66 معدل

Republic of Yemen
Sana’a University
Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
DESIGN AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR THE 2nd FLOOR OF ZAYEED

SPECILIZED HOSPITAL
/ Prepared by
Abdulnaseer Ahmed Mohammed najii
Abdulwahab Mohammed Abdulwahab Alkhorasani
Rabeea Riyadh Othman Alzahzhi
/ Supervised by
Dr. Thabet Alghaberi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To our parents who have the white hearts that generously have given us whatever
we need, to the first and best teachers in life, to the source of love and affections, to
those who suffered and have been devoted their life to see always in comfort, to those
who have risen their hands to the sky praying and asking Allah to protect us help us
and guide us.
To our supervisor, Dr. Thabet Alghabri, we would like to express our deepest
gratefulness for his enormous guidance and advice during the research.
We would like to thank all doctors in the mechanical Engineering Department Sana’a
University, who guide and support us during five years of studying; we would like to
thank them all for the teamwork and support. For all friends in Mechanical
Engineering Department, and others in all Departments of Engineering.
ii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to everyone supported us during the period of our study.
III
ABSTRACT
HVAC (Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning) system is designed to achieve the
environmental requirements of the comfort of occupants and a process and it is one of the
most important mechanical systems must be design in several applications such as
(Hospitals, Hotels, Factories, Commercial Centers …etc.). HVAC systems for hospitals
and health care facilities have primary requirements that is supporting of medical
function and the assurance of occupant health, comfort, and safety. HVAC systems must
also provide ventilation that minimizes the hazard exposure of visitors.
The objective of this project is to design air conditioning system for 2nd floor of
commercial hospital which built in Sana’a city
This project first study the HVAC systems, and their components, and then HVAC
thermal loads calculated and duct work designed, also appropriate equipment’s selecting
from catalogs for the system will be included.
In this work CAV terminal reheat-all air systems are selected and appropriate for
hospitals because it provides complete sensible and latent cooling capacity in the cold air
supplied by the system.
The total ground floor area of the hospital building is calculated as 1640 m2.
Total cooling load is calculated by using computer software HAP which found as 313.7
kw, 89.11TR, While the air flow rate required to cover the load is calculated as11466.9
l/s .The construction of duct work, is done by using REVIT MEP software, and other
program that aided in manual method calculations such as duct sizer. The manual method
is also utilized in this research to estimate the cooling load, to size the duct work design
Also, a detailed select of the system equipment was done. For HVAC design system, the
air-handling units (AHU) are installed with HEPA filters with a [1.5-2m/s] velocity limit
in the most important suite such as operation room, (ICU), and sterilization, to minimize
infection, maintain staff comfort, and maintain patient comfort.
IV
TAPLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
DEDICATION
ABSTRACT
TAPLE OF CONTENT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 HISTORY OF AIR CONDITIONING:
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.4 OBJECTIVE
1.5 DESIGN OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATION
1.7 MOTIVATION AND JUSTIFICATION
1.8 BUILDING DESCRIPTION
1.8.1 External Wall
1.8.2 Partition
1.9 STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 COMFORT
2.2.1 Comfort-Conditioning
2.3 CENTRAL HVAC SYSTEMS
2.3.1 All-Air Systems
2.3.1.1 Single Zone
2.3.1.2 Multi-Zone
2.3.1.3 Terminal Reheat
V
2.3.1.4 Dual Duct
2.3.1.5 . Variable Air Volume
2.3.2 All-Water Systems
2.3.2.1 Fan-Coil Units
2.3.3 Air-Water Systems
2.3.3.2 Induction Units
2.4 BASIC HVAC SYSTEM COMPONENTS
2.4.1 Air Handling Unit
2.4.2 Supply And Exhaust Fan
2.4.3 Outdoor Air Intake
2.4.4 Duct
2.4.4.1 Duct Components
2.4.4.2 Ducts Can Be Classified According to Their Shapes Into
2.4.4.3 Material Of Air Ducts
2.4.4.4 Duct Insulation
2.4.4.5 Sound Attenuator
2.4.5 Delivery System
2.4.5.1 Diffusers
2.4.5.2 Grilles
2.4.5.3 Damper
2.4.5.4 Register:
2.4.6 Filters Types
2.4.7 Condenser
2.4.8 Chiller
2.4.9 Pumps
2.4.10 Piping System
2.4.11 Control
2.4.12 Humidification And Dehumidification Equipment
2.5 PACKAGE ROOFTOP UNIT (RPU)
2.5.1 Main Component
2.6 HOSPITALS
2.6.1 Important Design Considerations for Air Conditioning System in Hospitals:
2.6.2 Isolation Rooms
2.6.3 Room Pressure Control
2.6.4 Operating Room
2.6.5 Intensive Care Units (ICU)
VI
2.6.6 Recovery Room
2.6.7 Sterile Equipment Storage
2.6.8 Central Sterile Services
2.6.9 Nursery
2.6.10 Patients Bedroom Wards
2.7 HVAC DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR HOSPITAL SPACES
2.7.1 Temperature
2.7.2 Relative Humidity
2.7.3 Filtration
2.7.4 Air Velocity and Air Distribution
2.7.5 Pressurization
2.7.5.1 Volumetric Flow Rate
2.7.5.2 Room Differential Pressure
2.7.6 Total and Fresh Air Changes
2.8 LOCATION OF AIR DISTRIBUTION
CHAPTER 3
COOLING LOADS CALCULATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 GENERAL PROJECT DATA
3.3 COOLING LOAD CALCULATION METHODOLOGY
3.4 COOLING LOAD CALCULATION PROCEDURES
3.4.1 Technical Method
3.4.1.1 HAP Definition
3.4.1.2 HAP System Design Features
3.4.1.3 HAP Energy Analysis Features
3.4.1.4 USING HAP TO DESIGN SYSTEMS
3.4.1.5 Sample program details
3.4.2 Manual Method
3.5 COOLING LOADS OF ALL PROJECT BUILDING
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 DUCT DESIGN
VII
4.2.1 Manual Method
4.2.3 Duct System Losses
4.3 DIFFUSERS
4.3.1 Ceiling Diffusers
4.3.2 Perforated Diffuser
4.3.3 HORD Air Curtain
4.3.4 Grilles
4.3.5 Diffusers Selection
4.4 SAND TRAP LOUVERS
4.5 GRAVITY LOUVERS AND NON-RETURN DAMPERS
4.6 FILTER SELECTION
4.7 AIR HANDLING UNIT SELECTION
4.8 FAN SIZING
4.9 EXHAUST FAN
4.10 AIR COOLED CHILLER
4.11 TOTAL COST OF PROJECT
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
SANA’A WEATHER AND HAP SUMMARY
APPENDIX B
IMPORTANT TABLES FOR CALCULTIONS
APPENDIX C
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
APPENDIX D
VIII
:LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1. 1 COMPONENTS OF EXTERNAL WALL........................................................................................................6
TABLE 1. 2 COMPONENTS OF PARTITION................................................................................................................7
TABLE 2. 1 OPERATING ROOMS – DATA SHEET.....................................................................................................49

TABLE 2. 2 INTENSIVE CARE UNIT – DATA SHEET...................................................................................................51
TABLE 2. 3 RECOVERY ROOM – DATA SHEET........................................................................................................52
TABLE 2. 4 STERILE EQUIPMENT STORAGE - DATA SHEET........................................................................................53
TABLE 2. 5 PATIENT BEDROOMS – DATA SHEET.....................................................................................................57
TABLE 3. 1 GENERAL PROJECT DATA:..................................................................................................................70

TABLE 3. 2 HAP SPACE REPORT..............................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 3. 3 INTERNAL LOADS..............................................................................................................................88
TABLE 3. 4 WALL, WINDOW, AND DOORS DETAILS................................................................................................89
TABLE 3. 5 ROOFS DETAILS................................................................................................................................89
TABLE 3. 6 INFILTRATION DETAILS.......................................................................................................................89
TABLE 3. 7 PARTITIONS DETAILS.........................................................................................................................90
TABLE 3. 8 AIR FLOW NEEDED FOR THE SPACE......................................................................................................91
TABLE 3. 9 RESULT OF HEAT GAIN DUE TO SOLAR EFFECTS THROUGH BUILDING............................................................92
TABLE 3. 10 SUMMARY MANUAL CALCULATION OF COOLING LOAD............................................................................94
TABLE 3. 11 ZONES MAX. SUPPLY AIR & COIL LOADS............................................................................................99
TABLE 3. 12 COMPARASON BETWEEN HAP AND MANUAL CALCULATION...................................................................100
TABLE 4. 1 EQUIVALENT RECTANGULAR DUCT...........................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

TABLE 4. 2 SUPPLY DUCTS DESIGN....................................................................................................................104
TABLE 4. 3 RETURN DUCTS DESIGN...................................................................................................................106
TABLE 4. 4 EXHAUST DUCTS DESIGN........................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4. 5 DUCT FITTING LOSSES OF SUPPLY DUCT.....................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4. 6 DUCT FITTING LOSSES OF EXHAUST DUCT..................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4. 7 SUPPLY DIFFUSERS SELECTION.................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4. 8 RETURN DIFFUSERS SELECTION................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4. 9 EXHAUST GRILL SELECTION......................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
IX
TABLE 4. 10 TYPICAL INITIAL PRESSURE DROPS FOR AIR FILTERS (AT 500 FPM [2.5 M/S])..........................................117
TABLE 4. 11 SPECIFICATIONS OF AIR HANDLING UNIT SELECTED...................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4. 12 PRESSURE DROP OF SUPPLY FAN...........................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4. 13 FAN SPECIFICATIONS............................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4. 14 PRESSURE DROP OF EXHAUST FAN..................................................................................................122
TABLE 4. 15 EXHAUST FAN SPECIFICATION................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4. 16 COST OF THE SYSTEM COMPONENTS................................................................................................127
TABLE A. 1 MONTHLY AVERAGES OF WEATHER ELEMENTS AT AND SANA’A..............................................................133

TABLE A. 2 SUMMERY OF HAP REPORT...................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE B. 1 DESIGN PARAMETERS OF HOSPITAL SPACES.........................................................................................195

TABLE B. 2 CONTINUED...................................................................................................................................196
TABLE B. 3 COOLING LOAD TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES FOR WALLS.......................................................................199
TABLE B. 4 CLTD CORRECTION FOR LATITUDE......................................................................................................200
TABLE B. 5 COOLING LOAD TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES FOR CONDUCTION THROUGH GLASS......................................201
TABLE B. 6 COOLING LOAD FACTOR FOR GLASS WITH INTERIOR SHADING.................................................................201
TABLE B. 7 SOLAR HEAT GAIN FACTOR (SHG)....................................................................................................202
TABLE B. 8 SHADING COEFFICIENT (SC) FOR GLASS WITH INTERIOR FACTOR.............................................................203
TABLE B. 9 HEAT GAINS OF OCCUPANTS............................................................................................................203
TABLE B. 10 VALUES OF OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR GLASS.............................................................204
TABLE B. 11 VALUES OF OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR DOORS............................................................204
TABLE B. 12 NUMBER OF AIR CHANGE PER HOUR IN RESIDENCES AND COMMERCIAL APPLICATION AT NEUTRAL PRESSURE
......................................................................................................................................................... 205
TABLE C. 1 SQUARE CELLING DIFFUSERS FOR SUPPLY AND RETURN AIR....................................................................207

TABLE C. 2 SQUARE PERFORATED DIFFUSERS FOR SUPPLY AIR................................................................................208
TABLE C. 3 HOSPITAL OPERATING ROOM DIFFUSERS FOR SUPPLY AIR......................................................................209
TABLE C. 4 EXHAUST GRILLS.............................................................................................................................210
TABLE C. 5 SAND TRAP LOUVERS......................................................................................................................211
TABLE C. 6 GRAVITY LOUVERS AND NON-RETURN DAMPERS..................................................................................213
TABLE C. 7 AIR HANDLING (AHU) SELECTION.....................................................................................................215
TABLE C. 8 PRESSURE DROP IN AHU COMPONENT..............................................................................................215
X
TABLE C. 9 FAN DIAGRAM OF AHU..................................................................................................................216
TABLE C. 10 EXHAUST FAN CATALOGUE.............................................................................................................217
TABLE D. 1 REVIT REPORT FOR SUPPLY DUCT...........................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

TABLE D. 2 REVIT REPORT FOR RETURN DUCT..........................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
XI
:LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1. 1 LAYERS LAYOUT OF EXTERNAL WALL____________________________________________________6
FIGURE 1. 2 LAYERS LAYOUT OF PARTITION________________________________________________________7
FIGURE 1. 3 BUILDING LAYOUT________________________________________________________________7
FIGURE 2. 1 COMFORT ZONE..............................................................................................................................10

FIGURE 2. 2 EQUIPMENT ARRANGEMENT FOR CENTRAL HVAC SYSTEM......................................................................11
FIGURE 2. 3 LAYOUT OF ALL AIR SYSTEM.............................................................................................................12
FIGURE 2. 4 ALL-AIR HVAC SYSTEM FOR SINGLE ZONE............................................................................................14
FIGURE 2. 5 ALL-AIR HVAC SYSTEM FOR MULTIPLE ZONES.......................................................................................15
FIGURE 2. 6 SINGLE DUCT SYSTEM WITH REHEAT TERMINAL DEVICES AND BYPASS UNITS................................................16
FIGURE 2. 7 ALL-AIR HVAC DUAL-DUCT SYSTEM....................................................................................................16
FIGURE 2. 8 ALL-AIR HVAC SYSTEMS WITH VAV TERMINAL UNITS............................................................................17
FIGURE 2. 9 ALL-WATER SYSTEM: FAN-COIL UNITS..................................................................................................18
FIGURE 2. 10 AIR-WATER HVAC SYSTEM USING FAN COIL UNITS WITH 4-PIPES CONFIGURATION....................................19
FIGURE 2. 11 AIR-WATER HVAC SYSTEM USING INDUCTION UNITS...........................................................................20
FIGURE 2. 12 AHU WITH ITS COMPONENTS..........................................................................................................21
FIGURE 2. 13 TYPES OF FANS: (A) CENTRIFUGAL; (B) AXIAL......................................................................................22
FIGURE 2. 14 THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF DUCT SYSTEM.........................................................................................23
FIGURE 2. 15 VARIOUS TYPES OF AIR DUCT: (A) RECTANGULAR DUCT; (B) FLEXIBLE DUCT...............................................24
FIGURE 2. 16 DUCT INSULATION MATERIAL (SOURCE OSAMA KHAIADAH HANDBOOK)....................................................25
FIGURE 2. 17 SOUND TRAPS OR DUCT SILENCERS( SOURCE OSAMA KHAIADAH HANDBOOK)............................................26
FIGURE 2. 18 DIFFUSER TYPES............................................................................................................................27
FIGURE 2. 19 GRILLE SHAPE...............................................................................................................................27
FIGURE 2. 20 DAMPER......................................................................................................................................28
FIGURE 2. 21 REGISTER SHAPE...........................................................................................................................28
FIGURE 2. 22 HEPA FILTER...............................................................................................................................29
FIGURE 2. 23 PANEL FILTER...............................................................................................................................29
FIGURE 2. 24 BAG FILTERS................................................................................................................................30
FIGURE 2. 25 CHILLER (SOURCE, CARRIER CATALOG)...............................................................................................31
FIGURE 2. 26 PUMP.........................................................................................................................................32
FIGURE 2. 27 COMPONENTS OF PIPING SYSTEM....................................................................................................33
FIGURE 2. 28 BASIC CONTROL LOOP....................................................................................................................42
XII
FIGURE 2. 29 2.5 PACKAGE ROOFTOP UNIT COMPONENTS.....................................................................................43
FIGURE 2. 30 VIEW FROM OPERATING ROOM........................................................................................................50
FIGURE 2. 31 DISTRIBUTION OF AIR IN OPERATING ROOM........................................................................................50
FIGURE 2. 32 INTENSIVE CARE UNIT....................................................................................................................52
FIGURE 2. 33 VIEW FROM CENTRAL STERILE SERVICES DEPARTMENT STERILE STORAGE AREA...........................................55
FIGURE 2. 34 NURSERY.....................................................................................................................................56
FIGURE 2. 35 TURBULENT AIR FLOW DISTRIBUTION.................................................................................................61
FIGURE 2. 36 LAMINAR AIR FLOW DISTRIBUTION....................................................................................................61
FIGURE 2. 37 ROOM AIR DISTRIBUTION IN ISOLATION ROOM....................................................................................64
FIGURE 3. 1 LOAD COMPONENT.........................................................................................................................68

FIGURE 3. 2 SOURCE OF COOLING LOADS.............................................................................................................69
FIGURE 3. 3 START MENU.................................................................................................................................77
FIGURE 3. 4 HAP PROJECT MENU......................................................................................................................77
FIGURE 3. 5 SAMPLE DATA................................................................................................................................77
FIGURE 3. 6 SAVE HAP PROJECT.............................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE 3. 7 HAP WEATHER WINDOW................................................................................................................78
FIGURE 3. 8 SPACE GENERAL DATA.....................................................................................................................79
FIGURE 3. 9 CHOOSING PEOPLE SCHEDULE IN SPACE INTERNAL DATA........................................................................80
FIGURE 3. 10 CHOOSING THE DIRECTION OF THE WALL..........................................................................................81
FIGURE 3. 11 CHOOSING THE LAYERS OF THE WALL...............................................................................................81
FIGURE 3. 12 INFILTRATION DETAILS....................................................................................................................82
FIGURE 3. 13 PARTITIONS DETAILS......................................................................................................................83
FIGURE 3. 14 SYSTEM TREE...............................................................................................................................84
FIGURE 3. 15 SELECTING THE AIR SYSTEM............................................................................................................85
FIGURE 3. 16 SYSTEM COMPONENT....................................................................................................................85
FIGURE 3. 17 ZONE COMPONENT.......................................................................................................................86
FIGURE 3. 18 SIZING DATA................................................................................................................................87
FIGURE 3. 19 PRINT OF DATA.................................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE 3. 20 MAXIMUM SUPPLY AIR......................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE 3. 21 TOTAL COIL LOAD.............................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE 4. 1 FRICTION CHART FOR ROUND DUCTS......................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

