UCSP NOTES | First Semester
Lesson 1: Starting Points for Understanding
Culture, Society, and Politics
Chapter I – Human Variations
What is Human Variations?
- Human variability is the range of possible
values for any measurable characteristics,
physical or mental, of human beings.
Common Human Variations
1. Cultural Diversity
2. Social Differences
3. Political Identities
Cultural Diversity
- Culture has the capacity to bond the members
of a society together, but it is also a source of
differences that exist between people in society
and between societies around the globe due to
diversity in language, dress, and traditions, food
preferences, the way societies organize
themselves, in their shared conception of
morality, and in the ways they interact with
their environment, and etc.
Ethnicity
- The expression of the set of cultural ideas held
by a distinct ethnic or indigenous group. People
who collectively and publicly identify
themselves as distinct and unique based on
distinguishable cultural features that set them
apart from others, such as language, shared
ancestry, common origin, customs, and
traditions.
Nationality
- Nationality is the identity that is tied to being
part of a nation or country - a “group of people
who share the same history, traditions, and
language” and who inhabits a particular
territory delineated by a political border and
controlled by a government.
Nationality and Ethnicity
- Both concepts are capable of informing an
individual’s behavior and habits due to a set of
cultural norms that each category provides.
Social Differences
- The society has various manifestations of
social differences based on unique social
characteristics or qualities like social class, race,
ethnicity, gender, age, educational attainment,
occupation, position in the society and the like.
- In sociology, social differences is usually
equated with social stratification, this describes
the relative social position of persons in a given
social group, category, geographical region or
other social unit.
Gender
- Refers to the socially constructed roles,
behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given
society considers appropriate for men and
women (WHO, 2013).
- Sex, chiefly centers on biological differences
(reproductive system) such as male or female.
Socioeconomic Status
- Refers to the category of persons who have
more or less the same socioeconomic privileges
in a society.
- The concept of socioeconomic varies between
societies as the ideas associated with being
poor or rich differ based on the collective
experiences of individuals.
Religion
- An organized system of ideas about the
spiritual sphere or the supernatural, along with
associated ceremonial or ritualistic practices by
which people try to interpret and/or influence
aspects of the universe otherwise beyond
human control.
Exceptionality
- Refers to the state of being intellectually gifted
and/or having physically or mentally challenged
conditions concerning personality/behavior,
communication, intellect, physical appearance,
or a combination of more than one specific
exceptionality or disability.
Political Identity
- The world is visibly divided into different
countries. Each country has its own political
system to run its government. A government is
the system by which a state or community is
controlled so as to put order.
- Political identity as a social category refers to
the set of attitudes and practices that an
individual adheres to in relation to the political
systems and actors within his or her society.
Human beings rarely give all possible
values for a given parameter of the same value,
though not all people agree on the values or
relative rankings. Local valuation may affect
social standing, reproductive opportunities, or
even survival. Each individual’s distinct
differences, even the negatively valued ones,
are usually considered an essential part of
self-identity
Chapter II – Significance of Studying Culture,
Society, and Politics
Social Science
- A group of academic disciplines dedicated to
examining human behavior and specifically how
people interact with each other, behave,
develop as a culture, and influence the world.
Social Science and its Importance
Social Science as a discipline studies
society and the manner in which people behave
and influence the world around us. The
uttermost goal of social science is to answer
different questions and find solutions to
problems of society to improve human condition
despite cultural, social, and political differences.
Significance of Studying Culture, Society and
Politics
Paying attention to the interplay of
culture, society, and politics is so important.
These elements are essential in understanding
human behavior and social groups against the
backdrop of globalization and industrialization.
- Students as individuals and integral members
of society are expected to value their roles in
society, apply the knowledge they learned from
school, and translate their gained ideas into
actions beneficial to nation-building.
What is Culture?
1. Language
2. Working Schedule
3. Medical Cure
4. Clothing and Dressing
5. Religion
6. Manners
7. Child-rearing Methods
8. Jokes
9. Celebrations
10. Food
11. Folk Art
Culture
- The complex whole encompasses beliefs,
practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms,
artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything
that a person learns and shares as a member of
society (Tylor 1920[1871]).
- These ideas are passed from generation to
generation.
Classification of Culture
1. Tangible Culture
2. Intangible Culture
Tangible Culture
- Include all material objects or those
components or elements of culture with
physical representation such as tools, furniture,
buildings, bridges gadgets, etc. These are
created or produced, changed, or utilized by
humans
Intangible Culture
- Without physical representation such as ideas,
concepts, designs, expectations, standards, and
rules for human behavior.
