.7 PRECAUTIONS

It was a very simple experiment however, in order to avoid the impact of other factors on the
experiment, I took following precautions:
a) The thread should be uniform and inextensible.
b) Well defined loops should be obtained by adjusting the tension with milligram
weights.
c) Frictions in the pulley should be least possible.

2.8 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Mass per unit length of string = m= 0.002 gm/cm

Mass of the pan = m1 =13.3 gm

S.NO Mass in pan Total mass Number of Total length Frequency of

m2 m=m1+m2 loops of loops A.C Supply
n l=L/n (Hz)
1 20 33.3 1 40.5 49.8
2 30 43.3 2 47.5 48.48
3 40 53.3 2 58.7 43.5
4 50 63.3 1 63 44

Mean Frequency = f = 46.45

Percentage Error = 7.8 %

2.9 LAB QUESTION(S):

b) What will be the effects of change of length on the frequency?
c) What is the nature of waves produced in this experiment?

13
3 Measurement of Resistivity and Conductivity of Copper Wire

3.1 ABSTRACT
In this experiment, a better understanding of resistance was gained .In this experiment I have
founded Resistivity of Copper Wire using repetition of experiments. I use ammeter and voltmeter
to find current and voltages. Then we founded the value of resistance and then from that I
calculated the value of resistivity and conductivity.
The values which I have found are given below:
Resistivity of wire = 𝜌 = 1.216 × 10−8 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑚
Conductivity of wire = 𝜎 = 8.2 × 107 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1 𝑚−1

3.2 INTRODUCTION
Resistivity or specific resistance of Copper Wire is defined as “the resistance of a unit volume of
Copper Wire “. If “R” is resistance and “A” is area of cross section also “L” is length of a wire
and current is “I” then:
𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝐿
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗
𝐴
This constant is called Resistivity of Copper wire and this constant is denoted by"𝜌".and the
inverse of resistivity is called conductivity 𝜎 which is given by:
𝐴
𝜌=𝑅∗
𝐿
1
𝜎=
𝜌

3.3 THEORY
Ohm's law relates the applied voltage, V, to the current, I, and resistance, R, of the material
through which the current is passing in the following equation:

V = IR
The units for voltage, V, are given in volts, (J/C), for current, I, are given in amperes (C/s), and
for resistance, R, are given in ohms (V/A). It should be understood that the value of R is
influenced by specimen geometry, and for many materials is independent of current.

14
The resistivity𝜌, is independent of specimen geometry but related to R through the
following formulas

𝜌 = RAIL

, 𝜌 =VMIL

Where L is the distance over which the voltage is measured, and A is the cross-sectional area
perpendicular to the direction of the current in the Copper
Electrical conductivity𝜎, is the reciprocal of the resistivity given below in the formula 𝜎 = l/ 𝜌
And it is used to specify the electrical character of a material in terms of how well a material is
capable of conducting an electric current. Electrical Resistivity of Metals

Metals are very good conductors of electricity and have high conductivities because of the
large number of free excited into empty states above the Fermi energy and into the
conduction band.

Crystalline defects behave as scattering centers for conduction electrons in metals, and any
increase in the numbers of these defects will increase the resistivity of a given metal. It is also
known that the concentration of these imperfections is highly dependent on the temperature,
composition, and the degree of cold work of Copper.

3.4 APPARATUS

a) Power supply
b) Ammeter
c) Voltmeter
d) Copper Wire
e) Screw Gauge
f) Meter Rod
g) Connecting Wires.

3.5 DIAGRAM

15
 A

Power Supply

3.6 PROCEDURE

a) First of all I constructed the circuit according to diagram.

b) I switched on the power supply and give a small current in the wire. I recorded this
current and corresponding voltages across the wire from the meters on the power supply.
c) I kept changing the current with regular intervals and I recorded corresponding voltages
and currents in the table.
d) I found the value of resistance of Copper wire for each set of voltages and current and
found the average resistance “R”.
e) Then I found the diameter “D” of the wire using screw gauge and length of the wire using
a meter rod in centimeters.
f) Then I found the area of cross section “A” of wire using formulae
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
g) I calculated 𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 as per formulas :
𝐴
𝜌=𝑅∗
𝐿
1
𝜎=
𝜌

3.7 PRECAUTIONS

It was a very simple experiment however, in order to avoid the impact of other factors on the
experiment, I took following precautions:

16
 a) I provided small current to the wire for short time to avoid heating.
b) I took at least 5 readings in each case so that the probability of error is minimum.
c) I measured the length of wire very precisely.