FIGURE 4. 2 DUCTSIZER PROGRAM....................................................................................................................103
XIII
FIGURE 4. 3 DUCT DETAILS LAYOUT..........................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE 4. 4 PRESSURE CHANGES DURING FLOW IN DUCTS....................................................................................109
FIGURE 4. 5 CEILING DIFFUSERS........................................................................................................................110
FIGURE 4. 6 PERFORATED DIFFUSER...................................................................................................................111
FIGURE 4. 7 HORD DIFFUSER...........................................................................................................................112
FIGURE 4. 8 GRILLE DETAILS.............................................................................................................................112
FIGURE 4. 9 SAND TRAP LOUVERS.....................................................................................................................115
FIGURE 4. 10 FAN DATA DIAGRAM..........................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE 4. 11 FAN SELECTION.................................................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE D. 1 SUPPLY AND RETURN DUCT LAYOUT (REVIT)............................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE D. 2 EXHAUST DUCT LAYOUT (REVIT)...........................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
XIV
: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASHRAE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING, REFRIGERATING AND AIR CONDITIONING ENGINEERS
AIA AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS
AHU AIR HANDLING UNITS
AIIRS AIRBORNE INFECTION ISOLATION ROOMS
ANN ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
CAD COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
CAV CONSTANT AIR VOLUME
CO LOSS COEFFICIENTS
FCU FAN COIL UNIT
GA GENETIC ALGORITHMS
HVAC HEATING VENTILATING AND AIR CONDITIONING
HAP HOURLY ANALYSIS PROGRAM
HEPA HIGH EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE
HIV HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS
IAQ INDOOR AIR QUALITY
ICU INTENSIVE CARE UNIT
IAQ INDOOR AIR QUALITY
ICU INTENSIVE CARE UNIT
MAU MAKEUP AIR UNIT
OTS OPERATING THEATRES
OP OPERATION ROOM
PU PACKAGED UNIT
RTU ROOFTOP UNIT
VAV VARIABLE AIR VOLUM
XV
Chapter one
1.1 Introduction
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system is designed to achieve the
environmental requirements of the comfort of occupants and a process. The main
mission of HVAC system is to satisfy the thermal comfort of occupants by adjusting
and changing the outdoor air conditions to the desired conditions of occupied
buildings [1]. Depending on outdoor conditions, the outdoor air is drawn into the
buildings and heated or cooled before it is distributed into the occupied spaces, then it
is exhausted to the ambient air or reused in the system. The selection of HVAC
systems in a given building will depend on the climate, the age of the building, the
individual preferences of the owner of the building and a designer of a project, the
project budget, the architectural design of the buildings. HVAC systems are more
used in different types of buildings such as industrial, commercial, residential,
healthcare and institutional buildings.
However, in hospitals they have numerous functions, including: improving the indoor
air quality, maintaining diseases from transmission and meeting safety standards.
Maintaining environment safety and prevented from disease transmission is what the
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers' (ASHRAE)
calls infection control. An example would be, places that deal with substances that are
hazardous to our health, such as pharmacies and laboratories [2].
The primary requirement of the HVAC systems in a medical facility is the support of
medical function and the assurance of occupant health, comfort, and safety.
Hospital buildings are one of the few types of building that run at full scale twenty-
four hours a day. Unlike other buildings, air conditioning in hospitals require not only
comfort but also safety and hygiene. Hospitals need to maintain the temperature, air
quality, airflow and humidity to create the most comfortable environment possible for the
patients. Ventilation in hospitals also work to control hazards, because there are
2
frequently fumes and chemicals in the air that could cause harm if not properly dealt
with.
Different areas of a hospital have different air conditioning systems, depending on

the function. Different parts of a hospital have different needs an operating room may
need to be colder than a lobby for example and a morgue may have specific ventilation
needs from a ward. Hospital ventilation also needs to account for infection control,
because there are so many pathogens in the air [3].
Selection of air conditioning system configuration is typically decided in the early

stage of the design process. However, the system configuration design has substantial
impacts on the performance of the final system. The maximum opportunities for energy
efficiency exist at the design stage for air conditioning systems in a new building facility.
It is generally cheaper to install efficient energy air conditioning equipment during the
building construction compared to the up gradation of an existing building with an
efficient system [4].
In practice, air conditioning system configuration and design parameters selection is

decided based on knowledge, experience, and skill of designer through a traditional
procedure. The expertise could be of an individual or group of practitioners. But they
have limited knowledge, and experience based on the type of system frequently designed
by them. It could be an inappropriate way in terms of time, effort and labor and may lead
to sub-optimal configuration. Modern air conditioning system designs and components
are emerging all the time. Therefore, the task of frequently updating knowledge,
experience, and skills is not simple especially when many alternatives are needed to be
evaluated for same task. New air conditioning system designers have to spend extensive
amount of time before achieving trustworthiness. Meanwhile, knowledge sharing from
experienced designers is quite tricky because experts are frequently unaware of the
knowledge they have and the way in which they use it. Additionally, experts may have
different and sometimes conflicting sets of rules [5].
3
1.2 History of Air Conditioning:
The idea of air conditioning started before a machine was created to produce the
cooling effect desired. The first attempt at building an air conditioner was made by Dr.
John Corrie (1803-1855), an American physician, in Apalachicola, Florida. In 1881,
when President James Garfield was dying, naval engineers constructed a box-like
structure containing cloths saturated with melted ice water, where a fan blew hot air
overhead. This contraption was able to lower a room by 20 degrees Fahrenheit but
consumed half a million pounds of ice in two months' time. A close ancestor to the
modern air conditioner units was first made in 1902 by an American engineer by the
name of Willis Carrier. The machine at that time was called "Apparatus for Treating Air"
and was built for the Sackett- Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Co. in Brooklyn,
New York. Chilled coils were used in the machine to cool air and lower humidity to 55%,
although the apparatus was made with enough precision that the humidity level desired
was adjustable. The first air-conditioned home was that of Charles Gates, son of gambler
John "Bet a Million" Gates, in Minneapolis in 1914. In 1922, Carrier had two
breakthroughs - he replaced the ammonia with the benign coolant dyeline and added a
central compressor to reduce the size of the unit. The next advance was when Carrier sold
his invention to movie-theater operators, with a notable debut in 1925 at the Rivoli on
Broadway in New York City. After World War II, window units air conditioners
appeared, with sales escalating from 74,000 in 1948 to 1,045,000 in 1953.Today, air
conditioners have been said to be a partial cause for the changes in the South, and for
most of us who have experienced its cooling benefits in times of searing heat waves, it is
an invention that is hard to live without.
1.3 Problem Statement

According to the ASHRE and AIA codes, HVAC systems should be established for
health care and hospital to ensure the safety of patient, equipment and stuff.
HVAC system. In the case of ZAYED Hospital 2nd floor, with a total cooling load of
89.11TR, it will require AHU and distribution system (ductwork, diffusers, grills, ….).
4
1.4 Objective
The purpose of this project is to design an air conditioning system for ZAYEED
Hospital 1st floor in Sana’a city
Other objectives of this study can be stated as following:
1. To applying the theoretical knowledge and information that studied during

years of the bachelor in mechanical engineering program.
2. To estimate the cooling load of the 1st floor of the ZAYEED Hospital and
compare calculations between manual and computer program HAP.
3. To construct the duct work network by using REVIT MEP.
4. To determine the main HVAC system components sizing for the project.
1.5 Design of Air Conditioning Systems

Design of air conditioning Systems includes load calculation, ductwork and pipe
work layout then selection of proper equipment.
Fully detailed layout drawings are finalized with co-ordination of architectural and
allied services layouts during engineering design stage. Impact of decisions diminishes
with the progress of each design stage. The cost of modification increases sharply for the
latter design stage along with the level of knowledge. Thus, it is more difficult to make
decisions in the beginning. Therefore, it is very critical to make appropriate decisions in
the early stages for the overall success of an air conditioning system.
1.6 Scope And Limitation

The scope of the study will be limited to:
1. The study will consider a health care facility.
2. This study will be limited to the summer climate of Yemen represented by

Sana'a city.
5
1.7 Motivation And Justification
The awareness of the importance of living place and indoor air quality has increased
for both health and comfort. Therefore, the air conditioning systems designers are
challenged as never before to come up with the most energy efficient systems. One way
of addressing the challenge is by optimizing conventional setups and introducing efficient
innovative systems utilizing renewable energy resources [5].
1.8 Building Description
1.8.1 External Wall
The external wall consists of four parts. The parts are face brick, HW concrete block,
cement and paint. Table 1.1 presents the component and layers details of external wall
such as, type of layer, thermal resistance (R) and thickness for all layer. Figure 1.1
illustrates layers’ layout of external wall.
R Thickness
Layer
m^2.K/W Mm
Table 1. 1 Components of External Wall face brick 0.07 100
HW concrete
0.195 200
block
Cement 0.075 15
Paint 0.001 3
Figure 1. 1 Layers Layout of External Wall
1.8.2 Partition
The partition consists of five parts. The parts are two sides of cement, HW concrete
block and two sides of paint. Table 1.2 illustrates layout of components details of
partition. Figure 1.2 Shows layout of components and layers partition.
6
Table 1. 2 Components of Partition
R Thickness
Layer
m^2.K/W Mm
Cement 0.075 15
HW cement block 0.07 200
Paint 0.001 3
Figure 1. 2 Layers layout of Partition
Figure 1. 3 Building Layout
7
1.9 Structure of the Research
The research is presented in five chapters:
• In this chapter an overview and background to the area of healthcare HVAC

systems is presented. In addition, problem statement, the objectives, scope and
limitation, building description and the structure of the research are included.
• Chapter 2 This chapter presents an overview of HVAC system. Also, the

chapter outlines the classification of HVAC systems. Then the different types of
HVAC systems and their uses., and the accessories of the system. Finally
describes of special situation in hospital spaces.
• Chapter 3 represents cooling loads calculation in the manual and technical

methods by using HAP program.
• Chapter 4 represents the design of distribution system (ductwork, diffusers,

grills, ….). and proper selecting of the system equipment.
• Chapter 5 is the conclusion of the whole research and recommendations are also
included. References and appendices are given at the end of this research.
8
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
HVAC systems can be classified according to necessary processes and distribution
process [7]. The required processes include the heating process, the cooling process, and
ventilation process. Other processes can be added such as humidification and
dehumidification process. These processes can be achieved by using suitable HVAC
equipment such as heating systems, air-conditioning systems, ventilation fans, and
dehumidifiers. The HVAC systems need the distribution system to deliver the required
amount of air with the desired environmental condition. The distribution system mainly
varies according to the refrigerant type and the delivering method such as air handling
equipment, fan coils, air ducts, and water pipes.
2.2 Comfort
Comfort is a highly subjective word, reflecting sensations which vary greatly from
one individual to another. Comfort can be defined only in general or statistical terms.
Research by ASHRAE over many years has identified the major factors contributing to
comfort: temperature, relative humidity, air movement, and radiant effects. Attempts
have been made to combine these factors to obtain a single-number index called the
effective temperature or comfort index. The type and quantity of clothing and the level of
activity also affect comfort, but these factors vary so greatly that they cannot be
quantified. Typically, the air system is designed to control temperature always and
humidity sometimes. Good control of air movement (from supply grilles and diffusers) is
also needed to improve the comfort index. Most people do not like a draft (local air
velocity over about 100ft/min), but in some hot industrial environments, a high rate of
airflow at the workstation may be necessary. Radiant effects are often beyond the control
of the HVAC designer but should be taken into account in the HVAC design. Typical
9
radiant effects are caused by windows (cold in winter, hot when exposed to the- sun), by
lighting fixtures (especially incandescent), and by cross-radiation among people in large
groups [ 7].
2.2.1 Comfort-Conditioning
Across the range of health care facilities, health care practices often expose patients
and staff to conditions that dictate unique environmental requirements. As in any facility,
the comfort of building occupants Is fundamental to overall well-being and productivity.
In the health care facility, a comfortable environment has a significant role in facilitating
healing and recovery. A sick or injured patient in an uncomfortable environment is
subject 7 to thermal stress that may hinder the body’s ability to properly regulate body
heat, interfere with rest, and be psychologically harmful. At the same time, a health care
provider stressed by an uncomfortable environment may not function at peak
performance levels. Patients clothed in a simple gown in an examination room, for
example, or orthopedic surgical staff heavily garbed in scrub suits during an hours-long,
complex, and stressful procedure, require special room temperature and humidity levels
and controls. Similarly, room airflow patterns and air change rates influence thermal
comfort. For these reasons, health care codes and criteria establish specific requirements
for space temperature, relative humidity, and total air change rates [8]. Human comfort
zone shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2. 1 comfort zone
10
(Source Gh.R. Rosha, Defining thermal comfort boundaries).
2.3 Central HVAC Systems

The central air conditioning system is used for cooling big buildings, houses,
hospitals, offices, entire hotels, gyms, movie theaters, factories etc. If the whole building
is to be air-conditioned, air-conditioning engineers find that putting individual units in
each of the rooms is very expensive. The central air conditioning system is comprised of
a huge compressor that has the capacity to produce hundreds of tons of air conditioning.
Cooling big halls, malls, huge spaces, and galleries is usually only feasible with central
conditioning units [9]. Central air conditioning systems can be categorized according to
the terminal cooling medium which going to be used to three basic systems categories all
air systems, air water systems and all water systems. Central HVAC system has
combined devices in an air handling unit, as shown in Figure 2.2, which contains supply
and return air fans, humidifier, reheat coil, cooling coil, preheat coil, mixing box, filter,
and outdoor air.
Figure 2. 2 Equipment arrangement for central HVAC system.
(Source Shaimaa Seyam (November 5th 2018). Types of HVAC Systems)
11
2.3.1 All-Air Systems
All Air central systems provide heated or cooled air to the space through ductwork.
The system is categorized by a use of air handling units (AHU) to condition air and sends
it through ductwork to the occupied space where the conditioned air will heat or cool the
space as required and return via return air ducts back to the AHU. All air systems are
applicable to various types of air conditioning systems for comfort or process work. Air
handling units contain a cooling coil connected to a chiller or condensing unit, heating
coil connected to boilers or electric heaters, filters and circulating fans. All air systems
require that the majority of air supplied to a space is returned to the air handling unit for
reconditioning or exhausted from the building. This return air may be conveyed in a
return air duct system [10]. Figure 2.3 shows the layout of all air system.
Figure 2. 3 Layout of All Air System.
(Source A. Bhatia, B.E., Design Options For HVAC Distribution System)
:There is a lot of advantages for all air system

• An all-air system provides uniform air distribution through network of ducts
and is most suitable to cover the large areas irrespective of width, length or
depth of coverage.
• The system ensures complete absence of piping, electrical equipment, power
wiring and filters in the indoor conditioned space.
• Systems can include energy conservation options such as airside economizer
and heat recovery devices.
12
• Provides a wide choice of zoning and humidity control under all operating
conditions.
• Provides good design flexibility for optimum air distribution, draft control,
and local requirements
All air system can be sub-classified based on the zone as single zone and multizone,
airflow rate for each zone as constant air volume and variable air volume, terminal reheat,
.and dual duct [11]
2.3.1.1 Single Zone
A single zone system consists of an air handling unit, a heat source and cooling
source, distribution ductwork, and appropriate delivery devices. The air handling units
can be wholly integrated where heat and cooling sources are available or separate where
heat and cooling source are detached. The integrated package is most-commonly a
rooftop unit and connected to ductwork to deliver the conditioned air into several spaces
with the same thermal zone. The main advantage of single zone systems is simplicity in
design and maintenance and low first cost compared to other systems. However, its main
disadvantage is serving a single thermal zone when improperly applied.
In a single zone all-air HVAC system, one control device such as thermostat located
in the zone controls the operation of the system, as shown in Figure 2.4. Control may be
either modulating or on–off to meet the required thermal load of the single zone. This can
be achieved by adjusting the output of heating and cooling source within the packaged
unit.
Although few buildings can be a single thermal zone, a single zone can be found in
several applications. One family residential buildings can be treated as single zone
systems, while other types of residential buildings can include different thermal energy
based on the occupation and building structure. Movements of occupants affect the
thermal load of the building, which results in dividing the building into several single
zones to provide the required environmental condition. This can be observed in larger
residences, where two (or more) single zone systems may be used to provide thermal
zoning. In low-rise apartments, each apartment unit may be conditioned by a separate
single zone system. Many sizeable single story buildings such as supermarkets, discount
13
stores, can be effectively conditioned by a series of single zone systems. Large office
buildings are sometimes conditioned by a series of separate single zone systems.
Figure 2. 4 All-air HVAC system for single zone.
(source Shaimaa Seyam (November 5th 2018). Types of HVAC Systems)
2.3.1.2 Multi-Zone
In a multi-zone all-air system, individual supply air ducts are provided for each zone
in a building. Cold air and hot (or return) air are mixed at the air handling unit to achieve
the thermal requirement of each zone. A particular zone has its conditioned air that
cannot be mixed with that of other zones, and all multiple zones with different thermal
requirement demand separate supply ducts, as shown in Figure 2.5. Multi-zone all-air
system consists of an air handling unit with parallel flow paths through cooling coils and
heating coils and internal mixing dampers. It is recommended that one multi-zone serve a
maximum of 12 zones because of physical restrictions on duct connections and damper
size. If more zones are required, additional air handlers may be used. The advantage of
the multi-zone system is to adequately condition several zones without energy waste
associated with a terminal reheat system. However, leakage between the decks of air
handler may reduce energy efficiency. The main disadvantage is the need for multiple
supply air ducts to serve multiple zones.
14
Figure 2. 5 All-air HVAC system for multiple zones.
2.3.1.3 Terminal Reheat
A terminal reheat all-air system is a multiple zone, which considers an adaptation of

single zone system, as shown in Figure 2.6. This can be performed by adding heating
equipment, such as hot water coil or electric coil, to the downstream of the supply air
from air handling units near each zone. Each zone is controlled by a thermostat to adjust
the heat output of heating equipment to meet the thermal condition. The supply air from
air handling units is cooled to the lowest cooling point, and the terminal reheat adds the
required heating load. The advantage of terminal reheat is flexible and can be installed or
removed to accommodate changes in zones, which provides better control of the thermal
conditions in multiple zones. However, the design of terminal reheat is not energy-
efficient system because a significant amount of extremely cooling air is not regularly
needed in zones, which can be considered as waste energy. Therefore, energy codes and
standards regulate the use of reheat systems.
15
Figure 2. 6 Single duct system with reheat terminal devices and bypass units.
2.3.1.4 Dual Duct
The dual duct all-air system is a terminal-controlled modification of the multi-zone

concept. A central air handling unit provides two conditioned air streams such as a cold
deck and a hot deck, as shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2. 7 All-air HVAC dual-duct system.
These air streams are distributed throughout the area served by the air handling unit
in separate and parallel ducts. Each zone has a terminal mixing box controlled by zone
16
thermostat to adjust the supply air temperature by mix the supply cold and hot air. This
type of system will minimize the disadvantages of previous systems and become more
flexible by using terminal control.
2.3.1.5 Variable Air Volume
Some spaces require different airflow of supply air due to the changes in thermal
loads. Therefore, a variable-air-volume (VAV) all-air system is the suitable solution for
achieving thermal comfort. The previous four types of all-air systems are constant
volume systems. The VAV system consists of a central air handling unit which provides
supply air to the VAV terminal control box that located in each zone to adjust the supply
air volume, as shown in Figure 2.8. The temperature of supply air of each zone is
controlled by manipulating the supply air flow rate. The main disadvantage is that the
controlled airflow rate can negatively impact other adjacent zones with different or
similar airflow rate and temperature. Also, part-load conditions in buildings may require
low air-flow rate which reduces the fan power resulting in energy savings. It may also
reduce the ventilation flow rate, which can be problematic to the HVAC system and
affecting the indoor air quality of the building.
Figure 2. 8 All-air HVAC systems with VAV terminal units.
17
2.3.2 All-Water Systems
In an all-water system, heated and cooled water is distributed from a central system
to conditioned spaces. [4] This type of system is relatively small compared to other types
because the use of pipes as distribution containers and the water has higher heat capacity
and density than air, which requires the lower volume to transfer heat. All-water heating-
only systems include several delivery devices such as floor radiators, baseboard radiators,
unit heaters, and convectors. However, all-water cooling-only systems are unusual such
as valance units mounted in the ceiling. The primary type that is used in buildings to
condition the entire space is a fan-coil unit.
Fan-coil unit is considerably small unit used for heating and cooling coils, circulation
fan, and proper control system, as shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2. 9 All-water system: fan-coil units.
The unit can be vertically or horizontally installed. The fan-coil unit can be placed in
the room or exposed to occupants, so it is essential to have appropriate finishes and
styling. For central systems, the fan-coil units are connected to boilers to produce heating
and to water chillers to produce cooling to the conditioned space. The desired
temperature of a zone is detected by a thermostat which controls the water flow to the
18
fan-coil units. In addition, occupants can adjust fan coil units by adjusting supply air
louvers to achieve the desired temperature. The main disadvantage of fan-coils is
ventilation air and only can be solved if the fan-coil units are connected to outdoor air.
Another disadvantage is the noise level, especially in critical places.
2.3.3 Air-Water Systems
Air-water systems are introduced as a hybrid system to combine both advantages of

all-air and all-water systems [5]. The volume of the combined is reduced, and the outdoor
ventilation is produced to properly condition the desired zone. The water medium is
responsible for carrying the thermal load in a building by 80–90% through heating and
cooling water, while air medium conditions the remainder. There are two main types:
fan-coil units and induction units.
Fan-coil units for air-water systems are similar to that of all-water systems except
that the supply air and the conditioned water are provided to the desired zone from a
central air handling unit and central water systems (e.g., boilers or chillers). The
ventilation air can be separately delivered into space or connected to the fan-coil units.
The major types of fan-coil systems, are 2 pipes or 4-pipes systems, as shown in Figure
2.10.
Figure 2. 10 Air-water HVAC system using fan coil units with 4-pipes configuration.
19
2.3.3.2 Induction Units
Induction units are externally similar to fan-coil units but internally different. An
induction unit induces the air flow in a room through cabinet by using high-velocity
airflow from a central air handling unit, which replaces the forced convection of the fan
in the fan-coil by the induction or buoyancy effect of the induction unit, as shown in
Figure 2.11. This can be performed as mixing the primary air from the central unit and
the secondary air from the room to produce a suitable and conditioned air into the
room/zone.
Figure 2. 11 Air-water HVAC system using induction units.
2.4 Basic HVAC System Components

