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    SPE Books from Hanser Publishers Belofeky, Pasties: Produet Design and Process Enginecring Brostow/Comeliussen, Faure of Pastics Chan, Polymer Surface Modification and Characterization ‘Charrier, Polymeric Materials and Processing ‘Del Veeckio, Understanding Design of Experiments Bhrig, Plastics Recycling Ezrin, Plastics Failure Guide Gorton, Tolal Quality Process Control for Injection Molding GordordShaws, Computer Programs for Rheologists Gruenwald, Pasties: How Structure Determines Properties Lee, Blow Moiding Design Guide ‘Macosko, Fundamentals of Reaction Injetion Moléing ‘Malloy, Plestic Part Design for Injection Molding. ‘Maneione, Applications of Computer Aided Engineering in Injection Molding ‘Matsuoka, Relaxation Phenomena in Polymers Menges/Mohren, How to Make Injection Molds ‘Micheell, Extrusion Dies for Pasties and Rubber Michoel/Grelf’Kasfmann/Vossebiirger, Training in Plastics Technology Michaeli/GreiK etzschmar/Kaufmann/Bertulet, Training in Tajection Molding ‘Neumann, Experimental Strategies for Polymer Scientists and Plastics Engineers ‘O'Brien, Applications of Computer Modeling for Extrusion and ‘Other Continvous Polymer Processes COsswaid, Polymer Processing Fundamentals Progelhof/Dhrone, Polymer Engineering Principles Rauwendaal, Polymer Extrusion Rees, Mold Engineering ‘Rosavo, Designing with Reinforced Composites Rotheiser, Joining of Plastics ‘Saechling,Interstional Plastics Handbook ‘Stevenson, Innovasion in Polymer Processing: Molding, ‘Throne, Thermoforming ‘Tucker, Fundamentals of Computer Modeling for Polymer Processing Uirich, troduction to Industrial Polymers Wright, Injetion/ Transfer Molding of Thetmosetting Plastics Wright, Molded Thermosets Jordan Rotheiser Joining of Plastics Handbook for Designers and Engineers Hanser Publishers, Munich Hanser Gardner Publications, Inc., Cincinnati Contents Rapid Guidelines for Joining of Plastics and Efisient Use of This Handbook LL Effient Use of This Handbook 1.2 Rapid Guidelines for Assembly of Plasties 121 Adhesives (Chapter 7) L211 Liguids: Solvest-Based, Water-Based, and Anaerobic Adhesives 1212 Mastcs 1213 Hot Mets 1214 Pressure-Senstive Adhesives 1.22. Fasteners and Inserts (Chapter §) 1.23. Hinges (Chapter 9) 124 Hot Piet Dian nd Hot Wi/Resane Welding (Chap 1) 125 Hot Gas Welding (Chapter 11) 12.6 Induction Welding (Chapter 12) 12.7 Insert Molding (Chapter 13) 128 Multipart Molding (Chapter 13) 129 Press Fits/Force Fis/interference Fis/Shrink Fits (Chapter 4) 1.2.10 Solvent Joining (Chapter 7) 12.11 Snap Fits (Chapter 15) 1.2.12 Spin Welding (Chapter 16) 12.13 Soking/Swagng/Penng/ColéHeacng/Col Forming (haps 17) 1.2.14 Threads ~ Molded in (Chapter 18) 12.15 Threads ~ Tapped (Chapter 18) 12.16 Ultrasonic Welding (Chapter 19) 12.17 Vibration Welding (Chapter 20) 1.3. Assembly Methods Selection by Size 14 Assembly Methods Selection by Jong Time Designing for ficient Assembly 21 Avoiding Part Distortion 22. Inside Comer Stress 23° Ribs and Bosses 24 Dra 25° Shrinkage 26 Fitmeats 26.1 Drawing Conventions for Plastic Assembly 2.62 Importance of Tolerancing for Assembly 263. Special Drafting Practices for Plastics 2.64 Procedure for Establishing Tolerances 2.7 Design Practoes for Looser Tolerances in Plastics 2.1 Three-Point Location 27.2 Hollow Bosses R B 4 1s "7 9 19 a 27 2% 273. Crush Ribs 27.4 Flenble Ribs 275 Inside/Outsde Fitments 27.6 Step Fitments 28. More Relaxed Tolerances for Large Parts 28.) Drillin Place 282 Oversize Hole with Washer 283 Criss-eross Sis 284 Separation of Functions 285 Comer Clearance 29. Sersidovetil Joint 2.10 Minimizing the Etfect of Misalignment on Appearance 2.1 The Paste Product Deg for Asembly Check. 2112 Testing Cost Reduction in Assembly. 341 Introduction. 