CHAPTER 5 The Western and Eastern Concepts of Self. : UT el crt ‘At the end of the chapter, you should be able to: © explain the Western concept of self; © enumerate and discuss the different Eastern Conceptions of self; © compare Eastern and Western views of the self; and © examine your own conceptualization of self. 3PART: The Se from Various Perspectives One of the most effective ways to learn about onese) is seriously the cultures of others. It forces you to Pay atten : ing those details of life which differentiate them from yoy, to ~ Edward 7, Hay his chapter outlines the Western and Eastern Concepts, T andhow they diferand agree on certain penser Western conceptuaization ofthe selfs divided ing = periods ofhistorical development while he Eastin concep self are presented based on the four great systems of E; ~ astern th, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, oval WESTERN CONCEPT OF SELF Geertz (van Meijl, 2008) defines the Western cone: ept of self as “a bounded, unique, more or less integrated motivational ang cognitive universe, a dynamic center of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action organized into a distinctive whole and set contrastively both against other such wholes and against its social and natural background...” This construction of an autonomous, unitary and stable selfin the West is grounded in a contrasting assumption tht non-western (such as eastern) people do not possess an individuated self that is differentiated from the “other.” For that reason, the delusion of the separate selfis likely to be stronger in individuals rasedi individualistic Western societies. It is in this sense that the concept of selfis holistically defined in terms of the following aspect! 1. Western Self as Analytic The Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive 4 emphasis on the causal links (part-to-whole relationships) ‘The whole is understood when differentiated into pa ‘must categorize and make distinctions to pursue aus" 4| a! CHAPTER 5: The Wester and Eastern Concepts of Self western Selfas Monotheistic 2 ‘The belief one Supreme Being coexisting with the universe ndenses the supernatural and human capabilities into tepolity of both qualities of existence (e.g,; beautiful /ugly; kind/cruel; sacred /profane; strong/weak; etc.) and categories ofidentity or experience (e.g, God/Satan; body/soul; love/ Just; sinner/saint; etc.) 3, Western Self as Individualistic Western individualism exhibits the coexistence of favorable and unfavorable conditions inherent in personal freedom. Although the right to individual freedom provides opportunities for selffulfillment,italso increases the likelihood of experiencing alienation and frustration. * |. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic The Western way of thinking is focused on material “things” and favors arational-empirical approach over magical and superstitious explanations of immaterial “things”, David Ho (1995) describes the Western self as an individualistic selfthat is deeply aware of itself, its uniqueness, sense of direction, Purpose, and volition, The self is located at the center within the individual through which the world is perceived. The selfis also Seen as“an entity distinct from other selves and all other entities” ‘This implies thatthe self belongs to the individual and to no other ASa consequence of this complete ownership of self, it becomes a *overcign subject possessing a sense of personal control. Ifall things in, Well the self achieves coherence and stability over time. In an (aia perspective, the Western selfs the measure ofall things (Ho, 1995, Garcia, 2013), that is, the source of all reflections. Wega tbdohnson (1985) traces the earliest historical roots of the ion yaa «Pt Of the self to works on philosophy, almost half a bes Pend “80.By the middle and nineteenth centuries, psychology answers to philosophical questions about the concepts 75 rEPART I: The Sef rom Various Perspectives of soul and mind. Experimental psychology came into Prominen, during the mid-nineteenth century and put forth the Concept Ofsey within the social-interactionist framework. The ‘growth of, $0Ciolo anthropology, and psychology in the late ni ineteenth cent Ai the emergence of various. concepts of self, among them the Western concept. The Historical Development of the Western Concept of sei Tere were phiasopical and theological at {o characterize the self through the concepts oe ang ind wth emphasson conscious exering ofthe invidual csintonbetveen phys and cay man ind body dualism), ante . Bestenalsts and Dhenomenologiss, both in Posy and psychology, engaged in hole approach it ating the ir inte and Soa aspen itlediiais i ofthe Sef among Psychologists, anthropologists, ogists, at linguist whose studies focus onthe: harite, and situational Employing new frameworksenn CONCEPT OF SELF st! at philosophy and religion are twisted together. Thus, the in Me vaigions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, si also the common representatives of Eastern thought. and ae nee intellectual traditions differ greatly in features and veto various issues about selfhood. For this eason, the appro thoughts described as pluralistic (Garcia, 2013). Although ree systems of Eastern thought differ in their approaches vpoutthe con cept of self, they share the same goal—to teach how to become a perfect person (Villaba, 1995). The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought Hinduism ‘The Hindu concept of self is expounded in Vedanta, a major school of Indian thought based on Upanishads, the classical Indian philosophical treatises. It has been stated that Brahman is anabsolute reality, and Atman (soul or spirit), the true knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman. Vedanta characterizes human suffering as the result of failure