Selection of equipment is an important factor in design process, where a good
Selection of equipment makes the designer achieves the objective of project. The good
Selection means that the designer selects the equipment that provide a comfort conditions
and minimum cost, which consists of initial cost and operative cost. So, in any project
there are many choices to select the equipment that will work in the system includes
AHU, chillers, pumps, ducts and distribution system.
20
2.4.1 Air Handling Unit
Air Handling Unit is a device used to condition and circulate air as part of an air
conditioning system. An air handler is usually a large metal box containing a blower,
heating or cooling elements filter racks or chambers, sound attenuators, and dampers. Air
handlers usually connect to ductwork that distributes the conditioned air through the
building and returns it to the AHU. Sometimes AHUs discharge supply) and admit return
air directly to and from the space served without ductwork. Small air handlers, for local
use, are called terminal units, and may only include an air filter, coil, and blower; these
simple terminal units are called blower coils or fan coil units.
A larger air handler that conditions 100% outside air, and no recalculated air, is
known as a makeup air unit (MAU). An air handler designed for outdoor use, typically on
roofs, is known as a packaged unit (PU) or rooftop unit (RTU).
AHU consists of many components such as, Supply duct, Fan compartment,
Vibration isolator ('flex joint'), Heating and cooling coil, Filter compartment, and Mixed
(recalculated and outside) air duct. Figure 2.12 shows AHU with its components.
Figure 2. 12 AHU with its components
2.4.2 Supply And Exhaust Fan
A fan is the prime mover of an air system or ventilation system. It moves the air and
provides continuous airflow so that the conditioned air, space air, exhaust air, or outdoor
air can be transported from one location to another through air ducts or other air passages.
21
Two types of fans are widely used in air conditioning and ventilation systems: centrifugal
fans and axial fans Figure 2.13. Fans can be mounted individually as ventilating
equipment to provide outdoor air or air movement inside a building. They can also
transport air containing dust particles or material from one place to another via air duct
systems. In air conditioning systems, fans are often installed in air-handling units,
packaged units, or other air conditioning equipment [12].
Figure 2. 13 Types of fans: (a) centrifugal; (b) axial
(Source: handbook of air conditioning and refrigeration Shan K. Wang)
The backward-curved centrifugal fan with airfoil blades has the highest fan total
efficiency and the lowest specific sound power level, so it is still the most widely used
type of large fan in commercial, institutional, and many industrial applications. The
forward- curved centrifugal fan has a compact size, slower speed, and lighter weight per
unit volume output. It is widely used in room air conditioners, fan coils, small air
handling units, and many packaged units. In recent years, vane-axial fans with
controllable pitch, especially used as return fans, have more applications in commercial
air systems than before. For exhaust systems that require a large volume flow rate and
low fan total pressure, a propeller fan is often the best choice.
2.4.3 Outdoor Air Intake
Designers must carefully consider the location of the outdoor air intake for an AHU.
Intakes must not be located near potential contaminant sources, such as boiler and
generator stacks, laboratory exhaust vents, plumbing vents, cooling towers, ambulance
waiting and vehicle parking areas, loading docks, and helipads [12].
22
2.4.4 Duct
The outcome of the duct design process will be a duct system (supply and return
plenums ducts, fittings) that:
 Provides conditioned air to all room equal heating or cooling loads.
 is sealed to provide proper air flow and to prevent air contaminant entering.
 Minimizes duct air temperature gains or losses between the supply, return duct
and ambient air.
Typical air temperatures for HVAC applications are 4 to 50°C. Because of the more
moderate temperature ranges associated with HVAC applications, there is a wide range
of insulation materials available.
2.4.4.1 Duct Components
The basic components of duct system are shown in the Figure2.14
Figure 2. 14 The basic components of duct system.
2.4.4.2 Ducts Can Be Classified According to Their Shapes Into
(a) rectangular duct.
23
For the space available between the structural beam and the ceiling in a building,
rectangular ducts have the greatest cross-sectional area. They are less rigid than round
ducts and are more easily fabricated on-site. The joints of rectangular ducts have a
comparatively greater percentage of air leakage than factory-fabricated spiral-seamed
round ducts and flat oval ducts, as well as fiberglass ducts. Rectangular ducts are usually
used in low-pressure systems.
(b) flexible duct.
Flexible ducts are often used to connect the main duct or the diffusers to the terminal
box. Their flexibility and ease of removal allow allocation and relocation of the terminal
devices. Flexible ducts are usually made of multiple-ply polyester film reinforced by a
helical steel wire core or corrugated aluminum spiral strips. The duct is often insulated by
a fiberglass blanket 1 or 2 in. (25 to 50 mm) thick. The outer surface of the flexible duct
is usually covered with aluminum foil or other types of vapor barriers to prevent the
permeation of water vapor into the insulation layer. The inside diameter of flexible ducts
may range from 2 to 10 in. in 1-in. (50 to 250 mm in 25-mm) increments and from 12 to
20 in. in 2-in. (300 to 500 mm in 50-mm) increments. The flexible duct should be as short
as possible, and its length should be fully extended to minimize flow resistance [12].
Figure 2. 15 Various types of air duct: (a) rectangular duct; (b) flexible duct.
(Source: handbook of air conditioning and refrigeration Shan K. Wang).
2.4.4.3 Material Of Air Ducts
When a designer chooses the shape (round, rectangular, or flat oval duct) or material
(galvanized sheet, aluminum, fiberglass, or other materials) of an air duct, the choices
24
depend mainly on the space available, noise, cost, local customs and union agreements,
experience, quality, and the requirements of the project.
2.4.4.4 Duct Insulation
Ducts carrying hot or cold air are covered with thermal insulation to reduce heat loss.
In addition, the insulation is covered with a vapor barrier to prevent condensation of
water on cold ducts. Glass fiber/Glass wool or similar material with a high thermal
resistance is used for insulation. The vapor barrier is usually aluminum foil as shown in
Figure 2.16 Ducts are frequently lined internally with acoustical insulation to absorb
sound. In this case, the acoustical insulation lining often also serves as thermal insulation.
However, care must be taken that the glass fibers do not flake off in the air stream and get
delivered to the occupied space. There is concern that inhaled glass fibers may cause
serious lung diseases. [13]
Figure 2. 16 Duct insulation material (source osama khaiadah handbook).
2.4.4.5 Sound Attenuator
The material of the sound attenuator must not break off easily and contaminate the
air. In addition, the material must not permit the accumulation of dust and infestation of
microorganisms [14].
25
commercially available sound attenuators (also known as sound traps or duct
silencers Figure 2.17) can be used. There are three types: dissipative, reactive, and
active. The first two are commonly known as passive attenuators [15].
Figure 2. 17 Sound traps or duct silencers( source osama khaiadah handbook)
2.4.5 Delivery System
Air outlet selection and application is no less important than any other portion of the
air conditioning system. If the air outlets are improperly applied or selected, it could have
cascade effect on occupant comfort, air quality, noise and energy conservation. The
proper selection of air outlets cannot be overlooked. The selection of air diffusers and
terminal devices has lot to with the aesthetics, as these become a part of reflected ceiling
plan. The air distribution equipment selection must combine a proper choice of
engineered products efficiently providing conditioned air to the space.
2.4.5.1 Diffusers
A diffuser generally refers to ceiling mounted air delivery devices, which diffuse the
supply air along the ceiling and induce the room air from below. Diffusers provide good
mixing of the supply air with the room air that minimizes and integrate well with the
aesthetics. Diffusers are intended for ceiling installation and are available in many
shapes, sizes, styles, finishes, and capacities. Figure 2. 18 shows diffuser types.
26
Figure 2. 18 Diffuser types
2.4.5.2 Grilles
Grilles are simply decorative covers for return air inlets; they are used to block
sightlines so that occupants cannot see directly into return air openings. A grille is
different from register in a way that it usually doesn’t have volume control damper.
Figure 2. 19 shows grille shape.
Figure 2. 19 Grille shape
2.4.5.3 Damper
Dampers modulate the flow of air through the ducts to the various parts of the
building, reducing or increasing the airflow depending upon conditions. Dampers also
regulate the quantity of outside air that is allowed to enter the air-handling unit and mix
with return air for ventilation purposes. Dampers can be difficult to maintain and can
affect occupant comfort as the space requirements change and as the air-handling system
ages. Various types are available to suit round, square, or rectangular terminal necks.
Figure 2.20 shows damper.
27
Figure 2. 20 Damper
2.4.5.4 Register:
Registers are similar to diffusers except that they are designed and used for floor or
sidewall air supply applications or as return air inlets. Figure 2.21 shows a register
Figure 2. 21 Register shape
2.4.6 Filters Types
 HEPA Filter
HEPA filters use thin dry media (such as paper or glass-fiber mats) with very small
pores that trap superfine particulates down to 0.01 micrometer in diameter. They are
heavily pleated to reduce face velocity but still contribute pressure drops of up to 0.072
psi. HEPA filters are used mostly for the demanding applications of electronics, hospital
operating rooms, and facilities that generate radioactive particles. HEPA filters should be
coupled with a coarser pre-filter to extend their lifetime.
HEPA filters having efficiencies of 99.97% should be used on air supplies serving
rooms for clinical treatment of patients with a high susceptibility to infection due to
leukemia, burns, bone marrow transplant, organ transplant, or human immunodeficiency
28
virus (HIV). HEPA filters should also be used on the discharge air from fume hoods or
safety cabinets in which infectious or highly radioactive materials are processed. The
filter system should be designed and equipped to permit safe removal, disposal, and
replacement of contaminated filters. Figure 2. 22 shows HEPA filter.
Figure 2. 22 HEPA filter
 Panel Filter
These filters are produced from high quality galvanized steel, PVC or fiberglass
material. The decisive point in the design of these filters which have a gravimetric
efficiency of 85- 95%, is creating a corrugated structure and hence a larger filtering
surface. Panel filters which can withstand temperatures of up to 180°C are used in air
handling units for pre-filtration to lengthen the useful life of higher particle efficiency
filters. Their being washable is a significant advantage which lowers their operational and
maintenance costs and which make them popular. Shown below is the Flow Rate-
Pressure Drop graph for the standard dimension filter module. Figure 2. 23 shows panel
filter.
Figure 2. 23 Panel Filter
 Bag Filters
29
Bag filters are produced with galvanized frames as a standard. The filtering element
is produced from fiberglass. Its extended surface design leads to low flow rates, thus
facilitating low pressure loss, high dust capturing capacity, long use and low energy
costs. Bag filters are capable of providing solutions for all types of air handling units.
Particularly bag filters known as rigid type bag filters, with a plastic frame design are
quite popular since they can be used in both downstream and upstream. Figure 2. 24
shows Bag Filter.
Figure 2. 24 Bag Filters
2.4.7 Condenser
the condenser in a refrigeration system is a heat exchanger that rejects all the heat
from the system. This heat consists of heat absorbed by the evaporator plus the heat from
the energy input to the compressor. The compressor discharges hot, high-pressure
refrigerant gas into the condenser, which rejects heat from the gas to some cooler
medium. Thus, the cool refrigerant condenses back to the liquid state and drains from the
condenser to continue in the refrigeration cycle. Condensers may be classified by their
cooling medium as (l) water-cooled, (2) air-cooled, (3) evaporative (air- and water-
cooled), and (4) refrigerant-cooled (cascade systems) [16].
2.4.8 Chiller
A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or

absorption refrigeration cycle. This liquid can then be circulated through a heat
exchanger to cool air or equipment as required. The components of the chiller
30
(evaporator, compressor, an air- or water-cooled condenser, and expansion device) are
often manufactured, assembled, and tested as a complete package within the factory.
These packaged systems can reduce field labor, speed installation and improve reliability.
Alternatively, the components of the refrigeration loop may be selected separately.

While water-cooled chillers are rarely installed as separate components, some air-cooled
chillers offer the flexibility of separating the components for installation in different
locations. This allows the system design engineer to position the components where they
best serve the space, acoustic, and maintenance requirements of the building owner.
Another benefit of a chilled-water applied system is refrigerant containment.
There are varieties of water chiller types. Most commonly, they are absorption,
centrifugal, screw or rotary, and scroll. Some reciprocating chillers are also available.
Chillers can be either air-cooled or water-cooled. Major vapor-compression chiller
components include an evaporator, compressors, condenser, and expansion device. In this
work, rotary or screw chiller type is selected, because it is compatible with cooling load
and appropriate cost for it. Figure 2. 25 shows chiller.
Figure 2. 25 chiller (Source, carrier catalog)
2.4.9 Pumps
Pumps provide the primary force to distribute and recirculation hot and chilled water
in a variety of space-conditioning systems. The pump provides a predetermined flow of
31
water to the space load terminal units or to a thermal storage chamber for release at peak
loads. Pumps have two main purposes:
 Transfer of liquid from one place to another place (e.g. water from an
underground aquifer into a water storage tank).
 Circulate liquid around a system (e.g. cooling water or lubricants through

machines and equipment).
Figure 2. 26 pump
2.4.10 Piping System
Piping is a system of pipes used to convey fluids, from one location to another. The
engineering discipline of piping design studies the best and most efficient manner of
transporting fluid to where it is most needed. Figure 2.27 illustrate the in-line
components of piping system, known as fittings, valves, and other devices, typically
sense and control the pressure, flow rate and temperature of the transmitted fluid, and
usually are included when one discusses the concept of piping design. Piping systems are
documented in Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams. If necessary, pipes can be cleaned
by the tube cleaning process. The material used in piping systems are stainless steel
schedule 40 S.
32
Figure 2. 27 Components of Piping System
Type of Piping System

Closed System
A closed system is one in which the flow of water is not exposed to the atmosphere at any
point. This system usually contains an expansion tank that is open to the atmosphere but
the water area exposed is insignificant as shown in the figure
Figure 2.28: Closed-loop of piping system
Tow-Pipe Direct Return System

Two-pipe system, the load devices and the distribution system circulate chilled water
when cooling is required. To avoid disturbing the first floor occupants, reverse return
headers are located at the top of the building and direct return risers to the units are used.
In this system the flow rate is not equal for all units on a direct return riser. The
differences in flow rates depends on the design pressure drop of the supply and return
riser. This difference can be reduced to practical limits. The pressure drop across the riser
includes the following:(1) the loss through the supply and return run outs from the riser to
the unit, (2) the loss through the unit itself, and (3) the loss through the fittings and
valves. Excessive unbalance in the direct supply and return portion of the piping system
may dictate the need for balancing valves or orifices [25].
Main and branch Pipes in a piping circuit as shown in Figure 2.38) chilled water from a
chiller is often supplied to a main pipe and then distributed to branch pipes that connect
to coils and heat exchangers. Chilled water from the coils and heat exchangers is
33
accumulated by the return main pipe through return branch pipes and then returned to the
chiller [26].
In a constant flow water system, the volume flow rate at any cross sectional plane of the
supply and return mains remains constant during the entire operating period. In a variable
flow water system, the volume flow rate varies when the system load changes during the
operating period.
Figure
]Figure 2.29: Two-Pipe Direct Return System

Piping Material
For water systems, the piping materials most widely used are steel, both black (plain) and
galvanized (zinc-coated), in the form of either welded-seam steel pipe or seamless steel
pipe; ductile iron and cast iron; hard copper; and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The piping
materials for various services are shown below:
• • Chilled water: Black and galvanized steel.
• • Hot water: Black steel, hard copper
• • Cooling water and drains: Black steel, galvanized ductile iron, PVC. Copper,
galvanized steel, galvanized ductile iron, and PVC pipes have better corrosion resistance
than black steel pipes.
Technical requirements, as well as local customs, determine the selection of piping

materials[25].
2.7.3 Valves, Pipe Fittings and Accessories
Valves are used to regulate or stop the water flow in pipes manually or by means of
automatic control systems. Valves used in automatic control systems are called control
valves, in this section, only manually operated valves, or simply valves, are discussed.
Hand-operated valves are used to stop or isolate flow, to regulate flow, to prevent reverse
flow, and to regulate water pressure. The basic construction of a valve consists of a disk
to open or close the water flow; a valve body to seat the disk and provide the flow
passage; a stem to lift or rotate the disk, with a hand wheel or a handle and
34
corresponding. Based on the shape of the valve disk, the valve body, or its function,
commonly used valves can be classified into the following types [18].
Gate Valve 2.7.3.1
Check valves, as their name suggests, are valves used to prevent, or check, reverse flow.
There are basically two types of check valves: swing check and lift check. A swing check
valve has a hinged disk, as shown in Fig. 2.39 c. When the water flow reverses, water
pressure pushes the disk and closes the valve. In a lift check valve, upward regular flow
raises the disk and opens the valve, and reverse flow pushes the disk down to its seat and
stops the backflow. A swing check valve has a lower flow resistance than a lift check
valve.
2.7.3.4 Pressure Relief Valves
These valves are safety valves used to prevent a system that is over pressurize from
exceeding a predetermined limit. A pressure relief valve is held closed by a spring or
rupture member and is automatically opened to relieve the water pressure when it rises
.above the system design working pressure
Figure 2.30: Types of valves. (a) Gate valve; (b) Globe valve; (c) Check valve, swing check.
[source: Handbook of HVAC Shan K. Wang]
Butterfly Valve
A butterfly valve has a thin rotating disk. Like a ball or plug valve, it varies within a quarter-turn
from fully open to fully closed. a butterfly valve exhibits low flow resistance when it is fully
opened. The difference between a butterfly valve used for control purposes and a hand-operated
butterfly valve is that the former has an actuator and can be operated automatically. Butterfly
valves are lightweight, easy to operate and install, and lower in cost than gate valves. They are
primarily used as fully open or fully closed, but they may be used for throttling purposes.
Butterfly valves are gaining in popularity, especially in large pipes.
2.7.3.6 “Y” Valve
The angle or “Y” valve pattern is recommended for full flow service since it has a substantially
lower pressure drop at this condition than the globe valve. Another advantage of the angle valve
is that it can be located to replace an elbow, thus eliminating one fitting.
2.7.3.7 Balance valve
These valves are used to balance the water flow in a water system. There are two kinds of
balancing valves: manual balance valves and automatic balance valves. A globe valve can be
used as a manual balance valve. A manual balance valve can also be a valve with integral
pressure taps for flow measurement and a calibrated port to adjust the flow. An automatic
35
balancing valve is also called an automatic flow-limiting valve. There is a moving element that
adjusts the flow passage area according to the water pressure differential across the valve.
Figure 2.31: Types of valves. (d) Ball valve; (e) Plug valve; (i) Y valve; (k) Butterfly Valves.
[20]
Valve Connections and Ratings(joint)
The type of connection used between a valve and the pipes is usually consistent with the type
of joint used in the pipe system. A water piping system with flanged joint requires a valve
with flanged ends. The commonly used types of valve connection are as follows:
2.7.4.1 Threaded ends
These connections are mainly used for small pipes with diameters from to 2 in. (6 to
50 mm). Threaded-end valves are usually inexpensive and simpler to install.
2.7.4.2 Flanged ends
These connections are commonly used for larger pipes (63 mm and above). Flanged ends are
more easily separated when necessary.
2.7.4.3 Welded ends
Steel valves, when used at higher pressure and temperature, are often connected with welded
ends. Welded ends exhibit the fewest instances of leakage.
2.7.4.4 Grooved ends
These connections use circumferential grooves in which a rubber gasket fits and are enclosed
by iron couplings. Butterfly valves are often connected with grooved ends.
2.7.4.5 Soldered ends
Bronze valves in copper piping systems use soldered ends. Tin-alloy soldering is the
type of soldering commonly used. Lead soldering cannot be used in a potable water
system because it will contaminate the water [25].
36
Figure 2.32: (a) Soldered Joint; (b) Weld and Threaded Joint; (c) Groove Joint
Fitting
Numerous fittings are available such as 90 and 45-degree elbows, tees, concentric reducers,
eccentric reducers, flanges, etc. as shown in Figure (2.42) [25].
Figure 2.33: Example of various pipe weld fittings [20]