32. The Micro Approach to Part Reduction 321 Combining Parts Through Materials 32.2 Combining Parts Through Processes 33. The Macro Approseh to Part Reduction 33.1 Multiple Material Processing 33.2 Coextrusion, 333. Coinjection Moding 3344 Multipart of Two-Color Injection Molding 34. Elimination of Fasteners 3.4.1 Multiple Parts per Festener 342 Press end Snap Fits 3.43 Integral Hinges 3.44 Combining Fastener Elimination Concepts - 35. Holiste Design 3.5.1 The Overall Design Considerations 352. The Thread Design. 353 The Processing Considerations. 354 The Tooling Considerations 35.5 Execution, 35.6 Toward Holistic Design Design for Disassembly and Recycling 4.1 Introduction 42. Design for Disassembly 42.) Reopenable Assembles 422 Permanent Assembles 43. Design for Recycling 43. Simplifeation 432 Assembly Method Selection 43.2.1 Reopenable Methods 43.22 Permanent Methods 30 u 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 35 % 36 433 : ca 434 : 6 435 6 43.6 Material Reduction | ||” 6 43.7 éentiication and Disassembly Instructions. 7 5 Assembly Method Selection by Material Rohe 5.1 Thermoplastics Versus Thermosets n 52. Amorphous Vers Snicystline Tesmolses «.< « oan 52.1 Postmolding Shrinkage ee 522 Gent of Liner Tiemal Expansion : en) 523 Weldabilty. . .. . vile Lilli 5.24 Solvent Sealabitity 4 533. ‘Thermoseis ” ‘$4. Assembly Method by Material. a 54.1 Propertics and Assembly-Relaied Data for Selected Materials «|... 76 542 Adhesives . ce ioe) 543 Using the SPI Tables... - Se oe) 6 Assembly Method Selection by Process. 6.41 Introduetion 62. Blow Molding 62.1 The Proves 62.2 Assembly Considerations. - {63 Casting, Poting Eneapstaton, and Embedment 63.1 The Processes... 632 Assembly Consdeton. Lit 64 Coextrusion, cone 65 Connjection Molding 65 Cold Press Molding 661 The Process | |. 662. Assembly Considerations 67 Compression Molding 67.1. The Process ut 67.2 BMC: Bulk Molding Compound 67.3. SMC: Shoot Molding Compound 63.4 Assenbly Condierations 68 Extrusion... ss G81 The Process 682 Coextrusion 683 Assembly Considerations 69. Filament Winding 69.1 The Process 692 Assembly Considerations. - - : 6.10 Gas-Asssted Injection Molding < . - . 6.11 Gas Counter Pressure Structural Foam Molding Contents 6.12 Injection Molding 6.12.1 The Process 6.12.2 Assembly Considerations 6.13 Layrup and Spray-up 613.1. The Processes 6.13.2 Assembly Considerations 6.14 Machining 6.14.1 The Process 614.2 Thermoplastios 6163 Thecmosets 6.184 Assembly Considerations - 6.15 Paltrusion 6.181 The Process 6.152 Assembly Considerations 6.16 Reaction Injection Molding (RIM) 6.16.1 The Process 6.16.2_Assembly Considerations 6.17 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) 6171 The Process 617.2 Assembly Considerations 46.18 Rotational Molding 6.18.1 The Process 6.18.2 Assembly Considerations ‘ 6.19 Structural Foam Molding, Gus Counterpressure Structural Foam Molding, and Coinjection Molding 6.19.1 The Processes 6.192 Assembly Considerations 620 Thermoforming 6.20.1 The Processes 6202 6203 6.204 Pressre Thermoforming 620.5 Other Forming Processes 6.20.6 Assembly Considerations 6.21 Twin-Sheet Thermoform ng 6211 The Process 621.2 Assembly Considerations 6.22 Transfer Molding 6.22.1 The Process 622.2 Assembly Considerations 6:23 Process Selection 623.1 Thermoplastic Open Shapes 6.23.2 Thermoset Open Shapes 6233 Hollow Pants 6234 Profiles 6235 Uli High Strength - 160 161 162 12 1e ” 178 178 119 179 19 179 180 180 12 18 ea 15 185 Contents 7 Adhesive and Solvent Joining uM 12 14 1s 16 ‘Advantages and Disadvantages TL Advantages. 