3.8 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

S.No Current Voltages Resistance

I (𝐴) (𝜇Volts) R=V/I (Ohms)

1 60 0.9 0.015

2 50 0.7 0.014

3 40 0.6 0.015

4 30 0.4 0.013

5 20 0.2 0.01

Mean Resistance of Wire is: R = 0.0134 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

Length of wire = L = 0.10 m
Diameter of wire = D = 3.4 × 10−4 m
Radius of wire = r = 1.7× 10−4 m
Area of cross section of wire = A = 9.079 × 10−8 𝑚2
Resistivity of wire = 𝜌 = 1.216 × 10−8 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑚
Conductivity of wire = 𝜎 = 8.2 × 107 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1 𝑚−1

3.9 LAB QUESTION(S):

d) Why the resistivity of Copper Wire cannot found by Analogue Ammeter??

17
4 Measurement of Resistivity and Conductivity of Eureka Wire

4.1 ABSTRACT

In this experiment, a better understanding of resistance was gained .In this experiment I have
founded Resistivity of Eureka Wire using repetition of experiments. I use ammeter and voltmeter
to find current and voltages. Then we founded the value of resistance and then from that I
calculated the value of resistivity and conductivity.
The values which I have found are given below:
Resistivity of wire = 𝜌 = 3.9 × 10−6 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑚
Conductivity of wire = 𝜎 = 2.56 × 105 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1 𝑚−1

4.2 INTRODUCTION

Resistivity or specific resistance of Eureka Wire is defined as “the resistance of a unit volume of
Eureka Wire “. If “R” is resistance and “A” is area of cross section also “L” is length of a wire
and current is “I” then:
𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝐿
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗
𝐴
This constant is called Resistivity of Eureka wire and this constant is denoted by"𝜌".and the
inverse of resistivity is called conductivity 𝜎 which is given by:
𝐴
𝜌=𝑅∗
𝐿
1
𝜎=
𝜌

18
4.3 THEORY
Ohm's law relates the applied voltage, V, to the current, I, and resistance, R, of the material
through which the current is passing in the following equation:

V = IR
The units for voltage, V, are given in volts, (J/C), for current, I, are given in amperes (C/s), and
for resistance, R, are given in ohms (V/A). It should be understood that the value of R is
influenced by specimen geometry, and for many materials is independent of current.

The resistivity𝜌, is independent of specimen geometry but related to R through the

following formulas 𝜌 = RAIL , 𝜌 =VMIL

Where L is the distance over which the voltage is measured, and A is the cross-sectional area
perpendicular to the direction of the current in the Eureka
Electrical conductivity𝜎, is the reciprocal of the resistivity given below in the formula 𝜎 = l/ 𝜌
And it is used to specify the electrical character of a material in terms of how well a material is
capable of conducting an electric current. Electrical Resistivity of Metals

Metals are very good conductors of electricity and have high conductivities because of the
large number of free excited into empty states above the Fermi energy and into the
conduction band.

Crystalline defects behave as scattering centers for conduction electrons in metals, and any
increase in the numbers of these defects will increase the resistivity of a given metal. It is also
known that the concentration of these imperfections is highly dependent on the temperature,
composition, and the degree of cold work of Eureka.

4.4 APPARATUS

h) Power supply
i) Ammeter
j) Voltmeter
k) Eureka Wire
l) Screw Gauge
m) Meter Rod
n) Connecting Wires.