Accessories
Expansion Tank
Expansion tanks are required in a closed loop chilled water HVAC system to absorb the
expanding fluid and limit the pressure within a cooling system. A properly sized tank will
accommodate the expansion of the system fluid during the cooling cycle without allowing the
system to exceed critical pressure limits. The expansion tank uses compressed air to maintain
system pressures by accepting and expelling the changing volume of water as it heats and cools.
The expansion tank model is in the figure 2.43 [20].
Figure 2.43:
37
Figure 2.34: Expansion Tank
2 Air Separator
Air separator is removing the air from pipes system because air create noise in the
system and causes corrosion in pump impellers. The air separator is shown in the
figure 2.44.
Figure 2.35: Air Separator. [20]
Makeup Tank
Make up tank as shown in figure 2.45 is a component of the cooling system that
allows additional coolant to be added to the system as needed [20].
38
Figure 2.36: Makeup Tank [18]
Strainer
The strainer is used to prevent construction debris from entering the equipment
during initial start-up and to catch any small debris that may be circulating through
the system during normal operation or servicing as shown in figure 2.46 [20].
Figure 2.37: Y Strainer. [20]

Water Treatment
Normally all water piping system must have adequate treatment to protect the various
components against corrosion, scale, lime and algae. Water treatment should always be under
the supervision of a water conditioning specialist. Periodic inspection of the water is required
to maintained suitable quality [26].
2.9 Pump for HVAC System
Pump is the heart of HVAC system figure 2.47. The centrifugal pump has long been
the workhorse of HVAC systems, supporting the operation of chillers, and hydronic
distribution systems and while practically every other component in an HVAC system
has been greatly modified to meet ever changing requirements for efficiency and
reliability, centrifugal pump shape not changed very much. Manufacturers have
made significant improvements in impeller designs, construction materials, bearing
and seal designs, and couplings. But these changes have been more evolutionary
than revolutionary [26].
39
Figure 2.38: The centrifugal pump. [20]
Chilled Water Pipe Insulation
Insulation systems for piping that operate at below-ambient temperatures, such as chill water
pipe, present special challenges due the possibility of water vapor movement to the cold
surface. If the operating temperature of the system is below the dew point of the ambient air,
condensation will occur on the cold surface, creating a vapor pressure gradient through the
system. This vapor pressure gradient serves as the driving force for water migration toward
the cold surface of the chill water pipe insulation system. If these conditions remain for
extended periods of time, a significant amount of liquid water can accumulate in the system.
Below- ambient systems therefore, require special attention to the design to maintain thermal
performance [26].
In areas with high humidity, condensation problems often occur in chilled water pipelines of
central cooling systems. The condensation damages ceilings, carpeting and other furniture
and wastes energy with higher heat gain to the chilled water pipes. Pipe insulation is being
widely used in chilled water.
• Very low water absorption.
• Low and stable thermal conductivity (K. Value).
• Non-polar polymer base with high water and moisture resistance.
• Universal smoke and flammability proof standards.
• Flexibility for quick and easy installation.
2.10.1 Economic Thickness

Economics can be used to (1) select the optimum insulation thickness for a specific
insulation, or (2) evaluate two or more insulation materials for least cost for a given
level of thermal performance. In either case, economic considerations determine the
most cost- effective solution for insulating over a specific period. Life-cycle costing
considers the initial
cost of the insulation system plus the ongoing value of energy savings over the expected
service lifetime. The economic thickness is defined as the thickness that minimizes the total
life-cycle cost [22].
Figure2.48 shows installed costs for a multilayer application. The slope of the curves
is discontinuous and increases with the number of layers because labor and material
costs increase more rapidly as thickness increases. Figure 2.48 shows curves of
40
total cost of operation, insulation costs, and lost energy costs. Point A on the total
cost curve corresponds to the economic insulation thickness [22].
Figure 2.39: Determination of Economic Thickness of Insulation. [22]
2.4.11 Control
The purpose of a control system on an HVAC plant is to:
1. Provide automatic operation, i.e. avoid the cost of attendant labor or for where
control is too complex for manual operation.
2. Maintain the controlled conditions closer than could be achieved by manual

operation.
3. Provide maximum efficiency and economy of operation.
4. Ensure safe operation at all times [17].
The control system will consist of a loop, with detector (sensor), controller and
controlled device. The communication between these parts of the loop will be electric,
pneumatic or mechanical (see Figure2.40)
41
Figure 2. 40Basic control loop
[source: Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Third edition A. R. Trott and T. Welch]
2.4.12 Humidification And Dehumidification Equipment
For comfort air conditioning systems, the space relative humidity is tolerable between
35 and 65 percent in summer, preferably from 40 to 50 percent. During winter, for space
served by a comfort air conditioning system that is installed with a humidifier, the space
relative humidity should not exceed 30 percent except in hospitals. The actual
humidifying capacity of a humidifier should not exceed the humidifying requirement so
that wet surfaces do not occur inside the AHU, PU, or supply ducts. Wet surfaces and dirt
often cause the growth of microorganisms and thus indoor air quality problems. For air
conditioning systems without humidifiers, space relative humidity is usually not
specified. For processing air conditioning systems, the space relative humidity should be
specified as required by the manufacturing process. Humidifiers are employed for
processing air conditioning and health care facilities where space humidity must be
controlled.
Many homes also use dehumidifiers to remove moisture and control indoor humidity
levels. In cold climates, dehumidification is sometimes required during the summer in
basement areas to control mold and mildew growth and to reduce zone humidity levels.
Traditionally, portable
dehumidifiers have been used to control humidity in this application. While the
separable units are not always as efficient as central systems, their low first cost and the
ability to serve a single zone make them appropriate in many circumstances.
42
2.5 Rooftop Package Unit (RPU)
A packaged rooftop unit, or RTU, is a type of HVAC system that contains all the
components needed to provide conditioned air in one concise unit. Packaged rooftop
units are commonly found in light and large commercial applications.
Today’s rooftop HVAC systems offer improved efficiency, better building

ventilation capabilities, and advanced control capabilities. Rooftops are being used for an
increasingly wide range of building applications. They mesh well with many current
building designs for manufacturing, warehouses and offices. Unlike many applied
systems, they are preassembled for rapid installation and startup, meeting needs of many
owners for quick building access.
rooftop units are rated in tons of air-conditioning capability (1 ton equals

approximately 3.5 kW) and range in size from 6 to 150 tons, and of course can be
installed in multiples. A prominent advantage of the rooftop approach is that it eliminates
the need in the building interior for most mechanical plant equipment—chillers, air
handlers, heating units and associated equipment. Interior building space can be
dedicated to primary operations.
Figure 2. 412.5 Package Rooftop Unit Components
43
2.5.1 Main Component
 Expansion Valves
Expansion valves are devices used to control the refrigerant flow in a refrigeration
system. They help to facilitate the change of higher pressure of liquid refrigerant in
the condensing unit to lower pressure gas refrigerant in the evaporator.
The term "low side" is used to indicate the part of the system that operates under low
pressure, in this case the evaporator. The "high side" is used to indicate the part of the
system that operates under high pressure, in this case the condenser.[27]
 Evaporator
Evaporator is an important component together with other major components in a

refrigeration system such as compressor, condenser and expansion device. The reason
for refrigeration is to remove heat from air, water or other substance.
It is here that the liquid refrigerant is expanded and evaporated. It acts as a heat
exchanger that transfers heat from the substance being cooled to a boiling
temperature.[28]
 Compressor
The compressor is the heart of the cooling cycle. The cycle begins when the
compressor draws in cool, low-pressure refrigerant gas from the indoors. The motor-
driven compressor’s sole function is to "squeeze" the refrigerant, raising its
temperature and pressure so that it exits the compressor as a hot, high-pressure gas.
[29]
 Condenser
Located inside the outdoor unit, the condenser includes fans, a set of coils, and
refrigerant lines. When the refrigerant leaves the compressor, it flows down through
the condenser coils. Here, a fan blows air over the coils dissipating the heat from the
refrigerant inside them. At the same time, it’s sent back inside to start the process
over again. [30]
44
2.6 Hospitals
HVAC design for health care facilities is all about providing a safer environment for
patients and staff. The basic difference between air conditioning for healthcare facility
and that of other building types stem from:
1. The need to restrict air movement in and between the various departments (no
cross movement).
2. The specific requirements for ventilation and filtration to dilute and reduce
contamination in the form of odor, airborne micro organisms and viruses, and
hazardous chemical and radioactive substances. Ventilation effectiveness is
very important to maintain appropriate indoor air quality.
3. The different temperature and humidity requirements for various areas and the
accurate control of environmental conditions.
4. To minimize the risk of transmission of airborne pathogens and preserve a

sterile and healing environment for patients and staff.
These requirements demand very high quantities of outside air along with significant
treatment of this ventilation air, including cooling, dehumidifying, reheating, humidifying
and filtration [18].
Hospitals are always interesting and challenging for the HVAC designer because of
the wide variety of environmental conditions required in various departments. For
example, the operating suite with heavily-clothed staff, working under hot lights requires
a design temperature of about 65 to 70_F, with the relative humidity held to a range
between 50 and 60 percent, and a high percentage of outside air when the suite is in use.
To achieve the clean conditions needed, the supply air must be filtered through high-
efficiency filters, preferably at or near the discharge into the room, and a high airflow rate
is needed. These requirements all have a rational basis in research; 50 to 55 percent
relative humidity (RH) is the value at which bacteria propagate least readily. Public
health authorities prescribe most of these criteria.
45
Some authorities are allowing reduction of airflow and some recirculation when the
operating rooms are not in use. Nurseries do not require high airflow rates but do require
about 55 percent RH. Offices, public areas, cafeterias, shops, and other support areas
have similar criteria to other types of buildings. Air is often not recirculated from
patients’ rooms, so individual fan-coil units are common, combined with a small central
ventilation system which provides makeup air for exhaust. There are criteria for air-
pressure relationships between occupancies to keep air moving from high-quality to
lower-quality environment [19].
2.6.1 Important Design Considerations for Air Conditioning System in

Hospitals:
The four important air conditioning design considerations for clean room system
design are:
 Supplying airflow in sufficient volume and cleanliness to support the

cleanliness rating of the room
 Introducing air in a manner to prevent stagnant areas where particles could

accumulate.
 Conditioning air to meet clean room temperature, humidity and filtration

requirements.
 Ensuring enough conditioned makeup air to maintain the specified positive

pressurization.
2.6.1 Isolation Rooms
The purpose of an isolation rooms is to protect health care workers, other patients and
visitors from exposure to any airborne infectious agents. To control the transfer of
microorganisms via air, isolation rooms must be implemented. Two types of isolation
rooms exist; negative pressure room (or airborne infection isolation room) and positive
pressure room (or protective environment room) [20].
46
Both types of rooms aim to control air flow and reduce the number of airborne
infectious agents to a level that ensures infection of other person is unlikely. The
implementation aim of these rooms is to protect the immunosuppressed patients from the
environmental infectious sources. High or very high levels of hygiene are required for
protective environment rooms.
2.6.3 Room Pressure Control
Building room pressure gradient is achieved by controlling the quality and quantity
of intake and exhaust air, maintaining differential air pressures between adjacent areas,
and designing patterns of airflow for particular clinical purposes.
Positive Pressure Rooms
Patients with suppressed immunity due to some reasons such as surgical operation,
drug use and illness are kept in these rooms. The aim is to reduce the risk of transmission
of infection from the environmental sources to the susceptible host via air. This room is a
specialized patient room that has proven to have outward air flow through all its six
surfaces and sustained positive air pressure with respect to all six surfaces, including the
outside wall. High or very high levels of hygiene are required for protective environment
rooms. For this purpose, this room has specific ventilation design features such as HEPA
filtering and specialized air distribution profile, where the air is supplied near the patient
bed and exhausted towards the door of the room [20].
Another key factor for ventilation design is the diluting the contaminants in the room
air, and this is provided by adequate fresh air change rates.
Negative Pressure Rooms
Patients are placed in negative pressure rooms to reduce the risk of transmission of
infection via air from the patient to the other patients and hospital staff. This kind of
room is also known as airborne infection isolation rooms. This room is especially used
for airborne infectious patients in order to be kept, examined and treated. In this patient
room, on contrary with the protective environment room, inward air flow through all six
surfaces is provided and negative air pressure with respect to all adjacent rooms is
maintained. High level of hygiene is not needed for airborne infection isolation rooms.
47
The recommended practice is to transfer the exhaust air by an independent ductwork
system, which is maintained in negative pressure, and to filter the exhaust air by high
efficiency air filters before releasing it to outdoor. It is not a necessity for the room to
have an electronic pressure monitoring and control system; but a mechanical means of
measuring the pressure relationship is required [20].
If the building pressure is allowed to become negative due to supply filters being
loaded, supply fans running too slow, or return fans running too fast, humid and dirty air
can be drawn into the building through cracks and openings
2.6.4 Operating Room
The primary objective of hospital operating room (OR) ventilation systems is to

minimize surgical site infection due to airborne contaminants and bacteria and to provide
a comfortable environment for surgeons and other staff in the room. The key factor in
reducing surgical site infection is to minimize the contamination of the sterile (clean)
zone where the surgical procedures are performed. One source of infection in the OR is
squames, which are skin scales shed from the exposed skin of occupants in the room.1
Once airborne, these bacteria-carrying particulates generally follow the path of airflow in
the room. The OR ventilation system should effectively sweep these particulates out of
the sterile zone and minimize their re-entrainment from non-sterile (contaminated) zones.
Air is the primary carrier of heat, moisture, contaminants, and airborne particulates in
operating rooms. Therefore, the distribution of supply air determines the resulting air
velocities, temperature, concentration of contaminants, and the flow path of airborne
particulates in the room. These factors subsequently determine thermal comfort, air
quality, and the potential for transmission of airborne particulates. In the operating room,
ASHRAE/ASHE Standard170-2017 recommends a supply of unidirectional downward
airflow passing over the operating table and surgical staff, which sufficiently covers the
entire sterile zone. Furthermore, Standard170-2017 requires an exhaust through at least
two low sidewall grilles placed on opposite walls of the OR. in an operating room the
supply air should pass through the sterile zone and exit through exhaust grilles in a
“single pass” manner without recirculation and mixing with the supply airstream.
48
Table 2. 1 Operating Rooms – Data Sheet
Operating Rooms – Data Sheet
Year Around Conditions

Inside Design Conditions F [16.7 C] to 80 F [26.7 C] Dry-Bulb Temperature 62
to 60% Relative Humidity 30%
Minimum Supply Air Changes per Hour Unoccupied 20/10

Return Air Not Permitted
Exhaust Air 100%
Room Noise Level NC 35
Terminal Filtration VA Grade E (HEPA)
Air distribution for each operating room shall
consist of stainless steel multiple slot panel diffusers
positioned around the operating tables to discharge
60% supply air in a vertical air stream inclined at a
15 degree outward angle. Percentage distribution
may vary with the manufacturer. The remaining
40% of air shall be delivered downward over the
Air Distribution operating area using perforated face outlets. Provide
a minimum of two exhaust registers in each O.R.,
located diagonally opposite each other, 7 inches
[175 mm] above the finished floor. The exhaust air
quantity shall be at least 15% less than the supply
air to maintain positive air balance between the
.O.R. and the adjoining areas
Individual Room Temperature Control Required
Positive (+) with respect to the adjoining corridor
Room Air Balance
during both modes of operation
49
Figure 2. 28 View from operating room
(Source: West Walley Hospital 2005)
Figure 2. 42Distribution of air in operating room
50
2.6.5 Intensive Care Units (ICU)
Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) has a pivotal role in determining

infection rates in the intensive care unit (ICU), apart from its primary purpose of
providing comfortable living and safe environment for the patients, ICU staff and
visitorshttps [21]. Essential functions of HVAC system includes heating (adding heat to
raise or maintain temperature), cooling (removing heat to lower or maintain temperature),
humidifying (adding water vapour), dehumidifying (removing water vapour) in order to
maintain the moisture content of the air, filtering (removing dust particles, biological
contaminants like bacteria, viruses and fungi), ventilating (air change rates between
outdoor) and air distribution (velocity, flow pattern, direction of movement and
distribution patterns).These functions result in air conditioning, which aid in the
prevention of contamination and cross-contamination and environmental protection along
with operator protection.These functions result in air conditioning, which aid in the
prevention of contamination and cross-contamination and environmental protection along
with operator protection[22].
Table 2. 2 Intensive Care Unit – Data Sheet
Intensive Care Unit – Data Sheet
Year Around Conditions

Inside Design Conditions F [21 C] to 75 F [24 C] Dry-Bulb Temperature 70
Minimum Supply Air Changes per Hour 6

Return Air Permitted
Exhaust Air Provide exhaust through the adjoining toilet, if any
Room Air Balance )+( Positive
51
Figure 2. 43Intensive Care Unit
(Source: JSP Health Network 2003)
2.6.6 Recovery Room
A unit located as close to operating theatres as possible in order to avoid unnecessary

time loss for transfer of unstable patients ,staffed and equipped for serving for treatment
and care of patients during their immediate postanaesthesia or post-surgery period,
regardless of the type of interventions, before they are scheduled to be admitted to
.general wards, other units of the hospital or discharged home
Table 2. 3 Recovery Room – Data Sheet
Recovery Room – Data Sheet
● Year Around Conditions

F [22.8 C] to 77 F [25 C] Dry-Bulb 73
Inside Design Conditions
Temperature
52
Exhaust Air .Provide exhaust through the adjoining toilet, if any
Room Air Balance )+( Positive
Note: Provide terminal HEPA filter if Recovery Room is served by surgical suite AHU
2.6.7 Sterile Equipment Storage
The sterile storage area is the area in the facility designed for storage of medical
devices and supplies. Most facilities have multiple sterile storage areas. The SPD usually
has the largest sterile storage area, but other departments (e.g., OR, nursing units) also
have sterile storage areas. Regardless of the location, policies and procedures for sterile
storage should be developed according to accepted professional practices to ensure that
the function and sterility of medical and surgical devices and supplies are maintained
until the time of use. All personnel must conform to the written policies and procedures
approved by the facility.
Table 2. 4 Sterile Equipment Storage - Data Sheet
Sterile Equipment Storage