742 Disadvantages Basic Theory and Terminology Methods for Measuring the Wettability Fa Plastic Surface 73 Contact Angle Test, 732. Wetting Tension Test (ASTM D-2578-73, Wetting Tension ‘of Polyethylene and Polypropylene Films) 133 Adhesion Ratio Test (Tentative ASTM D.2141-65R) 73.4 Water Spreading Test 735° Dye Stain Test 736 Ink Retention Test Surface Treatmenss 7A. Solvent Cleaning 7A.1 Solvent Immersion 7412 Solvent Wiping JAN3. Solvent Spray 74.14 Vapor Degreasing TAA'3. Ultasonie Vapor Degreasing 7ALLG Ultrasonic Cleaning with Liguid Rinse 742 Abrasive Methods 742.1 Dry Abrasion 7422. Dry Abrasive Blast 7423 Wet Abrasive Blast ‘742A Wet Abrasive Scour - 7A25. Detergent Serub 7143. Sonface Energy Treatments and Process Selection Factors ABA Chemical Treatment 7432. Corona Treatment 7433 Plasma Treatment 7A34 Flame Treatment 743.5 Process Selection Factor: 144 Shelf Lie of Surface Trestmeats Design for Adhesion TS Shear Suess 752 Tensile Stress 153 Cleavage 154 Peat 155 Adhesive Joint Designs 75:51. Load-Bearing or Non-Load-Bearing Joints 755.2. Lap Joints 755.3. Butt Joints 7354. Screw and Glue ‘Adhesives, 761 Acrylics 1.62 Anaerobies 7.63 Cyanoscryates 186 186, 186, 188 189 190 190) 191 191 192 192 195 195 193 196 xvili___Contents 1.64 Epoxies 7 Gocuda 219 163 Hot Mens 219 166 Phenolics 20 161 Polyurethanes 20 768 Polysulfides i : zai 1.69 Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives. zl 1.610 Silicones . zai 1.611 Solvent-Bassd Adhesives 1 7.612 Water-Based Adhesives 22 17° Solvents 7 m2 78 Adhesive and Solvent Assembly Techniques ‘ me ‘78.1 Fixturing 226 782 Clamping. Bs 783 Application Methods 26 7831 Capillary Method : 2 183.2 _ Dip or Soak Method 21 79 Adhesive and Solvent System Selection 28 710 Glosary 20 TAI Sourees| Soa as 22 8 Fasteners and Inserts Bs 81 Advantages und Disadvantages... goG 235 8.1 Advantages of Using Fasteners |. 1 > 7 2s 8.1.2 Disadvantages of Using Fasteners 235 82. Baie Design Considerations for Fasteners 237 821 Creep Eiects 27 822 Stress Relaxation Eos 238 823 Notch Sensitivity 28 824 Craze Resistance oe ss 239 8.25 Siifeess Considerations 240 826 Differentials in the Coeficiente of Linear Thermal Expansion. 240 82.7._Lass of Properties Due to Moisture 2a 828 Clamp Load 2a 8281 Strain Method. 2a 828.2 Torque Method 23a 829 Vibration Resistance 28 83, Methods of Using Fasteners with Plastics | 23 83.1 Prestin Fasteners 24 832. SeCTapping Srews 245 83.2.1 Strength of Plastic Tareads 24s 83.2.2 ‘Threed-Forming and Thread Cutting Screws 7 83.3 Special Serews for Plastics. 29 833.1 Narrow Thread Forms 250 833.2 Alternating Thread Heights 250 833.3 Asymmetrical Thread Forms 20 84 Selection of Sel Tapping Screws . 250 BAL CostCriteia. . : 250 842. Fail/Drive Ratio and Difereaial es east Contents 843 Strength Criteria 844 ‘Thread Cutting or Thread Forming 8.45 Tapped or Molded-in Threads. 85. Threaded Inserts: Advantages 86 Boss Cap 81 Helical Col Inserts 88. Self-Tepping Inserts 89. Pressin Inserts §.10 Glue-in Insets 8.11 Expansion Insets 8.12 Moldedsin Inserts 8113 Ultrasonic Inserts 8.14 HeatInstalled Insets 8.15 Induction Tnserts 8.16 Hermetic Seals 8117 Studs 8118 Insert Design Considerations 8.19 U- or J-Clips 820 Tee Nuts 8.21 Machine Secews 8.22 Tapping and Stud Plates 8.23 Plastic Serews, 824 Screw Heads and Washers 6.25 Boss Desiens 8.25.1 Design Criteria 8.25.2 Boss Sinks 8252.1 Coring 8.25.22 Location 82523 Support 8.25.24 Material 8.25.25 Surface Treatment 8.253. Weld Lines 8.26 Solf Threading Nuts 8.27 Twist Nuts 8.28 Prest-on Nuts 829 Spring Clips 8.30 Posh-in Fasteners 831 Rivets 8.32 Sources 832.1 Fasteners. 8222 Threaded Inserts 8.32.3 Thermal Insertion Equipment 8324 Induction Insertion Equipment 832.5 Ultrasonic Inertion Equipment Hinges 9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 9.1.1 Advantages. 9.412 Disadvantages 251 0 un Contents 9.2. One-Piece Integral Hinges 9.2.1 The Living Hinge 9211 Living Hinge Design 92.12 Living Hinge Molding Considerations 92.13 Living Hinges by Other Processee 9.22 The Mira Spring Hinge 92.3 Standard Hinges 92.4 Tab Hinges 9.3. TworPiece Plastic Hinges 93.1. Balland-socket Hinges 93.2. Two-Piece Lug-and-Pin Joint 93.3 “Hook-and-Eye Joint 94 Throe Piece Hinges 94.1 Taree-Pisce Lug and Pin 942 Piano Hinge 95 Latches 95.1 Snaps 952 Rathbun Spring 9.6 Number of Hinges and Location ‘Hot Plate/Hot Die/Fusion and Hot Wire/Resistance Welding 10.1 Advantages and