19
4.5 DIAGRAM

Power Supply

4.6 PROCEDURE
h) First of all I constructed the circuit according to diagram.
i) I switched on the power supply and give a small current in the wire. I recorded this
current and corresponding voltages across the wire from the meters on the power supply.
j) I kept changing the current with regular intervals and I recorded corresponding voltages
and currents in the table.
k) I found the value of resistance of Eureka wire for each set of voltages and current and
found the average resistance “R”.
l) Then I found the diameter “D” of the wire using screw gauge and length of the wire using
a meter rod in centimeters.
m) Then I found the area of cross section “A” of wire using formulae
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
n) I calculated 𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 as per formulas :
𝐴
𝜌=𝑅∗
𝐿
1
𝜎=
𝜌

20
4.7 PRECAUTIONS

It was a very simple experiment however, in order to avoid the impact of other factors on the
experiment, I took following precautions:
d) I provided small current to the wire for short time to avoid heating.
e) I took at least 5 readings in each case so that the probability of error is minimum.
f) I measured the length of wire very precisely.

4.8 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

S.No Current Voltages Resistance

I (𝐴) (Volts) R=V/I (Ohms)

1 0.082 0.5 6.09

2 0.16 1.0 6.25

3 0.245 1.5 6.12

4 0.35 2.0 5.71

5 0.44 2.5 5.68

Mean Resistance of Wire is: R = 5.97 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

Length of wire = L = 0.10 m
Diameter of wire = D = 2.9 × 10−4 m
Radius of wire = r = 1.45× 10−4 m
Area of cross section of wire = A = 6.6 × 10−8 𝑚2
Resistivity of wire = 𝜌 = 3.9 × 10−6 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑚
Conductivity of wire = 𝜎 = 2.56 × 105 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1 𝑚−1

4.9 LAB QUESTION(S):

e) Why the resistivity of Eureka Wire cannot found by Digital Ammeter?? If we can find
then why we use Analogue one?

21
5 VOLTMETER AND AMMETER DESIGN USING GALVANOMETER

5.1 Objectives:
To convert a sensitive galvanometer into a voltmeter, and subsequently convert it into an
ammeter. The voltmeter would measure voltages ranging from -5 volts to +5 volts whereas the
ammeter would measure currents ranging from 0-10 milli amperes.

5.2 Equipment:
Galvanometer, Variable resistor / potentiometer, Resistors, DMM, breadboard, DC power
supply, and connecting wires.

5.3 Abstract:
A galvanometer is a sensitive device which can measure very small currents accurately. A
galvanometer itself may not be very useful for measuring currents in most of the circuits where
current is usually in milli amperes. However by slight alterations a galvanometer can be
converted into a voltmeter or an ammeter with a reasonably larger range. It is basically a current
measuring device but by knowing its internal resistance and using ohm’s law we can use it to
measure voltage across a circuit element. However such a usage of galvanometer has two serious
limitations. First, since the internal resistance of a galvanometer is usually small it would
seriously affect the voltage reading across the element for which it is used. Second, as
galvanometers can measure only small amounts of current (300 micro amperes) so the range of
voltage which they can measure is very small as well. We can overcome both these limitations
very easily. By connecting a very large resistance in series with the galvanometer we can make
its total resistance significantly large. This would increase the range of measurable voltage and
would decrease the loading effect of the galvanometer as well.

5.4 PART 1: VOLTMETER

The selected galvanometer can measure currents from 0-300 micro amperes.
The internal resistance of different galvanometers is different but it ranges from 130150 ohms.
We can measure it by using DMM. We will convert our galvanometer into a voltmeter with a
range of -5 to 5 volts. It should give maximum deflection when a voltage of 5V is applied across
its terminals. We know that it would give maximum deflection only if the current through it is
maximum, i.e. 300 micro amperes.

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5.4.1 Diagram:

Voltmeter design using galvanometer

If v = 5V then i = 300µA. Suppose the internal resistance Rm of the galvanometer is

140Ω then

v = iR +iRm

R = (v−iRm )i (

R = (5−(300µ)(140)) (300µ)
R =16.5kΩ

The design of the voltmeter as explained in the theory section has two constraints:
The actual value of the internal resistance (Rm) of the galvanometer is unknown.
If found the actual value of internal resistance (Rm) still it would be really fortuitous if the
calculated value of the resistance R is actually present in the laboratory.

