AMC ENGINEERING COLLEGE

18th KM, Bannerghatta Road, Bangalore – 560083

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (21BE45)
MODULE – 2
Human Organ Systems and Biodesigns-1

Brain as a CPU System

Example 5: Robotic Arms for Prosthetics

Robotic arms for prosthetics are cutting-edge prosthetic devices that restore
functionality to people who have lost their upper limbs.
Robotic arms for prosthetics can be operated in many different ways, such as
directly via muscle signals (myoelectric control) or through brain-machine
interfaces, which use electrodes implanted in the brain or put on the scalp to detect
and understand brain activity.
Some prosthetic arms also employ machine learning algorithms to enhance
their functionality and change over time to meet the needs of the user.
To simulate the movements of a human arm and hand, these gadgets often
use motors, actuators, and sensors. The wearer is thus able to carry out activities
like reaching, gripping, and item manipulation.

There are Mainly 2 Types of Prosthetics 1) Myoelectric and 2) brain machine interface

Type 1: Direct Control of a Prosthetic Robotic Arm Using Muscle Signals

(Myoelectric Control)
 The movement of a robotic arm prosthetic can be controlled myoelectrically
by utilizing electrical impulses produced by the wearer's leftovers muscles.

Typically, the system uses electrodes attached to the skin above remaining muscle,
which are utilized to detect and decode the electrical signals produced by muscle
contractions.
When the wearer contracts their muscles, the electrodes detect the electrical
signals and Send them to a control unit, which interprets the signals and uses
them to control the movement of the robotic arm. Depending on the specific
design, the control unit may use pattern recognition algorithms to determine
which movement the wearer is intending to perform, or the wearer may use a
combination of muscle signals to control specific degrees of freedom in the
prosthetic arm.
The advantage of myoelectric control is that it is user-controlled, enabling a
more natural and realistic contact with the prosthetic. As the electrical impulses
produced by the muscles are specific to each individual and can be used to carry
out a variety of movements, it can also offer a great level of control and
precision.
On the other hand, myoelectric control systems can be complex, require
considerable treatment, training, and upkeep to assure optimal operation.
 Additionally, those with muscle weakness or other diseases that limit their
capacity to produce powerful electrical signals might not be a good fit for the
system.

Type 2: Robotic Arm Prosthetic by Brain-Machine Interfaces

 Technology known as brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) enables a user to
directly control a robotic prosthetic limb using their brain activity. The device
typically uses electrodes implanted into the brain or applied to the scalp to detect
and decode the user's brain signals.
The electrodes pick up the relevant brain activity when the user thinks about
moving the prosthetic arm and send the signals to a control unit, which then utilizes
algorithms to interpret the signals and move the prosthetic arm. The user can then
think about the desired movement to operate the prosthetic in real-time.
The benefit of BMIs is that they offer a simple and direct connection between
the user's brain and the prosthetic, enabling a high degree of control and accuracy.
BMIs can also be utilized to provide sensory feedback to the user, enabling them to
feel touch through the prosthetic.
BMIs, however, can be complex and invasive devices that demand surgical
implantation and continuous upkeep to ensure effective operation. Additionally,
they might not be appropriate for people with diseases that impair brain function or
who are unable to produce powerful enough brain signals to successfully control the
prosthetic.

Example 6: Engineering Solutions for Parkinson’s disease

 Parkinson's disease is a neurological condition that impairs motor skills and
mobility. Engineering approaches include a number of techniques that attempt to
enhance the quality of life for people with Parkinson's disease:
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a procedure that includes implanting electrodes in
particular parts of the brain to administer electrical stimulation. DBS can help with
symptoms like tremors, stiffness, and difficulties moving.
Exoskeletons: Exoskeletons are wearable gadgets that support and help people with
mobility problems. For those with Parkinson's disease, several exoskeletons have
been designed expressly to help with balance, motion control, and overall
movement.
Telecommunication technology, tele rehabilitation entails providing physical
therapy and rehabilitation services to people with Parkinson's disease without the
need for in-person therapy sessions.
Smartwatches: Applications for smartwatches can be used to monitor Parkinson's
disease symptoms, such as tremors, and offer prompts and reminders for taking
medications and exercising.
Virtual Reality: Virtual reality systems can be utilized for therapy and rehabilitation
for people with Parkinson's disease, offering them interactive environments where
they can practice their motions and gain better balance and coordination.