● Cooling
F [23.0 C] Dry-Bulb Temperature 73
Relative Humidity 55%
Inside Design Conditions
● Heating
F [20.0 C] Dry-Bulb Temperature 68
Relative Humidity 35%
Return Air Not Permitted
Exhaust Air 100%
Room Air Balance :Positive (+) with respect to
● Automatic Equipment Wash
● Manual Equipment Washroom
53
● Toilets
● HAC
● Surrounding Area
:Negative (-) with respect to
● Preparation, Assembly, and Sterilization
Room
Central Sterile Services 2.6.8
Central sterile services department cleans and prepares instruments and equipment
for use in surgical procedures, delivery, emergency care and related areas. This
department in the hospital is responsible from various duties. These responsibilities can
be listed as follows.
 Cleanup of surgical case carts; separation of trash, linens and instruments.
 Decontamination of instruments and washing of carts.
 Cleaning of instruments including ultrasonic cleaning, soaking and processing

through a washer/sterilizer.
 Assembly of instrument sets and supplies for surgical packs and packaging.
 Sterilization of packs, labeling and storage.
 Preparation of case carts or sets of packs for scheduled and emergency procedures
 Delivery of case carts or sets of packs to the served departments.
 Receipt and stocking of supplies and linens to be used in packs.
Inventory control and administration [20]. Central sterile services department is

responsible in some cases for the delivery of sterile equipment to the served departments.
The level of hygiene in sterile equipment storages in central sterile services department
must be equal or higher than the operating room. These spaces must be positively
pressurized with respect to the neighboring spaces. The soiled equipment work areas in
this department must be kept under negative pressurization. Sterilization of medical
instruments is important to maintaining patient health and preventing the spread of
54
diseases in a hospital. Instrument sterilization can be provided by local electric self-
generating sterilizers or, more commonly, by high- or medium-pressure steam plants,
although many modern sterilizers do not use plant steam in direct contact with
instruments. Steam sterilizers require high-quality steam, 97% quality or better, to
prevent excess moisture from wetting packs or instruments. Sterilization requires that
instruments be exposed to steam at a temperature of 250°F [121°C] or higher for a length
of time, so steam pressures of 50 to 80 psi [345 to 552 kPa] are required. Sterilization is
more effective with saturated steam than superheated steam, so it is important for the
designer to minimize superheated steam. Excessive superheat may result if the sterilizer
jacket is maintained at a higher temperature than the chamber or if there is excessive
pressure reduction before the sterilizer connection. Steam condensate comes in direct
contact with medical devices during the sterilizing process is considered contaminated
and is not returned for reuse [3].
Figure 2. 34 View from central sterile services department sterile storage area
(Source: WA Country Health Service 2002)
Not all of the studied references have commented on the filtration stages for supply
air except VDI, DIN and ASHRAE standards. Although there is not a concrete comment
about the filtration stages in most of the references, the same level of filtration that is
55
used for the operating rooms can be implemented since the same level of hygiene is
needed. For the case of the differential pressure of the room, all reviewed references
agree on the positive pressurization of sterilized equipment areas. The soiled equipment
room should be maintained under negative pressure.
Nursery 2.6.9
Nursery is defined as care for medically unstable or critically ill newborns requiring
constant nursing, complicated surgical procedures, continual respiratory support, or other
intensive interventions. The nursery shall be designed to provide an air temperature of
72°F to 78°F (22 to 26° C) and a relative humidity of 30-60 percent, while avoiding
condensation on wall and window surfaces.
A minimum of six air changes per hour is required, with a minimum of two changes
being outside air. The ventilation pattern shall inhibit particulate matter from moving
freely in the space, and intake and exhaust vents shall be situated to minimize drafts on or
near the infant beds [23].
Figure 2. 29 Nursery
(Source: NY Hospitals Service 2011)
56
Patients Bedroom Ward 2.6.10
Guity et al.[24] illustrate that the air conditioning systems in today’s hospital patient
wards are inherently quite similar to those of office buildings. However, due to infection-
prone patients, the wards must be well ventilated to prevent contagious diseases (such as
tuberculosis) from spreading from one patient to another. Additionally, patient wards are
occupied and thus in use throughout the entire day. The patient ward air is usually
supplied using ceiling or corridor wall blasting with mixing ventilation, but displacement
ventilation is becoming increasingly popular. Patient ward ventilation is commonly
enhanced by using window ventilation during impurity and Temperature peaks. In all
hospital areas but especially in patient wards exhalation flow from a patient with airborne
infectious diseases can impose health risks to caretakers and visitors. By using local
exhaust ventilation, the possibility of health risks could be decreased
Patient Bedrooms – Data Sheet
Inside Design Conditions ● Year Around Conditions

F [21 C] to 75 F [24 C] Dry-Bulb Temperature 70
Minimum Supply Air Changes per Hour ● 6 – VAV Permitted

● Per 2007 ASHRAE Handbook of Applications,
minimum air changes per hour can be reduced to 4
when supplemental heating system is included in
design.
Exhaust Air Through the connecting toilet
Room Air Balance ● Positive (+) with respect to the Toilet
● Neutral (0) with respect to the Corridor
Table 2. 5 Patient Bedrooms – Data Sheet
57
2.7 HVAC Design Parameters for Hospital Spaces
Criteria for HVAC design of sterile rooms involve indoor and outdoor temperature
and humidity, room pressure, filtration stages, total and fresh air change rates. In
addition, economical factors for maintenance and operation, heating and cooling loads,
glazing characteristics etc. must be taken into account. The effects of the mentioned
design parameters on thermal comfort and infection control are discussed below.
2.7.1 Temperature
Room temperature directly affects the thermal comfort of both hospital staff and
patients. Especially, the staff wearing protective garments working under highly radiant
lighting can be affected easily in terms of thermal comfort. This uncomfortable feeling
affects the concentration; consequently, the result of the activity being held in the room
can be affected negatively. The thermal comfort feelings of surgeons working under
lighting and in protective garments are different from other operating room personnel.
Surgeons generally feel more comfortable at lower temperatures while nurses and
anesthesia specialists feel comfortable at higher temperatures. Generally, temperatures
between 24- 26ºC are suitable for the thermal comfort of patient while temperatures
below 21ºC increase the risk of hypothermia. However, the thermal comfort of surgical
staff is greatly reduced with the room temperatures higher than 23ºC [25]. Not only the
thermal comfort is taken into account to determine design temperature, but the activity
being held in the room must also be considered. Especially in operating rooms, the type
of operation must be defined since different types of operations require different room
temperatures. Some examples are [20].
 32ºC with a low relative humidity level found beneficial for treating certain kinds
of arthritis.
 High relative humidity with 32ºC is used for burn patients.
 Room temperature around 30ºC is used for pediatric surgery.
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 For cardiac surgery, room temperature is set about 15-16ºC and raised up to
temperatures around 25ºC
 Room temperature around 15-16ºC is used for transplant operations. Since the
room temperature depends on the type of operation, the temperature must be
individually controlled for each operating and delivery room. (American Institute
of Architects 2006). In spaces where the health of the patients is more important
than the thermal comfort, room temperature must be specified in a range in which
the growth of the microorganisms are affected and/or the immunity system of the
patients are not affected, negatively [20].
2.7.2 Relative Humidity
Like the room temperature, the relative humidity ratio is a factor affecting the thermal
comfort of both patients and hospital staff. A high level of relative humidity is a common
thermal disturbance, especially when combined with low room temperature.
Consequently, the concentration of staff may be adversely affected by this disturbance.
Humidity control during cooling of the air is very important to prevent this adverse
effect. As in temperature, relative humidity level of the room must not act as a potent risk
for the patient’s health. Previous studies have shown that average values or relative
humidity between 40% and 70% are not suitable for microbial growth. In addition to this
fact, low levels of relative humidity results with the drying or the mucous coating on
special tissues in the upper and lower respiratory tracts which causes the particles in the
air to be breathed deeply into the lungs (American Society of Heating Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers 2003). Other effect of relative humidity ratio of room air is
on the patient’s wounds. Low relative humidity ratio results with excessive drying of the
wound, especially in surgeries. High relative humidity ratio is needed during eye
surgeries or tissue transplant operations for burn wounds where the drying of the wound
is not desired. For example, up to 95% relative humidity is used for burn patients. In
some cases, low relative humidity levels may be required, such conditions can be
experienced in treatment of arthritis, where the relative humidity level are maintained at
around 35% [20].
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2.7.3 Filtration
A sterile space in a hospital is generally closed environments. The fresh air need of
this space is provided by mechanical ventilation system. In order to prevent the increment
of particle concentration in a space, the supply air must be filtered appropriately. It is
reported that the microorganisms are transported by the particles suspended in the air;
therefore, an increase in the particle concentration would result with an increase in the
microorganism concentration. The particles present in the supply air is not the only
source of particle concentration. Along with the particles transported into a sterile space
by supply air, articles are also generated in space by the activities. These particles may
also carry microorganisms. The microorganisms that are present in the air may be
bacteria, viruses or originate from molds. The bacteria which are highly infectious and
transported via air or air-water mixture are Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Legionella
pneumophila (Legionnaire’s disease). Varicella (chicken pox/shingles), Rubella (German
measles), and Rubella (regular measles) are the examples or viral infections that are
transported by air. It is proved that some molds like Aspergilli’s can be fatal to advanced
leukemia, bone marrow transplant and other seriously immunosuppressed patients.
Previous studies have shown that 99.9% of all bacteria present in a hospital are removed
by 90-95% efficient filters. The main reason of this is that the bacteria exist in colony-
forming units that are larger than 1 mm. The use of high efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) filters having filtering efficiencies of 99.97% in certain areas is recommended. It
is proved that many of the airborne viruses are in sub-micron size, thus, there is no exact
method to eliminate 100% of the viable viruses from air even HEPA and/or ultra-low
penetration (ULPA) filters offers the greatest efficiency. Implementing ultraviolet (UV)
lights or chemicals to inactivate the viable viruses are not proven effective [20].
2.7.4 Air Velocity and Air Distribution
The velocity of air in a sterile space is important due to its influence on the comfort
feeling along with the other effects such as drying of the wounds, especially in surgical
site. There are two types of air distribution profiles for a sterile space which are laminar
and turbulent flow. The velocity of air is a significant factor for air distribution. Turbulent
air distribution is generally used in older operating rooms and in other sterile spaces in an
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operating suite such as post-operation or sterile equipment rooms. The particles that are
present in the operating room are considered to be distributed homogeneously for this
kind of air distribution profile Figure 2.34. Conventionally ventilated operating rooms
are generally used for general surgeries which do not require high level of hygiene. It is
recommended to use laminar flow operation rooms for surgeries requiring high level of
hygiene [20].
Figure 2. 30 Turbulent air flow distribution
In laminar flow rooms, a clean space is created in the room and the flow profile
prevents the contaminant from entering this clean space from outside. In this kind of
room, the filtered air with low particle concentration is supplied above the patient and/or
the personnel, and the air flows down to floor level and is exhausted by low level
registers Figure 2.35. Since the velocity of the air is low, the supply air temperature must
always be 1-2ºK lower than the room temperature in order to provide the flow of the air
down to floor. Supplying cold air above the personnel may reduce the thermal comfort.
Also it is shown that if the operating room staff lacks in required precautions for infection
control, the air moving from the staff to the patient transfers skin squamae’s and particles
from the head of the staff (Owers, James and Bannister 2004). Horizontal laminar flow
rooms are recommended to overcome these problems of vertical laminar flows but it is
almost impossible to protect the horizontal laminar flow of the air because of the medical
equipment, movement of staff…. etc[26].
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Figure 2. 31 Laminar air flow distribution
For completing the sweep by the air supplied by the laminar flow unit, only
supplying colder air is not enough. Most of the time, air distribution profile is not
complete without proper exhaust grille arrangements. To complete the distribution
profile, it is recommended to arrange low level exhaust grilles. Another example for
complete air distribution is the recommended profile for airborne infection isolation and
protective environment rooms. It is recommended to supply the filtered air in the region
near the door of the room and exhaust in the region near patient bed for airborne infection
isolation room and supply the
air from above the patient bed and exhaust from the region near the door [20]. Using
low level exhaust is beneficial in operating rooms because of the precipitation of waste
anesthetic gases. It is more effective by low level exhaust to remove these waste gases
[25].
2.7.5 Pressurization
The aim of the pressurization is to protect the cleanliness of room air from the
contaminants that may enter from the neighboring spaces. Since most of the airborne
viruses are in sub-micron size, filtration is not a perfect method to effectively eliminate
the viable particles. Therefore, the best practice to prevent airborne viable particles to
spread is achieved by pressurization. The air can flow from a space to the neighboring
spaces through the openings of the room. The pressure difference between these spaces is
the main factor to specify the flow between them. Positive pressurization means an
outwards flow from the room while negative pressurization refers to an inwards flow.
The flow direction of air between the spaces must be determined by comparing the
cleanliness levels of neighboring rooms. Air must flow from a space with high level of
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hygienic need to a lower one. This required air flow can be maintained by the openings of
the room like door perimeters. Furthermore, the transfer grilles with preset spring-loaded
dampers can be employed to maintain required pressure difference. Thus, the excess of
supply or exhaust air can flow from/to the space and the rooms are maintained under a
constant pressure even the doors are kept closed for a long period. In literature, there are
two methods to maintain required air flow, thus the pressurization. These are discussed
under relevant headings. It is not important how the pressure relation between the spaces
is maintained, the designed airflow between the room must be provided 24-hours a day.
The ventilation system serving to these rooms must be operated all day long. For
conservation of energy, the systems can be operated at reduced air flow rates when the
rooms are not used.
2.7.5.1 Volumetric Flow Rate
The pressure difference between the room and the adjacent spaces is maintained by
providing differentials in volumetric flow rates of supplied and extracted air. For
example, supply air flow rate of 150 m3/h and exhaust flow rate of 100 m3/h would
result with the positive pressurization of the room while the inverse flow rates would
result with negative
pressurization. The disadvantage of this method is when the doors of the room are
kept close for a long period; the pressure of the room would become too high/low which
would make high amount of air flow between the rooms at high velocities when the doors
are opened. When the doors are closed, a noise may be generated due to high velocity of
air flow through door perimeter.
2.7.5.2 Room Differential Pressure
Volumetric flow rate method can be used for most hospital rooms. Room differential
pressure method is generally used for high-risk areas[20]. This method involves
maintaining the pressure difference between the sealed room and its neighbors steady.
The required pressure difference which will be kept constant is determined by the
standards and guidelines. The pressure of the room and its neighbors is monitored
continuously.
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2.7.6 Total and Fresh Air Changes
Total and fresh air change rates are important to maintain the required air quality of
the spaces. The supply of fresh air improves the air quality in terms of increasing the
oxygen amount and diluting the chemical gases and particles that exist in the room air.
The mechanically supplied air can be 100% fresh air or the fresh air can be mixed with
filtrated return air. The decision about supplying 100% fresh air or mixture of fresh and
returned air depends on various factors such as the activity being held in the room,
required hygiene level, energy conservation, operation costs etc.
2.8 Location Of Air Distribution

In conventional air conditioning, filtered air is typically distributed from the ceiling,
with return air is collected from the ceiling on the other side of the room. In special
situations in health care facility (e.g., operating rooms, delivery rooms, catheterization
laboratories, angiography rooms, HEPA-filtered rooms for immune suppressed patients)
the direction of air movement needs to be controlled. The air is introduced from ceiling
registers on the perimeter and is returned or exhausted through registers located at least 6
inches above the floor. This arrangement provides a downward movement of clean air
through the breathing and working zones to the contaminated floor area for exhaust.
Figure below shows the introduction of low velocity air near the ceiling at the entrance of
the room, flowing past the patient, and exhausted or returned close to the floor at the head
of the patient bed. An airflow pattern is thus established which helps to move
microorganisms from the point of patient’s expulsion to the exhaust / return air terminal
to prevent health care workers or visitors from inhaling the bacteria. Non-aspirating
diffusers (typically perforated face) are recommended.
These diffusers entrain large amounts of air, achieve good mixing, prevent updrafts
and provide a laminar flow of air that will flush the isolation room of unwanted airborne
particles.
The diffuser should be placed away from patient bed, preferably near the point where
a health care worker or visitor would enter the room.
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Do not place diffuser immediately over the patient bed as it would result in
uncomfortable drafts projected directly at the patient.
Figure 2.32 room air distribution in isolation room
(source: A. Bhatia, HVAC Design for Healthcare Facilities)
Chapter 3
COOLING LOADS CALCULATION
3.1 Introduction
Heating and cooling load calculations are carried out to estimate the required capacity
of heating and cooling systems, which can maintain the required conditions in the
conditioned space. To estimate the required cooling or heating capacities, one has to have
information regarding the design indoor and outdoor conditions, specifications of the
building, specifications of the conditioned space (such as the occupancy, activity level,
various appliances and equipment used etc.) and any special requirements of the
particular application. For comfort applications, the required indoor conditions are fixed
by the criterion of thermal comfort, while for industrial or commercial applications the
required indoor conditions are fixed by the particular processes being performed or the
products being stored. the design outdoor conditions are chosen based on design dry bulb
and coincident wet bulb temperatures for peak summer or winter months for cooling and
heating load calculations, respectively.
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A) External Loads
These loads are formed because of heat gains in the conditioned space from external
sources through the building envelope or building shell and the partition walls.
Sources of external loads include the following loads:
a. Heat gain entering from the exterior walls and roofs,
b. Solar heat gain transmitted through the fenestrations,
c. Conductive heat gain coming through the fenestrations,
d. Heat gain entering from the partition walls and interior doors and,
e. Infiltration of outdoor air into the conditioned space, and ventilation.
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B) Internal Loads:
These loads are formed by the release of sensible and latent heat from the heat
sources inside the conditioned space. These sources contribute internal cooling loads:
a. People.
b. Electric lights and.
c. Equipment and appliances.
These load components contribute sensible and latent heat to the space. Conduction
through the roof, exterior walls, windows, skylights, ceiling, interior walls, and floor, as
well as the solar radiation through the windows and skylights, all contributes only
sensible heat to the space.
The people inside the space contribute both sensible and latent heat. Lighting con-
tributes only sensible heat to the space, while equipment in the space may contribute only
sensible heat (as is the case for a computer) or both sensible and latent heat (as is the case
for a coffee maker). Infiltration generally contributes both sensible and latent heat to the
space. The coil has to handle the additional components of ventilation and system heat
gains.
Ventilation contributes both sensible and latent heat to the coil load. Other heat gains
that occur in the air conditioning system (from the fan, for example) generally contributes
only sensible heat. One of the more difficult aspects of estimating the maximum load for
a space is determining the time at which this maximum load will occur. This is because
the individual components that make up the space loading often peak at different times of
the day, or even different months of the year. Figure 3.1 illustrated load components.
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Figure 3. 1 Load Component
After describing load components, some definitions have to be mentioned in the

following:
Building envelope: Refer to the wall, roof, floor and any fenestration that enclose the
building.
Space: Indicates either a volume or a site without a partition or a partitioned room or

group of rooms.
Room: Is an enclosed or partitioned space that is usually treated as a single load. A

conditioned room often has an individual control system.
Zone: Is a space, or several rooms, or units of space having some sort of coincident
loads or similar operating characteristics. A zone may or may not be an enclosed
space, or it may consist of many partitioned rooms. It could be a conditioned space or
a space that is not air conditioned. A conditioned zone is always equipped with an
individual control system. A control zone is the basic unit of control.
There are different sources of cooling loads. Some of them are internal loads such as
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occupant load, electric lighting load and equipment load. The others are external
loads such as solar radiation load and infiltration. Figure 3.2 gives a better understanding
of these loads sources.
Figure 3. 2 Source of Cooling Loads
3.2 General project data

Table 3.1 contains some information about the indoor and outdoor conditions in
Sana’a city. It also shows the geographic location of the building.
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Table 3. 1 General Project Data:
Design air conditioning System for zayeed

Project name
Hospital
Outside Condition
Region middle east
Location Yemen
City Sanaa
Latitude N 15.5°
Longitude E 44.2°
Elevation above sea level (m) m 2204
Maximum dry bulb( db) temperature ( c ) C° 32.8
Maximum wet bulb( wb) temperature ( c) 22°C
Summer daily temperature range (c) 8.4°C
Wind velocity (m/s) 5m/s
Design cooling months April to September
Indoor design condition in the hospital

Dry bulb (db)temperature Relative humidity
23°C 50%
3.3 Cooling Load Calculation Methodology

Generally cooling load calculations involve a systematic, stepwise procedure, using
which one can arrive at the required system capacity by taking into account all the
building energy flows. In practice, a variety of methods ranging from simple rules-of-
thumb to complex Transfer Function Methods are used in practice to arrive at the
building loads. For example, typical rules-of-thumb methods for cooling loads specify the
required cooling capacity based on the floor area or occupancy.
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More accurate load estimation methods involve a combination of analytical methods
and empirical results obtained from actual data, for example the use of Cooling Load
Temperature Difference (CLTD) for estimating fabric heat gain and the use of Solar Heat
Gain Factor (SHGF) for estimating heat transfer through fenestration. These methods are
very widely used by air conditioning engineers as they yield reasonably accurate results
and estimations can be carried out manually in a relatively short time. Over the years,
more accurate methods that require the use of computers have been developed for
estimating cooling loads.
In this project CLTD method is used in manual calculation.
The assumptions behind design cooling load are as follows:
1. Design outside conditions are selected from a long-term statistical database.