to realize the distinction between the true self (permanent and unchanging) and the non-true self impermanent and changes continually). The goal of the person E bie aknowledge of the true reality—Brahman. Self-realization ing united to all-embracing Brahman. But the realization of true ‘elfood will result in a complete dissolution of individual identity (Ho, 1995), a of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. ibe gon Subect to karma Individual actions wil lead to oy da bad outcomes in one’ ie People get ext hs - Ifyou do good things, you will be rewarded, if you 7™~ PART I: The Se from Various Perspectives do bad, you will be punished. Therefore, the individual is the o nly on, responsible forthe consequences of his orher actions (Garcia 20am, Hindus believe that Atman, being an immortal sou } Continues to be reincarnated from lifetime to lifetime until it is free ed from g cycle ofrebirth and reachesa tate of nirvana ornon-birth (Ga 2008), Karma does not end with bodys death, 0 itsinfluencen, extend through incarnation of the soul. Individuals cannot change the fact that they are exactly what they are supposed to be in life Inthe present ifetime, they can change what they wll becomes, future lives. Buddhism ‘Siddharta Gautama, known, as the Buddha, is the founder of Buddhism. The root word of Buddhism is budh meaning awake, To be awake may imply that opening the eyes would lead tounderstanding more about the self and the world. According to the teachings of Buddhism, ities every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence, the potential to be a Buddha, But the seed should be nurtured (Mansukhani, 2013). ‘The Four Noble Truths are the basic principles of Buddhism: (1) life is suffering; (2) suffering is caused by attachment to desires; (3) suffering can be eliminated; and (4) elimination of suffering 1s through the practice of the Eightfold Path (right view, right aspiration, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort tight mindfulness, and right concentration). In Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of the five parts (matter, sensation, perception, mental cone and consciousness) that compose the individual, however e of the parts distinctly is not man (Villaba, 1995). Man has 90 78CHAPTER 5: The Westen and Este Concepts of St (or: o-soul). There is only nothing and all else is an illusion. There is hothing permanent but change. The ignorance ofthe impermanence of everything may lead to an illusion of selfhood. This primal ignorance is the cause of life's misery, births and rebirths. The perfect wroral-intellectual knowledge becomes powerful in the sense that it eliminates the cause of one’s misery and awakens one from the illusion of selfhood. The ideal is to experience Nirvana (literally meaning, “blowing out,” as of a lamp), a state of transcendence devoid of self-reference, This state of transcendence can be achieved through meditation (Ho, 1995). Confucianism The Confucian doctrines are found in the Analects (Conversations of Confucius). The core of Confucian thought is the Golden Rule or the principle of reciprocity: “Do not do to others what you would not want others to do to you.” Thus, the basic virtue or proper conduct is knowing how to act in relation to others. The most important of relationships are the Five Cardinal Relationships: between ruler and minster, between father and son, between husband and wife, between brothers, and between friends. Hence, the selfis known as a relational self, Another important feature in Confucian thought isthe individual's greatest mission of attaining self realization wherein self-cultivation is instrumental. Self-cultivation could be ie by knowing one’s role in society and acting accordingly sie character is perfected by continuously taking every ope wlan onesein thought and action. There willbe harmonic ips when individuals follow the rules of proper so havior, The indi ; an Es vidi shat is socially require ete than toon lual is set to respond to what is ieentud Subdui Confucius e's personal needs and goals. Here, ed self (Ho, 1995,) 79 — —PART 1: The Sel from Various Perspectives Taoism Taoism is a Chinese counterculture. Taoists reject the Confucian idea ofa relational self. To them, the selfs an extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships. The self is described as one of the limitless forms of the Tao (Ho, 1995). The Tao is commonly regarded as. Nature that is the foundation of all that exists (Garcia, 2008). It is not bounded by time and space. The ideal is to identify with the Tao. The perfect man has no self. Selflessness is attained when the distinction between “I” and “other” dissolves. Consequently, the individual may behave spontaneously, just going with the flow of the Tao. The selfless person leads to a balanced life, in harmony with both nature and society (Ho, 1995). Taoists believe that simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony with nature should govern one’s life. Individuals must seek to understand and act in accordance with the natural order. There should be unity and harmony among opposing elements: the Yin and Yang (Abella, 2016). Hence, there is oneness of the Tao. Dichotomy of Western and Eastern Conceptions of Self An extensive literature on Eastern thoughts about the self exist. Many movements of Eastern thoughts raise questions about the ultimate meaning of life and have developed theories of self insofar as they have investigated what it means to be ahuman being. In Eastern, thought, the emphasis is relational rather than individualistic. The self is considered not in isolation but in relation to others, society, and the universe. Eastern thoughts aim at transformations in consciousness, feelings, emotions, and one’s relation to other people and the world. The theories of Eastern