The quality of life for people with Parkinson's disease could be considerably improved by
these engineering solutions, and work is still being done to increase their efficiency and
usability. The use of these technologies in conjunction with other types of treatment and
care should be noted that they are not a cure for Parkinson's disease.

Artificial Brain
A hypothetical computer that would have cognitive capacities resembling those of
the human brain is referred to as an artificial brain, also known as an artificial
general intelligence (AGI) or a synthetic brain. The goal of artificial intelligence is
to develop a machine that is capable of learning, reasoning, and problem-solving in
a manner similar to that of humans. However, the creation of artificial brains is still
in its infancy, and there are still a lot of technological, moral, and philosophical
issues that need to be resolved.
Right now, artificial intelligence (AI) systems are made to carry out certain tasks,
such speech or picture recognition or decision-making, but they lack general
intelligence. This is due to the fact that AI systems are created to function within a
certain field and lack the capacity to generalize knowledge from prior experiences,
learn from new experiences, or reason about the world in the same way that humans
do.
Deep knowledge of the human brain's structure and operations, as well as highly
developed computer science and engineering abilities, are necessary for the creation
of artificial brains. Artificial brain models that can mimic the intricate functions of
human cognition and adapt to changing circumstances are currently being
developed by researchers.
The potential for artificial brains to transform the field of AI and bring in new
technical developments is acknowledged by several scientists, despite the
substantial obstacles. Others counter that the complexity and intricate nature of the
human brain's structure and functions make it improbable that we will ever be able
to replicate the human brain in a machine.
In conclusion, the creation of artificial brains is a fascinating and quickly developing
field of study that has the potential to significantly alter the course of human history.
However, it is crucial to approach this study cautiously and to think about the moral
and philosophical ramifications of building a computer that is capable of thinking
similarly to a person.
 Eye as a Camera System

The ability of the human eye to capture light and turn it into an image makes it comparable
to a camera system.
The primary elements of the eye that a camera system would have are as follows:

The Cornea: This translucent outer layer of the eye bends light to focus it onto
the retina like a camera lens.
The iris regulates the amount of light that enters the eye in a manner similar to
a camera's diaphragm.
The pupil: The pupil adjusts in size to regulate the quantity of light entering
the eye, much like the aperture in a camera.
The Retina: The retina captures light and transforms it into electrical signals
that are delivered to the brain, just like a camera film or sensor.
The Optic Nerve: The optic nerve transmits electrical signals from the retina to
the brain, acting like the cable linking a camera to a computer.
It's crucial to remember that the eye is considerably more sophisticated than a camera and
performs a number of additional tasks that cannot be performed by a camera, like adapting
for varied light levels and focusing. The eye can also detect depth and color. It can also
adapt to motions and provide the brain a continuous, real-time image.

Example 1: Architecture of Rod and Cone Cells

Although the basic structure of rod and cone cells is similar, there are specific differences
that are essential to their various roles.
 The photo pigment (rhodopsin in rods and photo pigments in cones) that
absorbs light and the mitochondria and other organelles, such as the nucleus, are
found in the inner portion of the cell.
The form of rod and cone cells is the main distinction between them. Cone cells
are shorter and more conical in shape than rod cells, which are longer and more
cylindrical.
The distribution of photo pigments and the quantity of synaptic connections
with bipolar and ganglion cells, which transmit the signals to the brain, are both
impacted by this shape variation.
While cone cells have multiple small segments, rod cells only have one long
outer segment.

The position of the two types of cells' synaptic interactions with bipolar cells
is an additional difference between the two cell types. Cone cells make synapses
with one or more bipolar cells, whereas rod cells only make connections with
one bipolar cell.
Example 2: Optical Corrections

Optical corrections are tools or methods used to repair or fix visual issues brought on by
an eye refractive defect.
When light entering the eye is not properly focused on the retina, refractive errors take
place and vision becomes hazy. Refractive errors come in a variety of forms, including:

Myopia: Nearsightedness, or myopia, occurs when light is focused in front

of the retina, blurring the image of distant objects.
Hyperopia: Farsightedness (hyperopia): Light is concentrated behind the
retina, blurring the image of close objects.
Astigmatism causes vision to be distorted or blurry because light is not
focused evenly on the retina which occurs due to birth defect where shape of lens is
not proper.