Disadvantages TO.1.1 Deseription 1012 Advantages 1013 Disadvantages 10.2 Materials 103. The Process 104 Types of Hot Plate Welding 104.1 Low Temperature Hot Piate Welding 104.2 High Temperature Hot Plate Welding 1043, Noncostact Hot Plate Wel 10.5 Hit Plate Welding loin Designs 106 Equipment 10.7 Hot Wire/Resistance Welding 108 Sources : Hot Gas Welding UL Advantages and Disadvantages TLL Advantages 112 Disadvantages 12 The Process 112.1 Tack Welding 1122 Permanent Hot Gas Welding 11.23 High Speed Weiding 1124 Extrusion Welding 113 Joint Designs Contents Bn 114 Welding Practice 114.1» Appearance Problems, 42. Cracking Problems 1143 Distortion 1144. Fusion Probleme 1145) Penetration 1146 Porosity UAT Scorching : US Testing the Weld LIS. Nondestructive Testing HLS.LL Visual Examination T1512 Leak Tests 11.52 Destructive Tests. S21 Tensile Test 115522 Beading Test 11/523 Rod Removal Test, 11.83 Chemical Test 154 Spark Test 116 Applications Sources : ILD.L Welding Rods 11:72 Welding Equipment L.73 Welding Rod and Equipment ‘nduction/Electromagnetic Welding 12.4 Description 122 Advantages and Disadvantages 122.1 Advantages 1222 Disadvantages 123. The Equipment 124 The Process, 125 TheCol. lls 125. Single-Turn Coils 1252 Hairpin Coits 1253 MuliTurn Coils. 1284 Split Coils 1255 Other Types of Coils 1256 Coil Positioning 1257 Flux Concentrators, 126 Materials 1261. Polymers 1262 The Plectromagnetie Material 126.21 Molded:in Pre-Forms 12622 Hot Melt Bletcomagnetic Materials 12623 Liquid Electromagnetic Materials 12.7 Joint Designs « _— 128. Encapsulation a7 a 37 a7 we 329 31 332 332 332 33 3 34 334 335 5 335 335 336 337 337 37 xxii__Contents 129. Film and Sheeting 340 129.1 Intermittent Seating, : 34 1292 Continuous Sealing 3a 12.10 Inserting Metal into Plastic - 3a I Sourees. aoa 30, 13 Insert and Multipart Molding 38 13.1 Deseciption : 383 132 Tasert Molding : 38 13.211 Advantages of Insert Molding ao 1322 Disadvantages of Insert Molding ti 1323 Design with Threaded Inserte 34s 13.24 Mold Considerations for Threaded Inserts 3s 1325 Custom-Designed Inserts 350 13.26 Oniserts: Inserts Larger than the Moldnent el 1327 Hermetic Seals. 355, 1328 Preparation of Insert 356 1329. Decorative Inserts 356 133° Mall:-Past Molding 358 133.1 Deseription 358 1332 Advantages Particular to Multipart Molding |. 399 133.3 Disadvantages Particular to Multipart Molding. 2... 1 1 359 1334 The Process 360 1335 Materials, 36 134 Sourees. 368 14 Press Fts/Force Fts/Interference Fits/Shrink Fits... 364 14.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 364 111 Advantages 364 14.12 Disadvantages : 3 368 142. Press Fit Engineering ; 365 Engineering Notation : 365 Geometric Factor 366 ‘Changes Due to Temperature Variations. 365 Hoop Stress 367 14241 Metal Shaft in Plastic Boss 367 14242 Shaft and Boss of Same Material 368 142.43 Shaft and Boss of DiflorentPlastios 368 142.44 Quick Methods 368 14.25 Assembly and Disassembly Forces... oe. 426 Dimensional images Dito Assembly 370 1427 Relationships 370 14.28 Equation Limitations 310 143 Safety Factor 376 144 Processing 7 316 145 Material Selection 316 1s 16 146 Contents Part Design 146.1 Heavy-Duty Press Fits 14.62. Light-Duty or Reopenable Press Fis - 1463 Other tian Round Snap Fits, Is 132 133 136 157 158 159 ‘Advantages and Disedvastages ISLA Advantages 15.12 Disadvantages General Applications. General Engineering Principles 153. Allowable Dynami Strain, 1532. Comer Stress Concentrations 1533 Engineering Adjustments When Both Ports Are Elastic. - 1534 Finite Element Analyst Cantilever Snap Fits 134.1 Cantilever Snap Fit Designs 1542 Cantilever Snap Fit Engineering (Cylindseal, Ring, Perimeter, or Annular Soap Fits 1551 Cylindrical Snap Fit Designs. 