Society
- Comes from the Latin word “socius” which
means comrade, companion or friend. An
organized group or groups of interdependent
people who share a common territory,
language, and culture and act together for
collective survival and well-being.
“There can be no culture without a society and
so far there are no known human societies that
do not exhibit culture.”
(Haviland, et. al: 312)
Politics
- Politics comes from the Greek word “politika”
which means affairs of the cities. Politics refers
to the “theory, art, and practice of
government”, achieving and exercising
positions of governance over a human
community.
- Political institution is a relatively stable cluster
of statuses, general norms, and role behavior,
which are evolved in the acquisition and
exercise of power and decision-making in
society (Turner, 215).
- Political institution sets up the social norms
and values as to who will possess “the
monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force
within a given territory,” how that power is
acquired and maintained, and how that power
is organized and exercised, comprises the state
(Weber, 216).
Definitions of Politics
1. Alfred Boyer
- Politics is the interaction between the civil
society and the government in the activity of
governance.
2. Max Weber
- Politics is the exercise of power within a state.
3. David Easton
- Politics is the authoritative allocation of scarce
values.
Power
- As defined in democratic principles, is a status
granted to individuals or institutions to properly
run the government and implement the rule of
the law in the society.
Three Branches of the Government
1. Executive– President and Cabinet
2. Legislative – Congress: Senate and House of
the Representatives
3. Judiciary – Supreme Court: Court of Appeals,
Sandiganbayan, and Court of Tax Appeals
Checks and Balances
1. Executive Branch
Checks on Legislative Branch:
-Proposes laws
- Vetoes laws
- Call special sessions of Congress
- Makes nominations to federal offices
- Negotiates foreign treaties
Checks on Judicial Branch:
- Nominates federal judges
- Grants pardons to federal offenders
2. Legislative Branch
Checks on Executive Branch:
- Overrides presedential veto
- Confirms executive nominations
- Appropriates money
- Impeaches and removes presidents
Checks on Judicial Branch:
- Establishes lower federal courts
- Impeaches and removes judges
- Proposes amendments to overrule
judicial decisions
- Confirms federal judges
3. Judicial Branch
Checks on Executive Branch:
- Declares executive actions
unconstitutional
Checks on Legislative Branch:
- Declares act of Congress
unconstitutional
Social issues and social problems are
more complex than ever before and the
interplay of culture, society, and politics in the
process could not be denied. Looking at these
social issues and social problems are divided
into different areas according to focus or
subject.
In this subject, a special focus on the
interplay of Anthropology, Sociology, and
Political Science will be given focus with the use
of a trans-disciplinary perspective to look into
the interplay of culture, society, and politics and
to understand and explain social issues in
human society.
Disciplinary
- Epistemologies, assumptions, knowledge,
skills, methods within the boundary of a
discipline.
ex: Physics; History; Psychology
Multidisciplinary
- Using the knowledge/understanding of more
than one discipline.
ex: Physics and History; Biology and
Architecture
Interdisciplinary
- Using the epistemologies/methods of one
discipline within another.
ex: Biochemistry; Eco philosophy;
Astrophysics
Transdisciplinary
- Focus on an issue both within and beyond
discipline boundaries with the possibility of new
perspectives.
By transdisciplinary, it permits a learning
strategy that crosses many disciplinary
boundaries to create a holistic approach to
learning and a better appreciation of the
learning.
 ANTHROPOLOGY
Culture
- The complex whole which encompasses
beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms,
artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything
that a person learns and shares as a member of
society.
- These are knowledge, language, values,
customs, and physical objects that are passed
from generation to generation among members
of the group.

Anthropology
- Greek words “anthropos” meaning
Chapter III – Anthropology, Sociology, and human/humankind and “logos” meaning word.
Political Science - The systematic study of the biological, cultural,
and social aspects of man – promotes a holistic
Starting Points of Understanding Culture, study of humans.
Society and Politics - Biologically, it inquires about the genetic
The uttermost goal of social science is composition of humans, their relationship with
to understand the complexities of human other primates, and their evolution.
behavior and relations, answer different - Socially, it inquires about human behaviors,
questions and find solutions to problems of attitudes, and belief systems, which range from
society to improve the human condition. birth practices to burial rites.