The most common optical corrections include:

Eyeglasses: Glasses with corrective lenses can be used to refocus light onto
the retina, improving vision.
Contact lenses: Corrective lenses in the form of contacts sit directly on the
cornea and work similarly to eyeglasses.
Refractive surgery: Surgical procedures, such as LASIK and PRK, can
reshape the cornea to correct refractive errors.

Optical corrections can greatly improve visual acuity and quality of life for people with
refractive errors. However, it is important to have regular eye exams to determine the
appropriate correction and monitor eye health.
Example 3: Cataract

A cataract is an eye lens clouding that impairs vision. The lens, which is situated
behind the iris and pupil, typically permits light to reach the retina and generates clear,
sharp images. However, the Rhodopsin protein in the lens might clump together with age
or due to other circumstances, making the lens opaque and resulting in visual issues.

Types of Cataract
Nuclear
Cortical
Posterior
Congential
 Blurred or cloudy vision, increased sensitivity to glare and strong lights,
fading or yellowed colors, and double vision in one eye are all signs of a cataract.
The prescription for contacts or glasses may frequently alter as a result of cataracts.
A frequent and secure approach to remove the clouded lens and replace it
with an artificial lens is cataract surgery. Most patients notice improved eyesight
within a few days of the operation, which is normally carried out as an outpatient
procedure.
In conclusion, cataracts can have a substantial impact on vision, but they can
also be surgically removed and replaced with an artificial lens to improve quality of
life and restore vision. Regular eye exams can aid in the early detection of cataracts
and shield against vision loss.

Example 4: Lens Materials

There are numerous materials that can be utilized to create the artificial lenses that are used
in cataract surgery or for vision correction, each with their own distinct qualities and
advantages. The most typical lens materials are:

Poly-methyl methacrylate: PMMA stands for poly-methyl methacrylate, a

form of plastic that has been used for a long time in artificial lenses. Although it is
a sturdy and reasonably priced material, it cannot flex and alter focus like a natural
lens.
Silicone: Silicone is a flexible, elastic substance that resists breaking and
cracking. Intra-ocular lenses (IOLs), which are put in front of the native lens,
frequently use it.
Acrylic: Acrylic is a transparent, light-weight substance with characteristics
equivalent to those of PMMA. The foldable IOLs, which can be implanted through
a smaller incision, frequently use it.
Hydrophobic Acrylic: A type of acrylic material called hydrophobic acrylic
has a unique surface treatment that lessens glare and halo effects around lights.
Hydrophilic Acrylic: A form of acrylic substance called hydrophilic acrylic
is made to be more compatible with the natural fluid in the eye, lowering the
possibility of issues that may threaten vision.
The selection of the lens material will be influenced by a number of elements, including
the patient's particular requirements, the surgeon's preference, and the potential advantages
and disadvantages of each material.
Your eye doctor can advise you on the type of lens material that might be most suitable for
you.

Example 5: Bionic Eye or Artificial Eye

A bionic eye, often referred to as a retinal implant, is a form of prosthetic

device that is surgically inserted into the eye to aid in the restoration of vision for
those who have lost their eyesight due to disorders like retinitis pigmentosa or age-
related macular degeneration.
A camera, a processor, and an electrode array connected to the retina
typically make up the device. The processor receives inputs from the processor,
which then gives electrical stimulation to the electrodes in the retina to excite the
retina's remaining healthy cells. The camera subsequently takes images. Cells and
restore vision. The restored vision is not perfect, but it can help people with vision
loss to perform daily tasks more easily and safely
 Typically, a bionic eye functions by taking pictures with a tiny camera
and sending the data to a processing unit that is mounted to the eye. Once the
visual information has been converted into electrical impulses, the
processing unit transfers the signals to an electrode array that has been
surgically inserted onto the retina. The remaining healthy retinal cells are
stimulated by the electrodes, and these signals are subsequently sent to the
brain to provide the perception of vision.
Although the recovered vision is not perfect, it can make daily tasks
safer and easier for persons who have lost their vision. Depending on the
person and the particular bionic eye being utilized, varying degrees and types
of vision can be recovered. While some artificial eyes can simply recreate
fundamental visual forms and patterns, others are capable of providing more
precise vision.
 A battery that is commonly placed behind the ear powers the bionic
eye. A device that is held close to the eye and sends power wirelessly to the
battery is used to recharge it. Usually rechargeable, the gadget lasts for
several years before needing to be replaced.