1552 Engineering of Cylindrical, Ring, Perimeter, or Annular Snap Fits 1552.1 Maximum Permissible Interference 1552.2 Transverse and Axial Forces ‘Torsion Snap Fits. 156.1 Torsion Snap Fit Designs 1562. Engineering of Torsion Snap Fits. Strippable Snap Fits ‘The Injection Molding Process ‘Molds for Snap Fits 159.1 The Basis of Injection Mold Construction 159.2 Bjection and Cooling Systems for Stripping Molds 159.3 Cores for Nonstripping Molds 1594 Snap Fit Details in the Mold Cavity 15.10 Conclusions ‘Spin Welding 161 162 163 164 165 Doseription of Spin Welding Advantages and Disadvantages of Spin Welding 1621 Advantages 16.22 Disadvantages Spin Welding Process Materials. Design for Spin Welding 16.5.1 Overall Design Considerations 1652. Joint Designs 23 3m a7 378 380 380 3a 32 383 384 35 385 385 388 304 394 395, 395, 396 399) 399 399 401 42 403 403 405 «07 409 all 43 413 43 43 4a 45 417 409 419 419 wiv 1” 8 Contents 166 The Equipment for Spin Welding. 16.6.1 Dril-Press-Based Spin Welders. =~ 166.1.1- Tooling for Dsill-Prest-Dased Inertial Welding 166.12 Tooling for Deill-Press-Based Pivot Tool Welding 166.2 Commercial Inetia Spin Welders 16.63 Commercial Direct Drive Spin Welders 167 Sources ‘Staking/Swaging/Peening/Cold Weading/Cotd Forming ITAL Advantages and Disadvantages of Staking/Cold Forming TRL Advantages 1712 Disadvantages 172 Staking 17.24 Cold Forming of Stakes. 17.22 Hot Aie/Cold Staking 17.23 Ultrasonie Cold Forming 17.24 Hot Die Forming of Stakes (Thermal Staking) 1725 Ultrasonic Hot Forming of Stakes 173. Stake Design 173.1 The Stud 1732. Stake Heads 174 Swaging 17S. Sources 174 Thermal Staking 17$2 Hot Aie/Cold Sicking 1753 Ultrasonic ‘Threads: Tapped and Molded-in 18.1 Advantages and Disadvartages of Integral Threads IB..1 Advantages Common to Threads of Both Types [8.12 Disadvantages Common to Threads of Both Types 182 Drilled and Tapped Holes in Pasties 182.1 Advantages Unique to Tapped Thveads 1822 Disadvantages Unique to Tapped Threads 18.23. Driling Holes ia Pasties TE24 Reaming Hola is Pastice 182.5 Tapping Holes in Plastics 183 Molded Threads in Plastics 183.1 Advantages Unique to Molded in Threads 1832 Disadvantages Unique to Molded-in Threads. 1833 Thretd Design 183.4 Molds for Threads 18.341 Stippiag Molds for Internal Threads, 183.42 Collapsing Core Molds for Internal Threads. 183.43 Expandable Cavity Mold for External Threads 183.44 Spli-Cavity Molds for External Threads 183.45 Unserenina Molds for Internal Threads, 183.46 Unsereving Chuck Plate Mold 183.47 Molds for Paris with Less than One Turn of Thread ast 455 Contents 184 Souress| ae 1841 Collapsing Cores and Cavities » 1842 Unserewing Chuck [Ultrasonic Welding 19.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Welding TLL Advantages 19.12 Disadvantages General Applications “The Principal of Ultrasonic Welding Materials for Ultrasonic Welding 194.1 Additive and Contaminants 194.11 Colorants ‘ 19.412 Filles, Extendors, and Fibrous Reinforcements | 1941.3 Flame Retardants 194.14 Foaming Agents 194.15 Impact Modifiers 194.16 Lubricants 194.7 Mold Releases 194.13 Painted Parts 194.19 Plasticine 194.110 Regrind 19.5. Part Design for Ultrasonic Welding 19.5.1 Overall Ultrasonic Welding Considerations 195.11 Strength Requirements 195.12 Appearance Requicemeats 1955.13 Rigidity Considerations 19.52 Joint Fundamentals 19.52. Part Alignment 1952.2 Uniform Vibration Travel Distance 19.52.3 | Minimal Initial Contact Area 19.53 Energy Director Joints 1953.1 Bute Joint 1953.2. Joint Layout 1953.3 Textured Sutface | 19534 Step oint 1953.5 Tongue-and-Greove Joint 1953.5 Thin-Walled Joint 1954 Sheer Joint 19555 Hermetic Seals. 1956 Scan Welding 195.7 Stud Welding, Staking, Swaging, and Spot Welding 195.21 Staking and Sensing 1957.2. Stad Welding. 19.5.3 Spot Welding 19.6 Fabric and Film Sealing ass 456 436 456 an a4 a6 976 a7 478 a8 45 483 aes 199 198 Contents ‘The Ultrasonio Equipment 19.2.1 The Basic Principles 197.2 The Power Supply or Generator 19.73 ‘The Converter or Transducer. 19.74 The Booster 19.75 The Horn 19.76 The Fixture 19.7.7 The Controls 19.78 Equipment Frequency. 