The conditions will not necessarily represent any actual year, but are
representative of the location of the building. Design data for outside
conditions for various locations of the world have been collected and are
available in tabular form in various handbooks,
2. The load on the building due to solar radiation is estimated for clear sky
conditions.
3. The building occupancy is assumed to be at full design capacity.
4. All building equipment and appliances are considered to be operating at a

reasonably representative capacity.
5. The equations of heat transfer for cooling load calculation within a time
interval are linear. It is also assumed that the superposition principle holds.
When a number of changes occur simultaneously in the conditioned space,
they will proceed as if independent of each other. The total change is the sum
of the responses caused by the individual changes.
6. Space load calculations are often performed by computer aided design (CAD),
with market available software such as DOE-2.1D, TRACE-600, Carrier E20-
II Loads and HAP.
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7. Peak load calculations evaluate the maximum load to size and select the
equipment. The energy analysis program compares the total energy use in a
certain period with various alternatives in order to determine the optimum one.
8. Space cooling load is used to calculate the supply volume flow rate and to
determine the size of the air system, ducts, terminals, and diffusers. The coil
load is used to determine the size of the cooling coil and the refrigeration
system. Space cooling load is a component of the cooling coil load.
3.4 Cooling load Calculation procedures

There are two methods used for loads calculations, technical method and manual
method. First, the technical method is used for one space as a sample. After that, the
manual method is used for the same space and compare between them.
There are many programs used to calculate cooling loads. In this project, we use
Hourly Analysis Program (HAP), because it is more accurate comparing with another
programs, and giving us high accuracy data.
3.4.1.1 HAP Definition
Carrier’s HAP Program is a computer tool, which assists engineers in designing air
conditioning systems for commercial buildings. HAP is two tools in one. First, it is a tool
for estimating loads and designing systems. Second, it is a tool for simulating building
energy use and calculating energy costs. HAP uses the ASHRAE endorsed transfer
function method for load calculations and detailed 8,760 hour by hour simulation
techniques for the energy analysis.
This program is released as two separate, but similar products. The “HAP System
Design Load” program provides system design and load estimating features. The full
HAP program provides the same system design capabilities and energy analysis features.
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3.4.1.2 HAP System Design Features
HAP estimates design cooling and heating loads for commercial buildings in order to
determine required sizes for air conditioning system components. Ultimately, the
program provides information needed for selecting and specifying equipment.
Specifically, the program performs the following tasks:
 Calculates design cooling loads for spaces, zones, and coils in the air conditioning
system.
 Determines required airflow rates for spaces, zones and the system.
 Sizes cooling and heating coils.
 Sizes air circulation fans.
 Sizes chillers and boilers.
3.4.1.3 HAP Energy Analysis Features
HAP estimates annual energy use and energy costs for air conditioning and non air
conditioning energy consuming systems in a building by simulating building operation
for each of the 8,760 hours in a year. Results of the energy analysis are used to compare
the energy use and energy costs of alternate air conditioning system designs so the best
design can be chosen. Specifically, HAP performs the following tasks during an energy
analysis:
 Simulates hour by hour operation of all heating and air conditioning systems in
the building.
 Simulates hour by hour operation of all plant equipment in the building.
 Simulates hour by hour operation of non air conditioning systems including

lighting and appliances.
 Uses results of the hour-by-hour simulations to calculate total annual energy use
and energy costs. Costs are calculated using actual utility rate features such as
stepped, time of day and demand, charges if specified.
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 Generates tabular and graphical reports of hourly, daily, monthly and annual data.
3.4.1.4 USING HAP TO DESIGN SYSTEMS
This section briefly describes, in conceptual terms, how to use HAP to design
systems and plants.
1. Define the Problem. First, define the scope and objectives of the design analysis.
For example, what type of building is involved? What type of systems and
equipment are required? What special requirements will influence system features?
2. Gather Data. Before design calculations can be performed, information about the
building, its environment and its air conditioning equipment must be gathered.
This step involves extracting data from building plans, evaluating building usage
and studying air conditioning system needs. Specific types of information needed
include:
 Climate data for the building site.
 Construction material data for walls, roofs, windows, doors, exterior

shading devices and floors, and for interior partitions between
conditioned and non-conditioned regions.
 Building size and layout data including wall, roof, window, door and
floor areas, exposure orientations and external shading features.
 Internal load characteristics determined by levels and schedules for

occupancy, lighting systems, office equipment, appliances and
machinery within the building.
 Data concerning air conditioning equipment, controls and components

to be used.
3. Enter Data into HAP. Next, use HAP to enter climate, building and air
conditioning equipment data. When using HAP, your base of operation is the main
program window. From the main program window, first create a new project or
open an existing project. Then define the following types of data, which are needed
for system design work:
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a. Enter Weather Data. Weather data defines the temperature, humidity and
solar radiation conditions the building encounters during the course of a year.
These conditions play an important role in influencing loads and system
operation. To define weather data, a city can be chosen from the program's
weather database, or weather parameters can be directly entered. Weather
data is entered using the weather input form.
b. Enter Space Data. A space is a region of the building comprised of one or

more heat flow elements and served by one or more air distribution
terminals. Usually, a space represents a single room. However, the definition
of a space is flexible. For some applications, it is more efficient for a space to
represent a group of rooms or even an entire building.
To define a space, all elements, which affect heat flow in the space, must be
described. Elements include walls, windows, doors, roofs, skylights, floors,
occupants, lighting, electrical equipment, miscellaneous heat sources,
infiltration, and partitions.
While defining a space, information about the construction of walls, roofs,

windows, doors and external shading devices is needed, as well as
information about the hourly schedules for internal heat gains. This
construction and schedule data can be specified directly from the space input
form (via links to the construction and schedule forms), or alternately can be
defined prior to entering space data.
Space information is stored in the project database and is later linked to

zones in an air system.
c. Enter Air System Data. An Air System is the equipment, controls used to
provide cooling, and heating to a region of a building. An air system serves
one or more zones. Zones are groups of spaces having a single thermostatic
control. Examples of systems include central station air handlers, packaged
rooftop units, packaged vertical units, split systems, packaged direct
expansion (DX) fan coils, hedonic fan coils and water source heat pumps. In
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all cases, the air system also includes associated ductwork, supply terminals
and controls.
To define an air system, the components, controls and zones associated with
the system must be defined as well as the system sizing criteria. This data is
entered on the air system input form.
4. Use HAP to Generate Design Reports. Once weather, space, and air system data
has been entered, HAP can be used to generate system design reports.
To generate design reports, go to the main program window and select the desired
air systems or plants. Next, choose the “Print/View Design Data” menu bar option,
toolbar button, or pop-up menu option. For systems, this displays the System
Design Reports form; for plants, this displays the Plant Design Reports form.
Select the desired report options on this form. If calculations are needed to supply
data for these reports, the program will automatically run the calculations before
generating the reports. If all the data needed for the reports already exists, reports
are generated immediately.
3.4.1.5 Sample program details
 How to start
From start menu choose Hourly Analysis Program HAP as shown in Figure3.3.
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Figure 3. 3 Start Menu
 Create a New Project
Choose new on the Project Menu this creates a New Project. A project is the
container, which holds your data as shown in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3. 4 HAP Project Menu
New project will be established which will be contain "SAMPLE DATA as shown in
Figure 3.5.
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Figure 3. 5 Sample Data
 Enter Weather Data
 Select Middle East region
 from location menu select Yemen
 from city menu select Sana’a
 Click on the “Weather” item in the tree view in the main program
window, the weather input form will appear as shown in Figure3.7.
 Then Press the OK button on the Weather input form to save the data and
return to the main Program window.
Figure 3. 6 HAP Weather Window
 Enter Space Data
1. General
Click on the space item in the tree view in the main program window. Space
information will appear in the list view double click on the “new default space
Enter data for your space as shown in Figure 3.8.
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Figure 3. 7 Space General Data
- Naming the space.
- Input floor area, average ceiling height and building weight.
2. Internals
 Entering overhead lighting-select recessed unvented as fixture type as

lighting intensity and ballast multiplier as default
 Create Schedules, when entering overhead lighting data, you must choose a
schedule. In the schedule drop-down list, choose "create new schedule”
 Light schedules window will appear.
 Finally choose lighting schedule.
 Create electrical equipment schedules, when entering equipment data, you

must choose a schedule. In the schedule drop-down list, choose the “create
new schedule”
 Finally choose electric equipment schedule.
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 Create people schedules, after entering people data and choose activity
level.
 Finally choose people schedule as shown in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3. 8 Choosing People Schedule in Space Internal Data
1. Walls, Windows, Doors, and Roof.
 Choose direction of exposure wall, wall gross area and quantity of windows
and doors for each wall. Choose construction types for exposure wall like
wall type, windows and doors as shown in Figure 3.10.
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Figure 3. 9 Choosing the Direction of the Wall
 for roof data inserting the direction of the roof and the type of the roof.
 Choose layer of wall first the wall Layers table describes the material layers,
which comprise the wall, and the thermo physical properties of each layer as
shown in Figure 3.11.
Figure 3. 10 Choosing the Layers of the Wall
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1. Infiltration.
Infiltration loads are the result of uncontrolled leakage of air into and out of the
building. These loads are due to the loss of building air and the introduction of
outdoor air into rooms in the building. As a result, the air exchange immediately
affects building loads. It is not necessary to apply transfer function procedures to
determine the infiltration load as shown in Figure 3.12.
Figure 3. 11 Infiltration Details
1. Floor.
Floor is above conditioned region it is assumed the adjacent region is at the same
temperature as the zone. Therefore, no heat transfer occurs.
2. Partitions.
Partitions contains data about heat flow through walls or ceilings adjacent to
unconditioned regions as shown in Figure 3.13.
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Figure 3. 12 Partitions Details
 Enter System Data.
 Click on the “System” item in the tree view in the main program window.
System information will appear in the list view.
 Double click on the “new default system” item in the list view. The System
input form will appear as shown in Figure3.14.
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Figure 3. 13 System Tree
1) General.
- Naming the system
- Select “Packaged Rooftop Unit” as equipment type
- Select “CAV- Terminal Reheat” as air system type as shown in Figure 3.15
- Select “number of zones”
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Figure 3. 14 Selecting the Air System
1) System component data.
- Insert requirement details of system component like ventilation air,

humidification, supply return fans and duct system as shown in Figure 3.16.
Figure 3. 15 System Component
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2) Zone components data.
- Zone Components contains data describing the spaces in each zone and
equipment
in the zone such as supply terminals, thermostats and supplemental heating unit as
shown in Figure 3.17.
Figure 3. 16 Zone Component
1) Sizing Data.
- sizing Data contains criteria for sizing the system. It also contains system
sizing values which can be directly entered for retrofit applications rather than
being calculated by the program as shown in Figure 3.18.
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Figure 3. 17 Sizing Data
 Print Out the System Report.
To print out the system report, the following steps must be taken:
1) Click on the "System" item in the tree view in the main program window.
Systems components will appear in the list view.
2) Select the system component, which you want to print out its report.
3) Click on the right button of the mouse.
4) Choose the "Print/View Design Results" option and press preview to show
the report as shown in Figure3.19.
Based on HAP report, one room is taken as a sample to show how the technical method
used in calculations. The completely cooling load calculations for the building are done
by the same manner.
o Room HAP Report Sample
Delivery room (237) is chosen as a room sample. It needs special indoor conditions.
The room is described in details below:
87
General details for the space as shown in Table 3.2 are gotten from HAP space
report.
Table 3. 2 HAP Space Report
General Details
Room name room (237)

Floor Area m^2 15
Avg. Ceiling Height m3
Building Weight Medium
OA Ventilation Requirements
Space Usage User Defined
OA Requirement 1 L\(s*m^2) 25
OA Requirement 2 0.00
ASHRAE Standard 170-2017 Space Usage Defaults
Internal loads contain information as shown in Table 3.3
Table 3. 3 Internal Loads
Overhead Lighting People

Fixture Type Recessed Unvented Occupancy 3.0
Wattage )W\m^2( 8 Activity Level Heavy work
Ballast Multiplier 1.0 Sensible 153.9
Schedule Lighting Schedule Latent 271.1
Task Lighting Schedule People Schedule
Wattage 0.00 Miscellaneous Loads

Schedule None Sensible 0.00
Electrical Equipment Schedule None
Wattage 0.0Watt Latent 0.00
Schedule elect equipment Schedule None
88
Data of walls, windows and doors for the space are shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3. 4 Wall, Window, and Doors Details
:Walls, Windows, Doors
.Exp Wall Gross Area (m²) .Window 1 Qty .Window 2 Qty .Door 1 Qty
E 8.5 0 0 0
Construction Types for Exposure NE
Wall Type External Wall Assembly
1st Window Type None
Roof data for the space are shown in Table 3.5.
Table 3. 5 Roofs Details
Roof
.Exp Roof Gross Area (m²) Roof Slope (deg.)
H 0 0
Infiltration data for the space are shown in Table 3.6.
Table 3. 6 Infiltration Details
Infiltration
Design Cooling 6.25 ACH
Design heating 3.13 ACH
89
Floors Type: The floor above conditioned space, so (No additional input required for
this floor type).
Partitions data for the space about heat flow through walls or ceilings adjacent to
unconditioned regions are shown in Table 3.7.
Table 3. 7 Partitions Details
1st Partition Details 2st Partition Details
Partition Type ceiling Partition Partition Type Ceiling Partition
Area 0.0 Area 0
U-Value 2.839 U-Value 2.839
Unconditioning Space Max Unconditioning Space Max

23.9 23.9
.Temp .Temp
Ambient at Space Max. Ambient at Space Max.

35 35
.Temp .Temp
Unconditioning Space Min. Unconditioning Space

23.9 23.9
.Temp .Min. Temp
Ambient at space min

Ambient at space min temp 12.8 12.8
temp
 Press the OK button on the Space input form to save your data and return to
the main program window.
90
 After inserting all data about the space, we go to the final system report,
which contains this space to see the needed quantity of air that must be
supplied as shown in Table 3.8.
Table 3. 8 Air Flow Needed for The Space.
Space Name Supply Air Flow(l\s)
room (237) 122
3.4.2 Manual Method
We take room (237) as sample, which is located in the south direction of the building.
The following data of the room (237) are given:
 Inside design condition: 23 C db and 50% RH.
 Outside design condition: 32.80 C db.
 Area of the room : 15 m^2.
 Overall heat transfer coefficient for outer walls U=1.9 w/m2 .C
 Overall heat transfer coefficient for door U=2.4 W/m2. C.
 Occupancy: 3 persons with sensible heat gain 153.9W/person and latent heat gain
271.9 W/person.
 Lights: 8 W/m2 of floor area.
To calculate the cooling load for this space, we take the following steps:
1) Heat Gain Due to Solar Effects through Building
From equations 3.1 and 3.2, we find Q_T for walls, windows and floor.
)3.1( ………………………………………………Q solar = AU (CLTD¿¿ CORR)W ¿
)3.2( .....…………… CLTDcorr =( CLTD+ LM ) K + ( 25.5−t i ) + ( t O ,m −29.4 ) f
91
Where:
Qsolar: Heat gain due to solar effects through building.
U: Overall heat transfer coefficient.
CLTD: Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD=13). .
LM: Latitude correction factor (-1).
K: Color adjustment factor = 1 for dark color ,0.83 for medium color and 0.63 for light
.color
t i: Indoor design temperature.
to,m: Outdoor design temperature.
f: Attic or roof fan factor, it is 1 for no fan roof and 0.75 for fan with roof.
Table 3. 9 Result of Heat gain due to solar effects through building.
CLTDcorr Q transfer
Surface Area U
m2 C QT= AU CLTDcorr
w / m2 . c
Wall S 13 1.9 4.45 95.11
Sum 95.11
Qsolar =95.11W
1) Heat Gain Due to Light
To find heat gain due to lights, we use equation 3.4.
)3.4( ……………………………………….…………… Q LIGHT =P ( F U F A ) CLF ¿ (W )
Where:
QLIGHT: Heat gain due to light.
P: Power of light 18 W/m2 for the room (237).
92
Fu: Fraction of lamps 1.
FA: Ballast factor. It is equal to 1 for fluorescent lamps and 1.0 for ordinary lamp.
CLF ¿ :Light cooling load factor 1.
W 270 =Q LIGHT
2) Heat Gain Due to Occupants
Equations 3.5 – 3.7 are used to find heat gain due to occupants.
)3.5( .……………………………………………………… Q HSL=Q SH +Q LH W
)3.6( .………………………………………………… Q SH =N ( SHG ) ( CLF PE ) W
)3.7( ……..………………………………………………… Q LH =N ( LHG ) W
Where:
QHSL: total heat from occupant.
QSH: Sensible heat gains from occupant.
QLH: Latent heat gains from occupant.
N: Number of people are 3.
SHG: Sensible heat gain 154 W/person.
LHG: Latent heat gain is 271 W/person.
CLFPE: Cooling load factor for people is 1.
QSH =3∗154∗1=462 W
Q LH =3∗271=813 W
Q HSL=462+ 813=1275 W
93
: The Total Heat Gain
The total heat gain for the room is shown in equation 3.10.
)3.10 ( ..... Q total=Q solar effects +Qlight +Qoccupants
Qtotal=95.11+1275+270=1640.11W =1.64 kW
From manual method, the total heat gain for the room (237) is 1.64 KW. The total heat gain
from HAP report for this room is 1.77 kW. The difference between the two results is due to
defining the thermal resistance for the used materials of the wall, roof, and windows in HAP
program. In addition, the sources of constants used in the equations of manual method are not
the same. The results of programing method is more accurately because the program is working
analysis for every element of whole building. The manual method takes all the loads at the same
time (collecting them accumulatively). Whereas the programing method takes the time of acting
.load for example, the program does not account the lights in the mid
Table 3. 10 Summary manual calculation of cooling load
Description Q (w)
Heat Gain Due to Solar Effects through Building 95.11
Heat Gain Due to Light 277

Heat Gain Due to Occupants 1275
Total 1640.11
3.5 Cooling Loads of All Project Building

The project building is divided into three zones, This division is according to spaces
in building having similar cooling requirements.
Each of the above zones has its own maximum supply air and total coil loads. We get
these maximum supply air and total coil loads from final systems HAP program report as
shown in Figures
94
For administration suite
95
For cesarean delivery room
For delivery suite
96
For operation room
97
For surgical units
98
For insensitive care units
Note: all other data are in the same way. To see the other reports, go to Appendix C.
The total maximum supply air and total coil loads for other the building are shown in
Table 11.
Table 3. 11 Zones Max. Supply Air & Coil Loads.
Name Maximum Supply Air(L\S) Total Coil Load(KW)