Heart as a Pump System

Example 1: Architecture

The right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle are its four chambers.
The right ventricle receives blood from the body and pumps it into the right atrium
where it is subsequently sent to the lungs for oxygenation. Oxygenated blood enters
the left atrium of the heart, where it is pumped into the left ventricle. Oxygenated
blood then returns to the heart. The oxygenated blood is subsequently circulated
throughout the body through the left ventricle.
One-way valves are located between each chamber to guarantee proper blood flow
and avoid backflow. The pericardium, a sac that houses a little amount of fluid and
aids in protecting and lubricating the heart while it beats, surrounds the heart as well.

The heart beat topic is a part of heart Architecture

The Heart Beat

The sinus node, a unique region of the heart muscle, produces an electrical signal.
The sinoatrial node (SA node) is another name for it.
A small clump of unique tissue called the sinus node can be found in the right
atrium, the upper right chamber of the heart.
The sinus node in an adult produces a steady electrical pulse 60 to 100 times per
minute. The bottom chambers of the heart (ventricles) contract and pump blood as
a result of this electrical pulse as it moves down the conduction pathways.
To remove blood from the atria, the right and left atria are stimulated initially and
contract to push blood to ventricles.
The ventricles then contract to push blood out into the blood vessels of the body.
Example 2: Electrical Signaling – ECG Monitoring and Heart
Related Issues

Electrical signaling regulates the heart's pumping motion, which creates the
heartbeat's rhythm. An electrocardiogram (ECG), which captures the electrical
activity of the heart and offers significant information on the function of the heart,
can be used to monitor this electrical signaling.
An ECG creates a trace or waveform that represents the electrical activity of the
heart by measuring the electrical impulses the beating heart produces. This trace can
be used to assess heart health and keep tabs on its operation.
The signals in ECG by the process of depolarization and repolarization
Depolarization is loss of electrons and Repolarization is gain of electrons.
 The P wave in ECG is formed when the blood from atrium is pushed towards
ventricles also called atrium de-polarization.
The R wave is formed when the blood from ventricles is pushed towards aorta for
circulation. Usually the blood is pushed with a higher force. Also called ventricular
depolarization
The T wave is formed when heart is in resting period after blood is pushed out of
heart for circulation. This is also called as resting phase or repolarization.

An ECG can be used to monitor or diagnose a number of common heart-related

conditions, including:

Arrhythmias: An ECG can be used to identify irregularities in the heart's rhythm or

pace.
Heart disease: Alterations in the electrical activity of the heart might be a sign of
conditions like coronary artery disease or heart attacks.
Heart attack: An ECG can aid in the diagnosis of a heart attack by spotting
abnormalities in the electrical activity of the heart that signify inadequate cardiac
blood flow.

Overall, the ECG is a helpful tool for identifying and tracking heart-related problems and
contributes to the provision of crucial information regarding the function and health of the
heart.