19.79 Automation of Ultrasonic Welding» Sources ‘Vibration Welding 20.1 202 205 206 ‘Advantages and Disadvantages 20.1.1. Comparison with Ultrasonic Welding « - 20.12 Advantages of Vibration Welding. The Process of Vibration Welding 202.1. Lineat Vibration Welding 202.2. Orbital Vibration Welding 202.3 Angular Vibration Welding Materials Vibration Welding Part Design. 204.1. Basie Considerations 2042 Joint Designs for Linear Vibration Welding ‘The Equipment Sources References Intex 3 Disadvantages of Vibration Welding. - . 492 42 42 03 94 496 a7 299 99 Introduction Ever since early man first figured out how to atiach a spearhead to a troe limb, assembly ‘has been one of mankind’s principal endeavors. Initial efforts consisted mainly of tying te parts together, largely with leaves, roots, vines, or strips of rawhide. Quality became an issue the first time & speathead came off a hunter’s shaft in the middle ofa struggle Other methods of joining soon followed. Man learned that some materials stuck to cach other, and mortar and adhesives came into use. Eventually he discovered that parts fltting tightly together needed no adhesives at all, This led to the development of dowels and, eventually, screws Somewhere along the line, he discovered that metals could be more readily shaped if heated. Taken to. high enough temperature, they would actually weld together. By the nineteenth century, all the means of assembling traditional materials were in place, Then came plastics, Here was @ new group of materials; at once both wondrous and frightening. Initial applications were simply as substitutes for dificult to obtain natural materials. To this day, many plastics applications fall into this category. It was many years before engineers began to recognize these materials for their own unique properties, This understanding is important, for, without it, itis impossible to achieve their fullest utilization. The most outstanding of these properties are as follows, L. Transparency with flexibility. The traditional transparent material is glass. How- ver, this material is very brittle and breaks readily upon impact. Itis also quite stiffand cannot be readily bent without cracking. While glass can be formed, the process requires very high temperatures. ‘A significant number of plastic materials in the styrenic, polycarbonate, acrylic, cellulosic, and polyolefin families offer varying degrees of transparency with flexibility and ductility. In fact, acrylics are capable of offering even greater transparency than the finest lead glass. These materials can be formed at relatively low temperatures and by @ ‘group of processes unique to the plasties industry. They can permit shapes that are impossible to duplicate with glass processes. Not only do these attributes provide product design opportunities, they vastly increase the palette of assembly techniques available to the fabricator. 2, Integral coloring. Painting and finishing of traditional materials are highly devel- ‘oped technologies. Indeed, on some occasions (eg, when an identical color match is required) they are used on plastics as well. However, painting is an expensive process and one in which consistency is difficult to maintain. Nearly all the plastics materials land processes permit a vast spectrum of integral coloring. Not only is there substantial saving in cost, but surface abrasions do not remove the paint to reveal a different colozed substrate. Thus, over time, a product improvement is provided Integral coloring has some impact on assembly considerations as well. Color match: ing between parts is accomplished readily when the parts are ofthe same material and xviii Iatraduetion with varying degrees of precision when they are of dissimilar materials. Multipart injec: tion molding permits parts of different colors or materials to be molded together, thus eliminating an assembly operation. Coextrusion permits two-color extrusions, which