Industrial Electronics

Topic 8 – Semiconductor materials

A Introduction

1 The materials of chief concern in the electronics industry are conductor,

insulators, and semiconductors. This topic will discuss the atomic structure
of materials and what is semicoductors.

B Atomic structure

1 The atom is the smallest part of an element. It is made up of 3 basic parts:

neutron, proton and electron.

The proton is found in the nucleus and it carries a positive charge.

The neutron is also found in the nucleus and is neutral.

The electron orbits around the nucleus and it carries a negative charge.

In fig 1-1, the diagram illustrates those parts of the hydrogen atom.

electron

nucleus

proton

orbit
±

neutron

Fig 1-1

2 The neutron and proton combine to form the nucleus of the atom. Since
the neutron has no charge, the nucleus will have a net positive charge.
The number of protons in the nucleus determines what kind of element an
atom is. Oxygen, for example, contains eight protons in its nucleus, and
gold contains 79.

The atomic number of an element is the same as the number of protons

in the nucleus.

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Industrial Electronics
Topic 8 – Semiconductor materials

C Electron shells and valence electron

1 In fig 1-2, the outer shell of an atom is known as the valence shell. Any
electrons located in the outer shell of an atom are known as valence
electrons. The valence shell of an atom cannot hold more than eight
electrons. Silver, copper and gold all contain one valence electron.

Valence electron

Valence shell

+29

Fig 1-2

D Matter

1 Conductor

These are materials that provide an easy path for electron flow. Conductor
(fig 1-3) is usually made from a material that contains less than 4 valence
electrons. It will readily carry an electric current because they have many
free electrons.

Silver, copper and gold all contain one valence electron and are excellent
conductors of electricity.

Valence electron

Atomic Valence shell

structure of
copper atom
(atomic
number = 29) +2
9

Fig 1-3

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Industrial Electronics
Topic 8 – Semiconductor materials

2 Insulators

Insulators (fig 1-4) are materials containing more than 4 valence

electrons. It will not carry an electric current because they have little
or no free electrons or simply when the atom has seven or eight
valence electrons is extremely stable and does not easily give up an
electron.

E.g. insulator materials are rubber, plastic, glass and wood, neon,
nitrogen.

Valence electron

Atomic Valence shell

structure of a
neon atom +10
(atomic
number = 10)

Fig 1-4
3 Semiconductors Valence electron

Semiconductors
Structure of (fig 1-5), namely Germanium (Ge) and Silicon
Valence shell (Si), are
materials that
a silicon are neither good conductors nor good insulators. They
contain
atom four valence electrons in the valence shell.
(atomic
However, silicon is used widely+14
in semiconductor, because it can withstand
number
heat better.
=14)

Fig 1-5

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Industrial Electronics
Topic 8 – Semiconductor materials

E Semiconductor Material

1 Covalent Bond

The joining together of two semiconductor atoms is called an electron-pair

bond or convalent bond.

It is the sharing of electrons with neighbouring atoms in order to fill its outer
shell with 8 electrons

Covalent
Bonds

Electrons

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor Conductivity

Intrinsic semiconductors are very poor conductors or acts as insulators

since it will not easily give up or accept electrons..

It is in the form of pure Germanium or Silicon crystal.

The atom in this structure is electrically stable because its valence shell
are complete with eight electrons.

It can be made to semiconduct. One way to improve its conduction is to

heat it. Heat is a form of energy. A valence electron can absorb some of its
energy and move to a higher orbit level. It is free to move, so it can
support the flow of current. Thus, it has a negative temperature
coefficient. As temperature increases when heat is applied, the resistance
decreases.

3 Holes

Each time, an electron breaks away from a covalent bond, a hole is

created.

A hole represents the absence of an electron in a covalent bond.

The hole acts like a positive charge because it will attract and capture any
free electron that happens to come near it.

A hole (positive charge) can attract adjacent bound electron. When the
adjacent bound electron move to fill up the hole, the hole at the original

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Industrial Electronics
Topic 8 – Semiconductor materials

position disappears.

But a new hole is created at that adjacent bound electron when it moves
out of its shell.

In this way, a hole can move from one atom to another atom.

Covalent
Bonds

Electrons

4 Doping

It is the process of adding controlled amount of impurities to pure

semiconductor to improve conductivity.

5 Extrinsic Semiconductor

A semiconductor that has been doped is called an extrinsic semiconductor.

There are 2 types of extrinsic semiconductor, namely

(1) N - type semiconductor/material

(2) P- type semiconductor/material

5. N – Type Semiconductor
1
By doping the pure crystal with pentavalent (donors) impurities, that is, a
material with 5 valence electrons, we get N – type semiconductor.

Examples of pentavalent impurities are :

a. Antimony (Sb)
b. Arsenic (As)
c. Phosphorous (P)

Only free electrons are produced by doping with pentavelent impurities. As

a result, for N –type semiconductor, there are more free electrons than
holes.

Hence, the majority carriers are the free electrons and the minority
carriers are the holes.

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Industrial Electronics electron
Topic 8 – Semiconductor materials

Missing electron

5. P – Type Semiconductor
2
By doping the pure crystal with trivalent (acceptors) impurities, that is,
material having 3 valence electrons, we get P-type semiconductor.

Examples of trivalent impurities are :

(1) Aluminium (A1)

(2) Boron (B)
(3) Gallium (Ga)
(4) Indium (In)

Only the holes are produced by doping with trivalent impurities.

As a result, for P-type semiconductor, there are more holes than free
electrons.

Hence, the majority carriers are the holes.

And , the minority carriers are the free electrons .

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Industrial Electronics
Topic 8 – Semiconductor materials

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