Example 3: Reasons for Blockages of Blood Vessels

Arterial blockages,
sometimes referred to as atherosclerosis, can happen for a number of reasons, including:

High levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in the blood can cause
plaque to build up in the blood arteries, which can make them narrow or block them.
High blood pressure: Over time, high blood pressure can harm blood vessels,
resulting in plaque buildup and blockages.
Smoking: Smoking can harm blood vessel inner walls and encourage plaque
development, which can result in blockages.
Diabetes: Due to blood vessel damage brought on by high glucose levels, people
with uncontrolled diabetes are more likely to develop blockages in their blood
vessels.
Age: The blood vessels may stiffen and become less flexible as people age,
increasing the chance of blockages.
Genetics: Some individuals may be susceptible to having blood clots. Vessels
because to genetic influences.
Poor diet: A diet heavy in cholesterol, Trans fats, and saturated fats can raise the
risk of blood vessel blockages.
Blood vessel blockages can cause major health problems like heart attacks and stroke.
Blood vessel blockages can be prevented by leading a healthy lifestyle that includes eating
a balanced diet, getting regular exercise, and quitting smoking.

Example 4: Design of Stents

Stents are tiny, metal-mesh medical devices used to repair blood artery blockages. In
treatments like angioplasty, when a balloon catheter is used to open a clogged blood vessel
and a stent is implanted to maintain it open, they are frequently employed.
Depending on the type of stent and the particular medical issue it is used to treat, stent
designs might change. The following are some typical stent design elements:

Stents can be made in a number of designs, such as spiraling, helical, and cylindrical
ones, to match the blood vessel's geometry and offer the right amount of support.
Stents can be formed of a variety of materials, including stainless steel, cobalt
chromium, and nitinol (a flexible metal that can be extended and then returned to its
original shape).
Coating: To prevent blood clots from developing and lower the risk of restenosis
(repeated blood artery obstruction), stents can be coated with a variety of materials.
Depending on the type of stent and the particular medical ailment it is intended to
treat, stents can be made to expand in several ways, such as by balloon inflation or
self-expansion.
Overall, the effectiveness and safety of stents are significantly influenced by their
design.
Stents need to be made in such a way as to adequately support the blood artery, stop
restenosis, and lessen the chance of problems such blood clots.

Example 5: Pace Makers

A pacemaker is a little device used to control heartbeat that is surgically installed in the
chest. By sending electrical impulses to the heart to control its rhythm, it is used to treat
cardiac rhythm disorders such bradycardia (a slow heartbeat) or arrhythmias (abnormal
heart rhythms).
 The pacemaker's main component, the generator, has a battery and electronic
circuitry for producing and managing electrical impulses.
Leads are the slender cables that run from the generator to the heart and are used to
transmit electrical impulses between the two.
Electrodes: The electrodes are used to transmit electrical impulses to the heart and
are found at the ends of the leads.

Pacemakers can be designed to work in different ways, including:

Single-chamber pacemaker: To control the heart's rhythm, a single-chamber
pacemaker sends electrical impulses to either the right atrium or the right
ventricle.
Dual-chamber pacemaker: To control the heart's rhythm, a dual-chamber
pacemaker sends electrical impulses to both the right atrium and the right
ventricle.
Biventricular pacemaker: In order to improve heart function in those with
heart failure, a biventricular pacemaker sends electrical impulses to both
ventricles of the heart at the same time.
Example 6: Defibrillators

In the event of a cardiac arrest or other potentially fatal heart rhythm abnormalities, a
defibrillator shocks the heart with electricity to return it to normal rhythm. Defibrillators
can be internal or external, implanted inside the body or positioned on the chest.

A defibrillator's basic structure comprises of:

Power source: The energy to deliver the electric shock to the heart is provided by
the power source, which is commonly a battery.
Electrodes: The electrodes are positioned on the chest and shock the heart with
electricity.
Circuitry: The defibrillator's circuitry regulates the timing, intensity, and duration
of the electric shock as well as its delivery.
Display: The defibrillator has a display that shows information about the heart
rhythm, battery life, and other pertinent data.

Automated External Defibrillators

Automated external defibrillators (AEDs), another name for external defibrillators, are
frequently seen in public locations including airports, shopping malls, and schools. They
are made for laypeople to operate. They usually contain audio prompts and visual signals
to direct the user through the process of administering the electric shock. They are
relatively simple in design.

Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators

Internal defibrillators, sometimes referred to as implantable cardioverter defibrillators
(ICDs), are placed surgically inside the body to treat persons who have a high risk of
suffering a sudden cardiac arrest. They often have more intricate designs and include
features like continuous cardiac rhythm monitoring and automated shock administration as
necessary.