can be used alone, as in striped soda straws, or in combination with another process, such as blow molding or thermoforming. For example, a package might be thin- gauge thermoformed from 2 coextruded sheet such that the cover is one color and the base is another. Such a design would eliminate attaching the assembly operation fof the cover to the base. A clear material could be substituted for one of the colors, thus creating a package with an opaque base and a clear top. 3. Corrosion resistance. Plastics simply do not corrode, Aside from the obvious benefits for outdoor applications, there are assembly advantages as well, since galvanic action between metal components is not a concern, 4. Highly complex integral shapes. Short of hand carving out ofa solid block, none of the processing methods associated with traditional materials can come close to creating the kind of complex integral shapes that the plastics processing methods can accomplish. In addition, most of the wastage from cuttings associated with traditional materials is avoided. From an assembly standpoint, the use of plasties permits the combination of many parts into one, thus eliminating many assembly operations altogether. Furthermore, changes in wall thickness can create some variation in part stiffness. '. xtreme adaptability. When the volumes warrant, the chemical composition of phistics often allow modification 10 achieve specific characteristics. Thus, the most economical set of properties can be combined to optimize the material utilization. For example, the stffaess of a given plastic might be reduced just enough to permit the arm of a device to deflect adequately to perform a given function. This, in turn, could eliminate an entire mechanism composed of rigid arms and springs, thereby saving a whole series of assembly operations. 6. Weight reduction. With the exception of a few woods, such as balsa, plastics gen erally weigh far less than natural materials. This advantage has been the driving force for many applications. For example, increased use of plastics has enabled automobile ‘manufacturers to reduce the weight of each vehicle by approximately 25% in recent years, with corresponding improvements in fuel economy. In some cases, the weight reduction associated with the use of plastics can be excessive and weight must be added to a product to provide the proper ergonomic “feet” required for comfortable 7. Insulation qualities. Plastics can provide both thermal and electrical insulating properties. Many plastics provide both, permitting the elimination of parts and assem: bly operations. A plastic housing for an clectric drill is an excellent example of such an application, These savings may be negated to some degree when additional measures mast be employed to provide for EMI/RFI (electromagnetic interference/radio- frequency interference) shictding or heat dissipation, 8. New assembly techniques. While flame welding cannot be recommended, the traditional methods of assembly such as press fits, adhesive joining, and the use of fasteners are readily available for plastics. In addition, paris mado of plastic can alto be snap-ftted, staked, ultrasonically welded, induction-welded, hotdie-welded, Tntrodvetion xi. hot-gas-welded, spin-welded, vibration-welded, and solvent-welded. ‘Threads and threaded inserts can be molded right into the part or added as a secondary operation, [New processes, such as focused infrared welding, are under development, ‘These capabilities of plastics have been among the driving forces inthe success of the plastis industry, They have played a large part in the enhancement of our standard of living. While itis still possible to purchase an automobile manufactured by traditional hand methods, the cost of such vehicles is 10 to 15 times that of the average eer. Few can afford to pay that price. While everyone is e2ger to enjoy the benefits of cost reductions achievable