Zone 1 2709.7 52.1
Zone 2 1120 39.6
Zone 3 1629.7 22.6
Zone 4 2961 104.6
Zone 5 2426 78.8
Zone 6 1251 16
Total 11467.4 313.7
99
Table 3. 12 comparason between HAP and manual calculation
Description Hap calculation Manual calculation
Wall transmission w 195 w 95.11
Overhead lighting w 270 w 270
People w 1275 w 1275
Total w 1774 1640.11
Error percentage: ( 7.54% )
100
Chapter four
DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT

SELECTION
4.1 Introduction
The distribution system is a network of ducts, which transports the air between the
conditioning equipment and the conditioned spaces. The system consists of ducts, outlet
and inlet terminals (diffusers and grilles) for distributing air within the conditioned space.
Dampers in the distribution system are used for controlling air volume.
4.2 Duct design
In duct design calculations, the equal friction loss method is used in manual and
technical calculations to find duct dimensions. In manual method, tables and equations
are used. For programming method, DuctSizer program has been used.
In this project we have nine zones and six AHUs. From ASHRAE standards, main
supply velocity of air chosen the as 6 m /s.
4.2.1 Manual Method
To design the main supply duct of the all zones by using manually method, the
following steps have been done:
- Enter friction loss chart of round ducts as shown in Figure 4.1 and read
friction loss rate at intersection of air quantity and supply air velocity lines.
- Select appropriate frictional pressure drop per unit length and keep this
constant for the whole duct system. For the system the (0.5 pa / m) will be
used.
- Enter friction loss chart of round ducts as shown in Figure 4.1 and read round
duct diameter at intersection of air quantity and friction loss rate lines.
101
- If you have completed sizing the main duct section then proceed to the next
duct section using the same friction loss.
- Convert round duct size to equivalent square sizes using Table 4.1 with a
maximum aspect ratio of 1:1.
102
From HAP report, the required airflow rate for surgical unit is 2426 l/s. The velocity of
the main supply duct is 6 m/s. From Figure 4.1, the intersection of the velocity and the
airflow rate gives the pressure drop 0.5 pa/m and duct diameter 717 mm.
For confirming of the main duct diameter of the system, Equation 4.1 is used.
Q = V × A …………………………………………………………………. (4.1)
Where:
Q = air flow rate (l/s)
V = velocity of cold air in the main duct
A = area of duct.
2 2
2426 πD πD
D = 0.717 >>= =6 × >>= Q=V ×
1000 4 4
From Table 4.1 the equivalent square duct dimensions are 650 x650 mm
To design the main supply by using technical method (DuctSizer and Revit software
program), the main supply velocity of air is typed as (6 m /s) and flow rate (2426
liter/second) into the program. After that, the program gives the dimensions of main duct
as shown in the Figure 4.2.
103
Figure 4. 1 DuctSizer program
The dimensions of the main duct from the program are 650 x 675. There is a little
difference between the two results of the manual method and technical method because
the program takes the pressure drops in account along the duct.
Note 1: Calculations of all other duct dimensions are applied in the same manner.
Note 2: Duct dimension and calculation of pressure loses of ducts and fittings by Revit
The layout of the duct design for the system is shown in the Figure 4.3 which
illustrates the duct details.
Table 4. 1 Supply Ducts Design
Offices /Right side
N Q( l/s) B( mm ) H (mm) D( mm) V( m/s) H (pa/m)

AA 2710 700 752 752 6.089 0.5
A 1109 500 475 536.8 4.901 0.5
B 770 425 425 467.7 4.482 0.5
104
C 574 400 375 418.7 4.169 0.5
D 478 375 350 390.8 3.985 0.5
E 252 300 275 307.3 3.394 0.5
F 150 250 225 253 2.9838 0.5
G 60 175 150 179.8 2.364 0.5
Offices/ left side

A 1596 575 550 616 5.355 0.5
B 1500 550 550 601.7 5.275 0.5
C 1370 550 525 581.4 5.160 0.5
D 1234 525 500 558.9 5.03 0.5
E 1043 475 475 524.5 4.828 0.5
F 720 425 400 456 4.408 0.5
G 583 400 375 421.2 4.185 0.5
K 446 350 350 380.8 3.917 0.5
L 326 300 325 338.4 3.624 0.5
M 230 275 275 296.9 3.322 0.5
N 170 250 225 265.1 3.0793 0.5
O 85 200 175 204.6 2.584 0.5
/ Delivery room

AA 1628 600 600 620 5.381 0.5
B 1495 550 550 600 5.271 0.5
D 921 500 500 500.4 4.683 0.5
E 699 425 425 450 4.376 0.5
F 610 400 400 430.8 4.247 0.5
G 336 300 325 342.3 3.651 0.5
H 168 250 250 264 3.07 0.5
ACB 133 230 230 241.9 2.89 0.5
BD1 110 200 200 225.3 2.759 0.5
BD2 384 350 350 359.4 3.774 0.5
BD3 80 200 200 200.1 2.5446 0.5
DE1 100 200 200 217.8 2.693 0.5
DE2 122 230 230 234.2 2.832 0.5
EF 80 200 200 200.1 2.5446 0.5
FG 283 300 300 320.9 3.498 0.5
GH 168 250 250 264 3.07 0.5
/ Operation room
105
AA 2373 650 650 715.8 5.896 0.5
A 825 450 450 480.1 4.558 0.5
B 725 425 425 457.2 4.416 0.5
C 587 400 400 422.2 4.192 0.5
D 490 370 370 394.5 4.004 0.5
E 357 325 325 350.2 3.707 0.5
F 233 275 275 298.4 3.333 0.5
A 1548 550 550 608.9 5.316 0.5
B 1410 550 550 587.8 5.196 0.5
C 1103 500 500 535.7 4.894 0.5
D 716 425 425 455.1 4.402 0.5
E 483 375 375 392.3 3.995 0.5
F 260 300 300 310.9 3.425 0.5
G 160 250 250 254.2 3.0327 0.5
/ Isolation - insensitive care room

AA 1251 550 550 561.8 5.047 0.5
B 1156 500 500 545.3 4.951 0.5
C 1061 500 500 527.9 4.848 0.5
D 804 450 450 475.4 4.524 0.5
E 567 400 400 416.8 4.156 0.5
F 330 300 300 340 3.635 0.5
G 165 250 250 262.2 3.056 0.5
AB 95 200 200 213.3 2.658 0.5
CD 257 300 300 309.5 3.415 0.5
DE 237 300 300 300.3 3.347 0.5
EF 165 250 250 262.2 3.056 0.5
/ Operation room for delivery

53 1146 500 500 555 4.44 0.5
54 909 450 450 499 4.35 0.5
55 729 430 430 472 3.91 0.5
56 639 400 400 444 3.87 0.5
57 582 380 380 416 4.01 0.5
101 180 250 250 277.7 2.79 0.5
102 120 230 230 249.9 2.3 0.5
104 30 120 120 138.8 1.86 0.5
106
Table 4. 2 Return Ducts Design
/ Offices

A 615 400 375 429.7 4.24 0.5
B 535 375 375 407.7 4,097 0.5
C 285 300 300 321.8 3.505 0.5
D 145 250 200 249.8 2.958 0.5
E 85 200 175 204.8 2.584 0.5
A 593 400 375 423.9 4.203 0.5
B 343 300 325 345.3 3.673 0.5
C 264 300 275 312.7 3.438 0.5
/ Isolation - insensitive care room

A 1200 500 500 554 5.002 0.5
B 710 450 450 453.6 4.393 0.5
C 380 350 350 358.5 3.764 0.5
D 330 340 340 340 3.635 0.5
Table 4. 4 Exhaust ducts Design
Cesarean delivery room

A 636 400 400 444 3.85 0.5
B 495 350 350 388.7 3.91 0.5
C 354 330 330 361 3.25 0.5
D 213 280 280 305.4 2.73 0.5
Operation room and surgical unit

BB 4360 800 800 888 6.6 0.5
1B 2494 650 650 721.4 5.72 0.5
1R 1472 550 550 610.4 4.71 0.5
2R 1282 550 550 610 4.11 0.5
3R 1092 480 480 527 4.6 0.5
4R 902 450 450 499.8 4.32 0.5
5R1 534 380 380 416 3.68 0.5
5R2 368 330 330 361 3.38 0.5
6R 356 330 330 361 3.27 0.5
7R 178 250 250 277.7 2.76 0.5
107
1L 1022 480 480 527.6 4.34 0.5
2L 894 450 450 499.8 4.28 0.5
3L 596 400 400 444.3 3.61 0.5
4L 298 300 300 333.2 3.21 0.5
2B 1864 600 600 666.4 5.02 0.5
1RB 1197 500 500 555.3 4.64 0.5
2RB 890 450 450 499.8 4.26 0.5
3R1 670 400 400 444.3 4.06 0.5
4.2.3 Duct System Losses
Total and static pressure changes in a fan/duct system consisting of a fan with both
supply and return air ductwork as shown in Figure 4.4. Also shown are total and static
pressure gradients referenced to atmospheric pressure. For all constant area sections, total
and static pressure losses are equal. At diverging transitions, velocity pressure decreases,
absolute total pressure decreases, and absolute static pressure can increase. The static
pressure increase at these sections is known as static regain. At converging transitions,
velocity pressure increases in the direction of airflow, and absolute total and absolute
static pressures decrease.
At the exit, total pressure loss depends on the shape of the fitting and the flow
characteristics. Exit loss coefficients (Co) can be greater than, less than, or equal to one.
Total and static pressure grade lines for the various coefficients are shown in Figure 4.4
Note that, for a loss coefficient less than one, static pressure upstream of the exit is less
than atmospheric pressure (negative). Static pressure just upstream of the discharge
fitting can be calculated by subtracting the upstream velocity pressure from the upstream
total pressure. At section 1, total pressure loss depends on the shape of the entry. Total
pressure immediately downstream of the entrance equals the difference between the
upstream pressure, which is zero (atmospheric pressure), and loss through the fitting.
Static pressure of ambient air is zero; several diameters downstream, static pressure is
negative, equal to the sum of the total pressure (negative) and the velocity pressure
(always positive).
108
Figure 4. 2 Pressure Changes During Flow in Ducts
Once the duct sections have been sized, we can summarize the air pressure losses for
the largest pressure loss circuit (the critical path between the fan and terminal outlets) as
follow:
1. pressure loss for fittings = fitting factor x velocity pressure ……………….…(4.2)
Where:
Velocity pressure = 0.5 × × v2……………………………….……..……….... (4.3)
Where:
 is the density of air (1.2 𝑘𝑔/ m3).
v is the flow velocity of the air in (m/𝑠).
2. Friction losses = straight length of duct section x rate of pressure drop……….(4.4)
Now the total static pressure losses for the duct system are the sum of the pressures
losses in equations (4.3) and (4.4). The pressure losses of each AHU are shown in table 4.
The calculation of ducts and fittings for all zones are done by RIVET program are shown
below in appendix .
4.3 Diffusers
Diffusers must be appropriate the following requirements:
109
 Diffusers serving air-conditioned spaces should be a high-induction type and
constructed so that moisture will not form on the cones when a temperature
difference of 17 K (Kelvin) is used with the space dew point at least 4 K
above that corresponding to summer inside design conditions. Compliance
with this requirement should be demonstrated in a mock-up test, unless
previously tested and approved.
 Volume handled by each diffuser should not, exceed 280 L/s in general.
 Diffusers used in supply ventilation are of the same design, except have
adjustable blast skirts.
 Manufacturer’s published data are used in selecting diffusers.
4.3.1 Ceiling Diffusers
Displacement ventilation diffusers may also be located outside of the occupied zone,
which is a good location for a diffuser in a space that either does not have a lot of wall
space or where space is at a premium, such as in a private office. Ceiling diffusers are
available with a square or rectangular face supplied through a rectangular or square neck
as shown in Figure 4.5
Figure 4. 3 Ceiling Diffusers
110
4.3.2 Perforated Diffuser
Perforated diffusers are used for the HVAC ducting systems that provide for filtered
air. These diffusers have optimal discharges and are employed in all kinds of residential
and commercial settings. As the diffusers have a low throw and a radial discharge, they
can be used for the mild air discharges that are much desired by the occupants of a
building. The main advantage of using this diffuser it supports filter inside it.
Figure 4. 4 Perforated diffuser
4.3.3 HORD Air Curtain
The Hospital Operating Room Diffuser (HORD) air curtain system is engineered
specifically for the demanding needs of operating room environments. The HORD air
curtain system is fully customizable and integrates seamlessly with laminar flow diffusers
and low-level exhaust grilles to minimize mixing of room and supply air in the operating
area. This customizable air curtain system can be fabricated with aluminum or stainless
steel, with mechanically fastened or continuously welded end caps to suit project
requirements. Located at the perimeter of the critical zone, the HORD is a 2-slot linear
diffuser that discharges a four-sided “air curtain” to create a room-within-a-room
environment. The air curtain creates a barrier that prevents contaminants at the room
perimeter from traveling into the sterile surgical zone.
111
Figure 4. 5 HORD diffuser
4.3.4 Grilles
Grille is commonly applied to any air outlet or intake that consists of a square or
rectangular face and neck and whose facial appearance is made up of stationary or
adjustable louvers which may be used to deflect the air. In this project, grilles selected to
draw the exhaust air to outside space. Figure 4.8 shows the grille that is used in this work
these grilles may be mounted in the sidewall and ceiling.
Figure 4. 6 Grille details
4.3.5 Diffusers Selection
In this project, square diffusers, HORD, and grills are selected for all spaces from
Catalogs they are shown in Tables C.1 to C.4 in Appendix C.
. The selection of diffusers and grills are carried out by using catalogs. The details of
diffuser and grille for all zones are shown below :
112
Celling diffuser:
No Flow rate Velocity Neck size Neck No. of Pt ( Pa ) NC

(l/s ) pressure velocity diffuser
(Pa)
1 108 500*500 2 6 10 20
2 177 7.4 300*300 2 1 23 24
72 276 0.5 525*525 1 2 6 19
4 130 1.3 500*500 2.5 6 12 25<
5 225 3.7 450*450 1.5 1 13 28
6 270 450*450 1.5 1 13 28
10 315 7.4 600*600 1 1 6 22
22 135 1.3 300*300 1.5 1 13 15<
3
15 276 0.5 525*525 1 1 6 19
14 101 2.4 225*225 2 2 23 18
18 101 2.4 225*225 2 2 23 18
17 177 7.4 300*300 2 2 23 24
16 270 5.4 450*450 1.5 2 13 28
25 101 7.4 225*225 2 1 23 18
74 127 3.7 500*500 2.5 6 12 25
33 97 500*500 2 6 10 20
73 101 2.4 225*225 2 1 23 18
35 304 1.3 450*450 1.5 1 13 28
26 90 2.4 300*300 1 2 6 15<
40 68 5.4 150*150 3 1 53 29
47 270 5.4 450*450 1.5 1 13 28
34 352 600*600 1 2 6 22
50 203 0.5 450*450 1 1 6 15<
35 304 450*450 1.5 1 13 28
62 127 3.7 225*225 2.5 1 36 24
36 177 300*300 2 1 23 24
61 152 5.4 225*225 3 2 53 29
58 360 0.5 600*600 1 1 6 22
57 203 0.5 450*450 1 1 6 15<
55 152 5.4 225*225 3 1 53 29
51 360 0.5 600*600 1 1 6 2
Exhaust grill Selection :
113
No Neck size PL N.C N of grills Flow rate
33 250*250 4.3 15 5 142
32 300*300 5.2 18 1 213
22 350*350 3.8 16 1 236
14 200*200 7 <15 1 80
13 250*250 3.6 <15 1 124
25 150*150 17 28 1 78
72 300*300 6 20 1 220
73 300*300 3.5 <15 2 150
10 350*350 7 23 1 307
9 350*350 7 23 1 287
6 300*300 6.5 21 1 233
2 250*250 3.6 <15 1 128
1 350*3501 3.4 15 4 190
4 350*350 7 23 3 298
114
74 350*350 2 <15 4 178
: HORD air curtain selection

Room L (mm) Q PL N of diffuser
Operation room 1200 35-28 44 10
33
74
Operation room 1200 28 44 10
1
4
4.4 Sand Trap Louvers

The STL (Sand Trap Louvers) are designed for usage in serving as a Pre – Filter
element in dusty and sandy zone conditions as well as to protect the entry to the external
inlets of air conditioning or filtration ducting systems and walls. Blades are formed in U –
Profiles placed alternately in vertical configuration. This particular configuration allows a
sand and heavy dust separation at high performance rates. The drain holes placed in the
lower part let the Louver be self-emptying, self-cleaning and maintenance free.
Figure 4. 7 Sand Trap Louvers
4.5 Gravity Louvers and Non-Return Dampers

Gravity Louvers GL and Non-Return Dampers NRD are generally used in intake and
discharge applications in residential, commercial and industrial ventilated systems. GL’s
115
and NRD's guarantee that the automatic opening of the blades will occur when the fan or
system is switched on and equally will close when switched off in order to avoid passage
of air when the system is closed, i.e preventing the reverse of air flow. They are also used
to maintain certain pressure in pressurized treated areas with respect to others, thus only
when pressure is exceeding the designed limit, blades will automatically open to
discharge or relieve the excessive air. GL.' s and NRD.’s are also commonly named as
“Pressure Relief Dampers”, “Over Pressure Dampers”, “Back Draft Dampers” or
“Gravity Shatters” according to the purpose of their use
For this project, Gravity louver and non-return dumber (550*550) is selected, 4.5m/s
Velocity flow and 40 Pa pressure drop at the outlet of the exhaust system To calculate the
air flow rate throw the Gravity louver and no return dumber use equation (4.5)
Air flow rate∈ ( Ls )=0.8∗(L ( mm)∗H ( mm1000)∗Vf )…………………… (4.5)

Vf=4.5 m/s
L/s 1089= Air flow rate∈( Ls )=0.8∗( 550∗550∗4.5

1000
)
See Appendix C6
4.6 Filter Selection

All public areas of health care facilities are required to have two banks of filters — a
30% (ASHRAE 52.1) prefilter and 90% final filter. Provided that the final filter is
properly installed and maintained and provided that there is little or no bypass around the
filter, the combined efficiency of two bank filters is nearly 100% in removing particles of
1µm - 5 µm in diameter. This filtration system is adequate for most patient-care areas in
ambulatory care facilities, and the operating room environment.
A common metric for filter performance is the minimum efficiency reporting value
(MERV), a rating derived from a test method developed by ASHRAE. The MERV rating
116
indicates a filter’s ability to capture particles between 0.3 and 10.0 microns in diameter.
A higher MERV value translates to better filtration, so a MERV-13 filter works better
than a MERV-8 filter. In health care facilities a final filter of MERV-14 is satisfactory.
Table 4. 3 Typical Initial Pressure Drops for Air Filters (at 500 fpm [2.5 m/s])
[source HVAC DESIGN MANUAL FOR HOSPITALS AND CLINICS 2nd edition]
For supply system one HEPA filter is selected at the entrance of the main duct of
operation rooms .
For exhaust system three filters selected (one prefilter (MERV-8), final filter (MERV
13) and HEPA filter 16(95%)) before the exhaust fan.
4.7 Air Handling Unit Selection