philosophers demonstrate a sociocentric view presupposing that the self exists as an entity within the concrete situation or role occupied by the person (Robbins, 2012). In contrast, Western thoughts tend to view the self as autonomous, unitary, and stable (van Meijl, 2008). Nevertheless, ‘Western thoughts about the selfhave been examined by renowned theorists like Freud, Erikson, Bandura, Rogers, Jung, James, Mead, 80yr CHAPTER 5: The Wester and Eaten Concepts of Self and others. They have conducted scientific investigations jnan effort to understand the self and have developed theories and concepts f° account for the similarities and differences among them, ‘They emphasize the importance of scientific methods to provide satisfactory answers to understanding the self. Eastern theories offer a variety of techniques for cultivating a deeper understanding of the self. However, they do not utilize the scientific techniques of investigation. tis vitally important that both East and West appreciate each other's attempts to understand the self. To do so can only enrich both (Engler, 2012). Thus, Quito (Garcia, 2013) seeks to place ‘Western and Eastern theories of the self into perspective by making some comparisons and contrast among them. For instance, Asian thought looks at life in the three-mode cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, On the other hand, the Western concept of life is linear as it isconcerned with absolute beginnings or endings in time and space. ‘Asin thought does not dichotomize between one’s way of thinking and one’s way of living. This implies that one’s thought, action, and speech should be in harmony. Asian thought considers intuition as avalid means to gain wisdom, it does not rely mainly on reason and logic which are the more popular sources of knowledge in the West. Another distinction between Eastern and Western thoughts is about nature and self. According to Sarza (2013), one unique feature of Eastern philosophy is its great reverence for nature. It is believed that nature promotes introspection into one’s inner life and that wisdom and enlightenment can be attained by observing nature. hee other hand, Peacock (1986) mentions that modern Western oe = ae toset the individual against nature, that is, to struggle pada are which is a dangerous enemy. This viewpoint can be iL Hoe Christian theologies that consider nature as fallen and oppochy coe reat, there are objections to this view ot naar nie e human being. It has been argued that the individual are part of a single whole. cooley, 81 _ eo‘PART 1: The Self rom Various Perspectives ‘The chart that follows categorizes the Western and Eastern conceptualizations of self, perspectives, and approaches: Comparative Matrix of Western and Eastern Approaches to Understanding the Self Dimension Western Thought Eastern Thought Frame of Reference | Theresa separation between | Religion and philosophy are ahilosoghy and elgion/ | intertwined. spirituality txamples of Scholastcsm Hinduism Schools of Thought’ } Rationalism Buddhism Beli Systems Empiricism Confucianism Phenomenology Tas Notable Philosophers | Grek Tiumvrate: Socrates, | Confucius Prato, Astole Lao Tau René Descartes Sidaharta Gautama John Locke (Buddha) Source of Knowledge | Has made ue ofeason | Has trusted intiton and rather than faith to pursue | is often assocated with wisdom religious bls Modes of Cognition | Arayicand deductive | Synthetic and inductive Emphasis Distinctions and opostions | Commonates and harmonies View ofthe Unveseand_ | Linear Crear lite View of Sel Egocentic ~_| sectocen 3| Subjec-Objec Distinction | Duty ofselFas subject | Simultaneous subject and {Bipolar Qualtis of Se) | Grower) and seas-bjec | object (The experience of (known) sels both the knower and known) Theological View Monat Pofjheitc (ural) dea Seltactualation trough |W achieve a balance ite personal goth and find oe’ olen socetya ural Framework Individualism a. Theselfisaditinctand |. the sets an autonomous eit tis an |" partof te unsee independent partofthe | these, universe and the society Sandine Soe |b Interdependence and b, Independence and set- |” comedalne sere reliance are core values. | valves Prioritize personal goals | c. No distinctions between ‘over group goals Personal and group ‘ ‘goals, or if there is a atone YES | scion the petal goals ae subordinate to Uniqueness, sense the group goals. of even PpOee: | characte by and volition are the peal ead acknowledged features er of self. . Conformity and {Personal sucess is Sa ae important. a Duty towards all others is important. The application of the different perspectives and approaches contributed to improvements in the conceptualization of self. The Western and Eastern perspectives of the self grew from a combination ofsociology, anthropology, psychology, theology, and religion. The ‘Western and Eastern thoughts attempt to combine the good elements ofthe different. disciplines to totally understand the self. QOsovr, cc 1 Western thought favors a rational-empirical approach over magical and superstitious explanation of things, including the self Ho characterizes the Western self as an individualistic self tts deeply conscious of itself including its uniquenes, Motivation, and free will, whit” ofkarmais the most important doctrine of Hinduism He mplies that individual actions will lead to either good ‘outcomes in one’ life. 83PART 1: The Self from Various Perspectives 4. According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence potential to be a Buddha. 5. In Confucian thought, moral character is perfected by continuously taking every opportunity to improve oneself in thought and action. 6. To Taoists, the self is an extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships. The self is described as one of the limitless forms of the Tao (nature).