through the use of plastics, itis important to recognize that one cannot take an object designed to be made of metal, for example, and simply convert its manufacture to plastic. Most engineers schooled ‘in traditional engineering institutions find it difficult to fully understand the peculiarities of the plastics medium. Thus, their projects encounter evelopment problems that could be avoided, or they fail to take full advantage of the capabilities of the medium. The most difficult to comprehend are as follows: 1. The scope of the materials known as plastics. Plastics are a broad category of ‘materials that can be divided into some three dozen families, each of which may have hundreds, if not thousands of individual compounds. While these may seem ‘vaguely similar to the casual observer, they can be truly unlike one another. Polycar- Donate is no more like polyethylene than steel is like tin or oak is like balsa. Some are elastomers fike rubber and others are as strong as iron. Therefore, anyone intending to work with plastics should acquire a reasonable understanding ofthe scope of proper- lies for each of the families. It is not necessary to be knowledgeable about all the individual compounds, since the bulk of them fallin the category of specialized versions developed to compete for a particular market. It is sufficient to have enough general knowledge of the customary applications and relative physical, thermal and electrical properties for each family to know where to look for the precise properties needed for a given application. Familiarity with the specifies of the compounds within many of the families improves with experience, ‘Note that we use the term “compound” when referring to the individual materials, ‘That is because most of them contain additives beyond the basic polymer. Among these are filers, colorants, reinforcements, antioxidants, ultraviolet light inkibitors, and Inbricants. Variations in the additives sre one of the principal reasons for the avail ability of s0 many compounds. The term “resin” is also in eommon use. 2. The general nature of plastics. Traditional materials such as glass, stone, and brick tend to fail in a highly brittle fashion. They have a stress-strain curve that is nearly vertical and almost no strain to speak of. Metals and woods are less britile but sil tend to approach their ultimate strengths before they start to exhibit significant strain. In contrast, plastics generally exhibit a great deal of strain before reaching their imate strength. Their curves tend to be relatively low, with virtually no flat portion. Therefore, 2 Young's modulus is dificult to come by, and & secant modulus must be used as a substitute Low cost plastics used in large quantities, often referred to as “commodity plastics,” tend to have strength and stiffness properties far below those of metals. Therefore, {geometrical configuration and wall thickness play a much larger role in determining the structural integrity of the product. Consequently, these characteristics become significant in the assembly aspects of the products. The more expensive plastics, which offer higher physical properties and generally are referred as “engineering plastics,” also exhibit this behavior, although in a less pronounced fashion, 3. The thermal characteristics of plastics. Generalizing again, plastics’ properties ‘change markedly with changes in temperature. OF course, so do the properties of rietals; but they do 50 at such high temperatures that this characteristic is not relevant for most applications. The properties of plastics, however, change at temperatures in the range of normal human living conditions. Data sheets usually list physical proper- lies at 72°F, However, properties such as tensile strength and stifness can drop off noticeably by the time the temperature has reached 100°F. As temperatures drop,

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