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So to overcome these two constraints a circuit as shown in figure 5.1 is build. A variable
resistance (1 MΩ) has to be attached in series with the galvanometer. The value of the variable
resistance is slowly varied until maximum deflection of the galvanometer is achieved, thus our
voltmeter design is complete and calibrated for -5 to +5 volt measurement.

5.4.2 Measurement of the internal resistance:

To calculate the actual value of the internal resistance of the galvanometer:

Measure the voltage across the sensitive galvanometer (vg), and record the value in Table
Measure the current flowing through the galvanometer (ig), and record the value in Table
Write down in the calculated and measured value of the internal resistance Rm.
Determine the calculated value of R. Use DMM to measure the value of series resistance R and
make a note in Table.

vg ig Rm meas. Rm calc. R meas. R calc. (Ω)

(mili V) (micro A) (Ω) (Ω) (Ω)

0.6 4.9 133 134 m 1.02

5.4.3 Testing the designed voltmeter:

To test the designed voltmeter:

Remove the 5V supply from the designed voltmeter unit.
Make a circuit of series resistors, on the breadboard.
Using the designed voltmeter, measure the voltage across each resistance and record the value in
Table. Use DMM to verify the voltage values.

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5.4.4 Diagram

Test circuit to validate the voltmeter design

Measuring voltage across the resistor R1

Nominal value of Voltage measured by the Voltage measured by the

resistance (Ω) designed voltmeter (V) DMM (V)

R1 = 560 1.32 1.35

R2 = 560 1.320 1.35

R3 = 1000 2.19 2.269

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5.5 PART 2: AMMETER
5.5.1 Diagram:
The selected galvanometer can measure currents from 0-300 micro amperes.
The internal resistance of different galvanometers is different but it ranges from 130-150 ohms.
Suppose we wish to convert the galvanometer into an ammeter with a range of 0 to 10 milli
amperes. Galvanometer should give maximum deflection when a

current of 10mA flow through it. We know that the galvanometer would give maximum
deflection only if the current through it is maximum, i.e. 300 micro amperes.

Ammeter design using galvanometer

If i = 10mA then ig = 300µA and is = 9.7mA (is is the current flowing through the shunt
resistance Rs). Suppose the internal resistance Rg of the galvanometer is 140Ω then

is = Rg / (Rg + Rs) I

Rs = Rg (i /is )− Rg

Rs = (140)(10/ 9.7)−140
R = 4.33Ω

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The design of the ammeter as explained in the theory section has two constraints: First, actual
value of the internal resistance (Rg) of the galvanometer is unknown.
Second, if found the actual value of internal resistance (Rg) still it would be really fortuitous if
the calculated value of the resistance Rs is actually present in the laboratory. So we would
make a circuit as shown in figure 5.4. A variable resistance
R of 1kΩ has to be attached in parallel with the galvanometer. The value of the variable
resistance is slowly varied until maximum deflection of the galvanometer is achieved, thus
our ammeter design is complete and calibrated for 0 to 10 mA measurement.

5.5.2 Testing the designed ammeter:

To test the designed ammeter:
1. Remove the 10V supply and the R1 (1kΩ) resistance from the designed ammeter unit.

2. Make a circuit of parallel resistors on the breadboard.

3. Using the designed ammeter, measure the current through each resistance and record the value
in Table Use DMM to verify the current values.

Test circuit to validate the ammeter design

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 Measuring current through the resistor R1

Nominal value of Current measured Current measured

resistance (Ω) by the designed by the DMM (A)
ammeter (A)

R1 = 2200 0.0028 0.003

R2 = 100 0.0021 0.002

R3 = 1000 0.070 0.074

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 6 MAGNETIC MODULE
6.1 Figure:

6.2 Objectives:
 To understand the types and properties of magnets
 To learn how to operate relays Equipments:

Bar magnet, Relay, Module KL-13002 , linking wires, digital voltmeter, 2 keys wire

6.3 Introduction:
 Relays are widely used in control circuits as remotely controlled mechanical switches
to turn on or off the sequence of events.
 In this experiment we determined the magnetic properties of closed and open circuits.
We had also checked the resistance of different loops and coil.