AHU selection is a crucial task in the execution stage. All parameter pertaining to the
selection criteria shall be optimally decided & listed with recommended safety factor as
per application & performance duty. Deciding the components of AHU is the major task
at the initial stage of equipment selection. Depending upon the application for which it
shall be employed for, the designer shall specify all the mandatory component as well as
additional components. Thermal load, Air quality &energy consumption shall be the
points to focus while selection. Depending upon these3 aspects & manufacturer's product
range, AHU equipment shall be specified with the desired performance rating.
117
There are many companies produce equipment that specify our system needs so it
decided to choose our AHU equipment from Midea COMPANY.
To choose any AHU you need to specify your system requirement such as:
1. Specify from duct sizing the total (L/S) that AHU will Supply.
2. Specify from cooling load calculation the total load that the coil will remove.
3. Calculate the pressure drop of each AHU
a. For administration suit
Description Specification
∆ P duct+ fitting+ grill 418.5
∆ P filter 174
Total 600
With safety factor =600*1.15*1.1
760=
:Note
is safety factor (SF-1) 1.15
b. For delivery suit
∆ P duct+ fitting+ grill 709
∆ P filter 174
Total 883
pa 1117=
:Note
c. For isolation and insensitive care unit
∆ P filter 423
Total 750
pa 948.7=
:Note
118
d. For cesarean delivery
∆ P duct+ fitting+ grill 159.5
∆ P filter 423
Total 582.5
With safety factor =582.5*1.15*1.1
pa 736.86=
:Note
e. For surgical suit
∆ P filter 423
Total 652
pa 825=
:Note
f. For operation rooms
∆ P filter 423
Total 600
760=
:Note
119
4. From catalogs of AHU select suitable model and specify the AHU
specifications.
5. For this project it needs AHUs that provide total cooling load of 313.7 KW
(89.11TR) and 11466.9 L/s of supply air, so from Midea catalogs the models
that achieve our requirements are :
AHU of zone Model Rated Water Water Chilled External

cooling flow rate pressure water static
capacity (l/s) drop pipe pressure
(kw) (pa )
Administratio TW0604 75.2 3.6 78.3 50 220

n suite
Cesarean TW0504 62.7 3 64.3 50 220

delivery room
Delivery room TW0604 75.2 3.6 78.3 50 220
Operation TW1006 154.5 7.4 60 65 270

room
Surgical room TW1004 132.6 6.3 88.6 65 270
Insensitive TW0504 62.7 3 64.3 50 220

care units
4.8 Fan Sizing

In a duct system, a fan is used to supply the necessary forces to bring the fluid from
rest to the system velocity, and overcome friction forces. The force exerted by the fan is
the fan total pressure. The total pressure is divided into two vector components. The first
component, velocity pressure, is in the direction of the flow and whose magnitude is
120
positive and proportional to the velocity. The second component, static pressure, is
normal to the direction of the flow. Static pressure may be positive, exerting outward
from the frame of reference, or negative, exerting inward. Velocity pressure is always
positive, and the sum of the static and velocity pressures is the total pressure.
Fan Selection
The fan must be selected to deliver a specific volumetric flow rate (L/s,cfm) and
generate static pressure (in - H2O,Pa) to overcome the pressure losses due to ducts,
fitting, and the components of an air handling unit (AHU). The total static pressure (TSP)
is the sum of the external static pressure (ESP) and internal static pressure (ISP).
TSP = ESP + ISP where,
• ESP is the static pressure created downstream of the AHU and it includes all the
duct losses from the fan until it reaches the discharge point. This could include a
negative static pressure on the pull side of the fan and a positive pressure on the
push side, or any combination of pressures the fan must overcome. It is
estimated by the HVAC design engineer as he lays out the ductwork, diffusers,
and terminal devices.
• ISP, as it pertains to the HVAC AHU, is the static pressure loss across the
filters, coils, louvers, dampers, and twists and turns inside the AHU casing. ISP
is usually provided by the supplier, but for custom designs, the HVAC design
engineer estimates the pressure loss across the various components of the AHU.
The fan selection shall be made based on the total pressure loss.
TSP max = ESP max +ISP max
∆Pfan=∆Pduct+∆Pfitting+∆Pdiffuser+∆Pfilter+∆Pcoil+∆Pfan,out+∆Pfan,in+∆Pdynamic
Safety factor, (SF-1)
To allow for the accumulation of dirt on the filters and coils, and for possible changes
in the installation of duct work, a safety factor (10 to 15%) is usually added.
Safety factor, (SF -2)
121
The configuration of the fan connection to the duct at the inlet and outlet causes serious
degradation to the fan performance and is usually compensated by putting some
additional safety factor. This is called “fan system effect factor” and the value is based on
the use of charts and graphs published by the Air Movement and Control Association
(AMCA) and the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association
(SMACNA). Alternatively, as a rule of thumb, a 10% safety factor is recommended for
system effect.
4.9 Exhaust Fan

Axial exhaust fan is mounted in the rooftop which draw the air from operations
rooms and sterilize store.
The pressure drop of exhaust fan is shown in Table 4. 14
Table 4. 4 Pressure Drop Of Exhaust Fans
1- For cesarean delivery room
∆ P filter 174
∆ P faninlet 28
Total 294
371.9=
:Note
For this project an exhaust fan is selected from Systemair company.
Fan Specification
Descriptions Specifications
Fan modal AXCBF-EX 400-7/22°-2

Power (KW) 1.2
122
Size (mm) 400
Maximum pressure droop at 918 L\s (Pa) 371.9
For this room it needs fan to draw 918 L/S and overcome pressure drop of 371.9 pa , so
from Systemair catalogs the model of fan that provides these requirement is : AXCBF-
EX 400-7/22°-2 as shown in Figure 4. 11.
2- For surgical suit
∆ P filter 174
∆ P faninlet 40
123
Total 392
495=
:Note
Fan Specification
Descriptions Specifications
Fan modal AXCBF-EX 560-9/24°-2

Power (KW) 6.977
Size (mm) 560
Maximum pressure droop at 4360 L\s (Pa) 495
For this room it needs fan to draw 4360 L/S and overcome pressure drop of 495 pa , so
from Systemair catalogs the model of fan that provides these requirement is : AXCBF-
EX 560-9/24°-2 as shown in Figure 4. 12
124
4.10 Air cooled chiller :
:Piping design consideration 4.10.1
1. The length of the pipe should be as short as possible, with the fewest number of
connections possible such as elbows and branches to reduce construction costs
and reduce pressure drop in pipe network
2. If the diameter of the pipe is 2 inches or less, the velocity of the water inside the
pipe should not exceed 1.2 m/s (4fps) .
3. If the diameter of the pipe is 1/22 inch or more, the rate of pressure drop should
not exceed 400 pa/m from the tube within ( 4ft/100ft) about 0.04 m/m
To choose the appropriate diameter, we adopt the following table for iron pipes:
40 Sch
To calculate the pressure drop, we first determine the worst path, and then calculate the
longitudinal pressure losses as a result of the Fittings and the pressure losses due to the
presence of some Local pressure settings Items such as coil fan, Chiller and others . For
125
longitudinal pressure losses, since we have a rate of pressure drop for each tube, we get
the longitudinal pressure loss for this section is based on the product of the length of the
pipe by the rate of pressure drop . whereas for the pressure losses due to the connections,
tables or programs can be used to estimate this as is the case for the Wizard Flow Pipe
program, or from the equation : ΔP=k.p.v^2/2g
In this project , the model that meet these requirements is chosen catalogue from
TECHWELL company that meet requirements with capacity 313.7 kw (89.11TR) and
: 11466.9 L/s of supply air
Model TAW380
Cooling capacity ) kw( 380
Water side pressure drop )kpa( 42
Pipe size DN 125
Water flow rate in cooling m^3/h 65
Length mm 4680
Net weight kg 3650
Noise level dB(A) 78
126
4.11 Total Cost Of Project
Table 4. 16 shows the approximate total cost of the system components in U.S dollar.
Table 4. 5 Cost of The System Components
No. Of
Equipment )$( Cost per unit Company )$( Total cost
units
AHU (89TR) 6 14590 Midea 134340
Diffusers 150*150 1 30 TECNALCO 30

Sand trap louver 1 300 BCI 300
HEPA filter 2 200 AFPRO 400
Galvanize metal sheet 260 23 AL-Sweed 5980
Insulation 160 14 AL-Sweed 2240
Flexible duct 23 20 BCI 460

Chiller 1 50000 Techwell 50000
Total $ 149165
127
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
In this project, a central air conditioning system for zayeed specialized Hospital is
designed. According to the total cooling load for the hospital in summer which is equals
to 313.7 KW (89.11 TR). So that, all the sections and rooms of the hospital are
conditioned with all-air systems CAV with reheat. The design includes some points
which are studied such as cooling loads calculations, duct design, fitting design, selection
of diffusers and grills, selection of air handling units, and filters. These points are
discussed briefly below:
1. by using HAP 5.1 the total cooling loads is calculated. This program depends on
mathematical equations and ASHRAE standards. After inserting data such as
indoor and outdoor design conditions, areas of spaces, height of space, lighting
wattage, electrical equipment wattage and number of people in each space, the
program gives us the total cooling which is 89.11 refrigeration.
2. There are two ways to design duct. These ways are equal friction method and air
velocity method. For this project the equal friction method is used to calculate the
dimensions of the duct by using “Design Tools DuctSizer version 6.4” program.
We choose the air velocity of the main duct as 6 m/s. We put the quantity of
airflow from HAP report into the program and one side dimension of the duct.
Then we get the second side dimension of the duct, the equivalent diameter of the
duct and the velocity of the airflow in the duct.
3. We choose the appropriate type of fit junction. From ASHRAE Duct Fitting
Database program, we get the pressure loss of each fit.
128
4. For selection of diffusers and grills, we use standard catalogs called BCI,
Tecnalco, PRICE, and Gamma Line. According to the needed quantity of airflow
and throw, we select the appropriate type of diffusers and grills.
5. The selection of air handling units comes after calculating the total coiling load of
entire system (89.11) and the quantity of the total airflow (11466.9l/s). Then we
choose the AHU equipment from the Midea catalog that corresponds to our data.
5.2 Recommendations
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems are an important
component of service in health care facilities. Providing adequate thermal conditions and
ventilation systems that prevent the dispersion of pathogens, is fundamental to protect the
health of patients, caregivers and staff and to the overall operation of sensitive
equipment.
1. HVAC systems provide thermal conditions that can be vital for patients
2. Respiratory infections can be transmitted via respiratory droplets of different sizes

from infected persons.
3. Implement a “clean to less clean” directional design for airflows.
4. Require a minimum of 2 air changes per hour (ACH).
5. Establish a minimum separation distance of 10m (30ft) between exhaust outlets

and outdoor air intakes.
6. Avoid Variable Air Volume (VAV) systems, which present a risk to maintaining
“clean to less clean” airflow.
7. Make sure your HVAC provider has the certifications and licenses required to
provide services in your jurisdiction.
8. Maintain relative humidity between 40-60%.
9. Keep the temperature between 70°F–75°F (21°C–24°C).
129
10. Do not regularly turn HVAC systems or air filtration equipment off. Doing so
affects airflows and can cause contamination with agents such as molds and fungi.
11. Develop a workplan with the maintenance team and HVAC provider to ensure
timely maintenance and service of HVAC systems. • Ensure HVAC systems are
connected to emergency power supplies.
12. Utilize airborne infection isolation rooms with negative pressure to perform
aerosol generating procedures.
13. Facilities should monitor and record daily the proper negative-pressure function
of these rooms.
14. Consider source control options (Local Exhaust Source Control at Patient Head,
ventilated headboards, intubation guards, etc.).
15. Maintain doors closed.
16. Eliminate or minimize air recirculation.
17. High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filtration is recommended for use in
special-care areas. HEPA filters are usually fixed into the HVAC system serving
those areas such as operation room.
18. Notify Healthcare workers that HEPA units cannot be turned off once in place as
this may result in an unsafe condition with the room becoming positively
pressurized to the corridor.
19. Prefer Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV) higher than 13 for systems
serving patient treatment areas of health care facilities.
130
REFERENCES
1. Shaimaa Seyam (November 5th 2018). Types of HVAC Systems, HVAC System,
Mohsen Sheikholeslami Kandelousi.
2. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 9,

September-2013 172 ISSN 2229-5518.
3. http://www.theseverngroup.com/types-of-gas-used-in-medical-gas-systems-in-
hospitals/
4. Christina Galitsky, "Cut energy use through HVAC improvements," California, 2007.
5. Yi Zhang, "Synthesis of Optimum HVAC System Configurations by Evolutionary

Algorithm," Loughborough University, United Kingdom, Ph.D. dissertation 2005.
6. P. Haves, "A study on energy savings and measure cost effectiveness of existing
building commissioning," 2009.
7. Energy Information Administration (EIA), "International Energy Outlook 2011,"

Washington, 2012.
8. Intentional Energy Agency (IEA), "Electricity information," Paris, 2009.
9. Design Options For HVAC Distribution System, A. Bhatia, B.E, 2012
10. HVAC Design Manual for Hospitals and Clinics Second Edition
11. Roger W. Haines, C. Lewis Wilson - HVAC Systems Design Handbook (2003,
McGraw-Hill Professional)
12. HANDBOOK OF AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION Shan K.Wang
13. Water Piping and Pumps system, by Company Carrier
14. X. Q. Zhai, M. Qu, Y. Li, and R. Z. Wang, "A review for research and new design
15. options of solar absorption cooling systems," Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, vol. 15, pp. 4416-4423, 12// 2011. (The 2017 ASHRAE Handbook
Fundamentals SI).
131
16. The 2016 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment
17. Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Third edition A. R. Trott and T. Welch)
18. HVAC Design for Healthcare Facilities, A. Bhatia
19. P. Haves, "A study on energy savings and measure cost effectiveness of existing
building commissioning," 2009.
20. American Institute of Architects 2006 and American Society of Heating Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers 2003).
21. Robert McDowall. Fundamentals of HVAC systems, 1st edition. Robert McDowall,
editor. Atlanta, GA 30329, USA: Elsevier Ltd; 2006.
22. Bartley JM, Olmsted RN, Haas J. Current views of health care design and
construction: practical implications for safer, cleaner environments. Am J Infect
Control. 2010;38:S1–12
23. W. Casas, K. Proelss, and G. Schmitz, "Modeling of desiccant assisted air

conditioning systems,”2005.
24. Guity, A., B. Gulick, and P. Marmion. 2009. “Phase II Summary Report.” Healthcare
Ventilation Research Collaborative Displacement Ventilation Research, December
20, 2009, San Francisco, CA.
25. (Melhado, Hensen and Loomans, Literature Review of Staff Thermal Comfort and
Patient “Thermal Risks” in Operating Rooms 2006)
26. (Melhado, Hensen and Loomans, Review of Ventilation Systems in Operating Rooms
in View of Infection Control 2006
27. https://www.airconditioning-systems.com/
28. https://www.airconditioning-systems.com/
29. https://homeguides.sfgate.com/
30. https://dfw.houkac.com/
132
APPENDIX A
SANA’A WEATHER AND HAP SUMMARY
Table A. 1 Monthly Averages of Weather Elements at and Sana’a
133
Table A. 2 summary of HAP report
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
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159
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166
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168
169
APPENDIX B
IMPORTANT TABLES FOR CALCULTIONS
Table B. 1 Design Parameters of Hospital Spaces
170
Table B. 2 Continued
171
172
173
Table B. 3 Cooling Load Temperature Differences for Walls
174
175
Table B. 4 CLTD correction for latitude
176
Table B. 5 Cooling Load Temperature Differences for Conduction Through Glass
Table B. 6 Cooling Load Factor for Glass with Interior Shading
177
Table B. 7 Solar Heat Gain Factor (SHG)
178
Table B. 8 Shading Coefficient (SC) For Glass with Interior Factor
179
Table B. 9 Heat Gains of Occupants
Table B. 10 Values of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for Glass
180
Table B. 11 Values of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for Doors
181
Table B. 12 Number of Air Change Per Hour in Residences and Commercial Application at
Neutral Pressure
182
183
APPENDIX C
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Table C. 1 Square Celling Diffusers for Supply and Return Air
184
Table C. 2 Square Perforated Diffusers for Supply Air
185
Table C. 3 Hospital Operating Room Diffusers for Supply Air
186
Table C. 4 Exhaust Grills
187
Table C. 5 Sand Trap Louvers
Table C. 5 Continued
188
189
Table C. 6 Gravity Louvers and Non-Return Dampers
190
Table C. 6 Continued
191
Table C. 7 Air Handling (AHU) Selection
Table C. 8
Pressure Drop
in AHU
Component
192
Table C. 9 Fan Diagram of AHU
193
Table C. 10 Exhaust Fan Catalogue
AP
PE
ND
IX
D
REVIT REPORT
194
195
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Republic of Yemen

DESIGN AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR THE 2nd FLOOR OF ZAYEED

COOLING LOADS CALCULATION

DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SANA’A WEATHER AND HAP SUMMARY

IMPORTANT TABLES FOR CALCULTIONS

TABLE 2. 1 OPERATING ROOMS – DATA SHEET.....................................................................................................49

TABLE 3. 1 GENERAL PROJECT DATA:..................................................................................................................70

TABLE 4. 1 EQUIVALENT RECTANGULAR DUCT...........................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

TABLE A. 1 MONTHLY AVERAGES OF WEATHER ELEMENTS AT AND SANA’A..............................................................133

TABLE B. 1 DESIGN PARAMETERS OF HOSPITAL SPACES.........................................................................................195

TABLE C. 1 SQUARE CELLING DIFFUSERS FOR SUPPLY AND RETURN AIR....................................................................207

TABLE D. 1 REVIT REPORT FOR SUPPLY DUCT...........................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

FIGURE 2. 1 COMFORT ZONE..............................................................................................................................10

FIGURE 3. 1 LOAD COMPONENT.........................................................................................................................68

FIGURE 4. 1 FRICTION CHART FOR ROUND DUCTS......................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

Different areas of a hospital have different air conditioning systems, depending on

Selection of air conditioning system configuration is typically decided in the early

In practice, air conditioning system configuration and design parameters selection is

1.3 Problem Statement

Other objectives of this study can be stated as following:

1. To applying the theoretical knowledge and information that studied during

3. To construct the duct work network by using REVIT MEP.

1.5 Design of Air Conditioning Systems

1.6 Scope And Limitation

1. The study will consider a health care facility.

2. This study will be limited to the summer climate of Yemen represented by

1.8 Building Description

1.8.1 External Wall

Figure 1. 1 Layers Layout of External Wall

HW cement block 0.07 200

Figure 1. 2 Layers layout of Partition

Figure 1. 3 Building Layout

• In this chapter an overview and background to the area of healthcare HVAC

• Chapter 2 This chapter presents an overview of HVAC system. Also, the

• Chapter 3 represents cooling loads calculation in the manual and technical

• Chapter 4 represents the design of distribution system (ductwork, diffusers,

Figure 2. 1 comfort zone

2.3 Central HVAC Systems

Figure 2. 2 Equipment arrangement for central HVAC system.

(Source Shaimaa Seyam (November 5th 2018). Types of HVAC Systems)

Figure 2. 3 Layout of All Air System.

(Source A. Bhatia, B.E., Design Options For HVAC Distribution System)

:There is a lot of advantages for all air system

2.3.1.1 Single Zone

Figure 2. 4 All-air HVAC system for single zone.

(source Shaimaa Seyam (November 5th 2018). Types of HVAC Systems)

(Source Shaimaa Seyam (November 5th 2018). Types of HVAC Systems)

2.3.1.3 Terminal Reheat

A terminal reheat all-air system is a multiple zone, which considers an adaptation of

(source Shaimaa Seyam (November 5th 2018). Types of HVAC Systems)

2.3.1.4 Dual Duct

The dual duct all-air system is a terminal-controlled modification of the multi-zone

Figure 2. 7 All-air HVAC dual-duct system.

(Source Shaimaa Seyam (November 5th 2018). Types of HVAC Systems)

2.3.1.5 Variable Air Volume

Figure 2. 8 All-air HVAC systems with VAV terminal units.

(source Shaimaa Seyam (November 5th 2018). Types of HVAC Systems)

2.3.2.1 Fan-Coil Units

Figure 2. 9 All-water system: fan-coil units.

(Source Shaimaa Seyam (November 5th 2018). Types of HVAC Systems)

2.3.3 Air-Water Systems

Air-water systems are introduced as a hybrid system to combine both advantages of