6.4 Lab procedure:

6.4.1 For Block A

We approched the magnet to the block a and recorded the result.

6.4.2 For Block B

• We located the block B and approached the magnet to the magnetic switch on block B
and measured the contact resistance of the switch.
• When the distance of the magnet is between 0.5 and 1 cm approx. The magnetic switch
had closed and we measured the contact resistance of the circuit.
• Then we remove the magnet and record the resistance of the magnet switch.

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6.4.3 For Block C
• Locate the block C and applied the +5 voltage to the coil terminal using the ohm meter
measure and record the resistance of the switch
• Turn of the power measure and record the resistance of the switch.

6.4.4 For Block D

• Locate the block D
• Connect the ohm meter to the two terminals 2,3. And the positive power to the
terminal 4,5. Slowly race the power supply untill the resistance is infinity indicated
by the ohm meter. We measured and recorded the power voltages

6.4.5 For Block E

• Locate the block E . Complete the circuit as shown.
• Connect the power supply to the V+ and slowly raced the v+ voltage untill the SSR
and lamp are turned on.
• Measure and record the power voltage

6.5 RESULTS:

For block A : like poles repel unlike poles attract.

For block B: 0 ohm resistance for closed circuit and infinite resistance for open circuit.
For block C: 0 ohm resistance for closed circuit and infinite resistance for open circuit.
For block D: 8.3 V for closed circuit and 2.8 V for open circuit.
For block E: The power V is 3V

6.6 Conclusion:
The polarities of magnet are called north and south pole. Their are two laws. Like poles attract
and unlike poles attract.

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7 APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC DEVICES IN ALARM CIRCUIT

7.1.1 Apparatus:
Module KL-13003, jumpers, connecting wires

7.1.2 Objectives:

 To demonstrate the applications of magnetic field.

 To learn how to use magnetic devices in alarm circuit.

7.1.3 Steps:

Step sequence for alarm is:

 Turn on reset switch. Relay will be activated and there will no contact too.
 Approach the magnet to the magnetic switch
 Turn off reset switch. The relay is still activated through magnetic switch.
 The circuit is now in normal condition.
 Remove the magnet from the switch.
 LED is lighted up.
 The circuit will give the alarm.

7.1.4 Lab Procedure:

 We set the module KL-13003 on unit KL-21001, and locate block a.

 We completed the circuit as shown in figure. Disconnect the short clip for turning reset
switch to OFF position

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We applied +6V to V+:
 We observed for LED : ON
 We observed for relay : OFF
We plug in short clip to turn reset switch ON:
 Observation on relay: ON
 We Removed the short clip a
 Observation on relay: OFF
 Is circuit normal?: NO
We approach the magnet to the magnetic switch:
 We observed for relay: OFF
 We plug in short circuit clip and approach the magnet on magnetic switch.
 We observed for relay: ON
We approach the magnet to the switch and remove s.c clip
 We observed of relay: ON
 Is circuit normal? : YES
 Observation on LED : OFF
We remove the magnet from magnetic switch:
 We observed for relay: OFF
 We observed for LED: ON
 Circuit alarmed? : YES

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 8 Magnetic field strength

8.1 Objectives:

1. To understand magnet field strength around a coil.

2. To study how to produce magnetic field.

8.2 Concept:

Current is produced by changing magnetic field. It was noticed when current carrying wire affected the
compass.
If the number of wires are wounded together, it makes a coil which generate more flux. More the loops,
stronger will be the magnetic field. The wire wounded on the coil leads to solenoid. The characteristic of
solenoid is that when we change the current in it, it behaves like a bar magnet.

8.3 Lab Procedure:

1. We Set the module Kl-13003 on the main unit KL-21001, and located the block c
2. We Completed the circuit as shown. The ammeter had been used from the main unit.

3. We applied +18V to V+, then slowly turned the Vr1 ccw until the iron bar is drawn into
the coil.
The recorded value of current is 0.15.
Then we turned of the power and turned the voltage control to the left completely
4. Then we turned on the power and slowely raised the positive power until the iron bar is
drawn into the coil.
Recorded value for E=15V and I=0.15A

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8.4 Conclusion:
In third and fourth step, we checked that the magnetic field in the coil is directly
proportional to the current and number of turns in the coil.
If iron core is being kept, we can strengthen the magnetic field.

9 Magnetic Curves
9.1 Objectives:
 To understand the properties of magnetic field.

 To draw the lines of force or flux lines.

9.2 Concept:
By the attraction and repulsion of magnetic poles, there are forces coming out of
magnetic poles to cause those actions. But the actions do not only take place at poles. The
magnetic force actually surrounds the magnet in a field. This can be noticed when a compass is
moved around the bar magnet.

The magnetic field of a magnet is made up of lines of force that extend out into the space
from north
pole of magnet to the south pole. These lines of force do not cross and they become wider
apart away from the magnet. the closer the lines are and the greater the number of force lines are
, the stronger is the magnetic field.
9.3 Lab Procedure:

1. We set the magnet on the table.

2. We placed the compass around the magnet for at least 20 positions around the magnet
and recorded the directions.

3. Then we drew the curves made from the compass around the magnet.

34
9.4 Conclusion:

These curves drew in the third step showed the direction of magnetic force and these curves are
called magnetic field lines. These lines represented the direction of force from North Pole
towards the South Pole.

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 10 Lenz’s Law and faraday’s Law
10.1 Objectives
1. To become familiar with Lenz’s law in electromagnetic induction.
2. To become familiar with Faraday’s Law in electromagnetic induction.

10.2 Discussion
 Lenz’s law states that induce current opposes the cause that produces it.
 Faraday’s law states that changing magnetic field produces induce current
Lenz’s Law states that a change in current or flux produces an emf whose direction is such that it
opposes the change in the current or flux.
We can demonstrate these phenomena by considering the relative motion between a moveable
magnet and a stationary coil as shown. When the magnet is put in the coil the coil produces a
magnetic field with the same pole as the end pole of the magnet on the left end trying t prevent the
magnet in and the induced current cause the pointer of the ammeter to deflect to one side. If the
magnet is putting out the coil, the coil will produce a magnetic field with the opposite pole to the
pole of magnet and the left end trying to prevent the magnet out and the induced current causes
the pointer of the ammeter to deflect the other side.
Faradays law states that voltage induced in a coil of N turns by a changing flux is eL=-N(phi/t),
where (phi/t) is the instantaneous rate of change of flux. Since a change in current in a coil produces
the change in the magnetic flux. Therefore a change in current in the coil will cause the voltage
induced in a coil too. If we replace the magnet by a coil with a current flowing in it, the result will
be the same.
Fig. shows that two separate coils P and S are set on the same tube. The ends of the coil S and
connected to an ammeter and the ends of the coil P are connected to a battery. At the moment
either the switch K is turned on or off, the ammeter will indicate an induced current flowing in the
coil S due to the rapid change in current in the coil P.

36
10.3 Procedure
1. Set the module KL-13003 on the main unit KL-21001, and locate the block b.
2. According to Fig. 2 and 4 complete the experiment circuit.
3. Movie up and down the magnet and coil and observe the current indication on the micro
Ampere meter.
Does any current indication on the micro ammeter? YES
4. Change the moving speed of the magnet and observe the current indication on the micro
ammeter.
What is the relation between the induced current and the moving speed?
The faster the speed the greater the current.
5. Stay the magnet in the coil statically. Does the current indication return to zero? YES

10.4 Conclusion
Remember that an emf is induced in any wise that moves in a
magnetic field. In this case, it is the field that moves, but the effect
is the same as if the wire was moving and the field is stationary.
All that is required is relative motion between the magnetic field
and the conductor. Therefore as the magnetic field expand
through the conductor, it tends to the produce a current flow of its
own. Similarly when the magnetic field collapse, the flux lines
cut through the conductor again, and again an emf is induced.

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 11 Ampere’s Rule
11.1 Objectives
 To verify the right-hand rule by using a single wire
 To verify the right-hand rule by using a coil

11.2 Discussion

Since the magnetic field around an electron forms a loop, the field of the electrons combine to
form a series of loops around the wire. The direction of the magnetic field depends upon the
direction that the current flows. This
can be examined by using a compass,
the compass moved around the wire
will align itself with the flux lines.
A right-hand rule, also called Ampere’s
rule, can be used to determine the
direction of the magnetic field. If wrap
your fingers around the wire with your
thumb pointing in the direction of
conventional current flow, your fingers
will point in the direction of magnetic
field.
If a number of wire loops are wound in
the same direction to form a coil, more fields will add to make the flux lines through the coil even
denser. The magnetic field through the coil becomes even stronger. The more loops there are, the
stronger the magnetic field becomes.

11.3 Procedure
1. Set the module KL-13004 on the main unit KL-21001, and locate the block a.
2. According to figs. 1 and 2, complete the experiment circuit with short-circuit clips.

3. Apply +5V to V+, and -5V to V-

4. Approach the compass to the single wire.
Press SW1 and observe the deflection of the compass needle.
(Note: The time of SW1 on should be not too long).
What is the deflecting direction of the compass needle? THE RIGHT HAND
5. Is the slight deflection caused by the magnetic field? YES
If yes, does it mean the magnetic field around the wire? YES
6. According to Figs. 3.6.3 and 3.6.4, compare the experiment circuit with short-circuit clips.
7. Press SW2 and observe the deflection of the compass needle.
What is the deflecting direction of the compass needle? THE LEFT HAND
8. Locate the block b on the module KL-13004 and repeat steps 4 thru 7.

38
 9. Compare the results of step 8 with those of step 4 through 7.
Is there agreement between the directions of deflection? YES
Is there agreement between the degrees of deflection? NO

11.4 Conclusion
You have verified the right-
hand rule for determining the
direction of the magnetic
field produced by a single
wire or a coil. You have
found that the direction and
the magnitude of the
magnetic fields depend on
the direction of the current
and the number of the wire
loops, respectively.

12 Fleming’s Rule
12.1 Objectives

1. To become familiar with Fleming’s left-hand rule.

2. To become familiar with Fleming’s right-hand rule.

12.2 Discussion

As mentioned before, a magnetic field will be developed around a wire if a current flows
through the wire. Is this wire is within the magnetic field, the wire will be moved in a specific
direction depending on the interaction of these two fields. Fleming’s rules are usually used to
describe the relationships of the magnetic field, current and the direction of movement.
Fleming’s rules include left-hand rule and right-hand rule. The left-
hand rule commonly used to demonstrate the operation of motors,
is also called motor’s rule. The relationship of the existed magnetic
field, current in the conductor, and the moving direction of
conductor is shown in Fig 1. If the index finger pointing in the
direction of the existed magnetic field (lines of forces), and the

39
middle finger pointing in the current flowing in the conductor, then your thumb will point in the
direction that the conductor moves.
Fleming’s right-hand rule, usually used to describe the operation of power generators is also
called generator’s rule. It is illustrated in Fig 2 If your thumb pointing in the moving direction of
conductor, and the index finger pointing in direction of the magnetic field, then the middle finger
will point in the direction of the induced current.

12.3 Procedure
1. Set the module KL-13005 on the main unit KL-21001, and locate the block a.
2. According to Figs 3.7.3 and 3.7.4 complete the experiment circuit with short-circuit clips.
Apply +5V to V+
3. Press SW1 and observe the movement of the wire
(Note: The time of SW1 on should be not too long.)
What is the direction of the movement?
Down
4. According to Figs 3.7.5 and 3.7.6, complete the experiment circuit with short-circuit clips.
Apply -5V to V-
5. Press SW1 and observe the movement of the wire.
What is the direction of the movement?
UP

6. Locate the block b and complete the experiment circuit of Fig 3.7.7
7. Slowly raise the positive power ( < +10V) and observe the brightness of the lamp.
Is the brightness increased as the power is increased?
YES

12.4 Conclusion
In procedure steps 3 and 5, you have
verified Fleming’s left-hand rule and
have found that the wire moved in the
direction depends on the direction of the
current in the wire. You have also
verified Fleming’s right-hand rule in step
7. This circuit is a good example for
simulating a generator.

40