- Anthropology is the study of human beings and
Branch of Social Science their ancestors, produces knowledge about
1. Anthropology what makes people different from one another
2. Archeology and what they all share in common.
3. Demography
4. Economics Anthropologist
5. Geography - Anthropologists research, observe, analyze,
6. History and apply what they learn to understand the
7. Linguistics many variations of the human condition.
8. Philosophy
9. Political Science Goals of Anthropology
10. Psychology ✔ Explain and analyzing human cultural
11. Sociology
similarities and differences.
✔ Assess the cultural development of our
species as revealed in archaeological
record.
✔ Analyze the biological evolution of human
species as evidenced in the fossil record.
✔ Explain human biological diversity today.
The Four Sub-disciplines of Anthropology
1. Biological Anthropology (also called Physical
Anthropology)
- Looks into the biological development of
humans and their contemporary variations.
Sub-fields in Biological Anthropology
- Human Paleontology
- Human Variations
2. Cultural Anthropology (also called Social
Anthropology)
- Promotes the study of a society’s culture
through their belief system, practices, and
possessions..
Sub-fields in Cultural Anthropology
- Archeology
- Linguistics
- Ethnology
3. Archaeology
- Recover information about human cultures –
often from the past - by studying material
samples, skeletal remains, and settlements.
Promotes an understanding of how humans
have adapted to their environment and
developed.
Major Areas in Archaeology
- Historical Archaeology
- Cultural Resources Management
- Applied Archaeology
4. Linguistics
- Examines the language of a group of people
and its relation to their culture, by which
cultures are maintained and passed on to
succeeding generations.
Major Areas in Linguistics
- Descriptive Linguistics
- Historical Linguistics
Known Anthropologists
1. Franz Boas
2. Alfred Koeber
3. Clifford Geertz
4. Margaret Mead
Anthropology in the 21st Century
The key strength of anthropology as a
discipline of the social science is its holistic
approach to the study of humans. It is holistic in
the sense that it studies:
(1). humans, both as biological and social
creatures,
(2). human behavior from the time the species
existed to the time that it will desists,
(3). human behavior from all regions of the
world, and
(4). all forms of human actions and beliefs.
Anthropology provides a degree of
keenness to its learner such as everyday things
are contextualized and understood within the
frame of culture. This develops acuity among
students of anthropology.
SOCIOLOGY
Society
- An organized group or groups of
interdependent people who share a common
territory, language, and culture, and who act
together for collective survival and well-being.
Sociology
- From Latin word “socious” meaning friend or
companion, and Greek word “logos” meaning
study.
- The scientific study of society, including
patterns of social relationships, social
interaction, social behaviors and culture.
- Sociology studies how people relate/interact to
each other and how they work and function as a
whole in the larger society.
- It also studies social structures, collective
human action, social relationships, culture, and
even the impact of social contexts on individual
behavior.
- Sociology study the relationships among
people, social development in general and
describes and analyzes social life in all its phases
and complexities.
Overview of Sociology
It seeks to discover the general
principles underlying all social phenomena and
social relationship and to establish laws of
change and growth in social changes.
It is the study of the society and the
behavior of people in the society.
What is Sociological Perspective ?
The heart of sociology is the sociological
perspective, the view that our social
backgrounds influence our attitudes, behavior,
and life chances. In this regard, we are not just
individuals but rather social beings deeply
enmeshed in society.
Although we all differ from one another
in many respects, we share with many other
people basic aspects of our social backgrounds,
perhaps especially gender, race and ethnicity,
and social class. These shared qualities make us
more similar to each other than we would
otherwise be.
The Sociological Imagination
In order to fully understand society, and
the behavior of its people, a perspective called
the sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills,
1959) should be used.
- “The sociological imagination enables us to
grasp the connection between history and
biography within society”. With this, one can
explain individual and societal phenomena.
- This refers to the ability to understand society
systematically. This ability involves the process
of detaching oneself from the common
understanding of society and creates an
alternative approach that would situate a
behavior or an event within a great social
framework.
Two Major Approaches to Examine the Human
Society
1. Macro-level Perspective
2. Micro-level Perspective
Macro-sociology
- Examines the social structure, social
institutions, social organizations and social
groups.
- Uses the structural-functionalist perspective
and the conflict perspective in examining the
larger social structure.
Micro-sociology
- Emphasis the role of the individuals in society.
- Uses the symbolic interactionist perspective to
look into the interactions between or among
the individuals in society.
Major Theoretical Perspectives in Studying
Society
Structural Functionalism
- Society is an organic being of interrelated parts
that work together in harmony.
Conflict
- Society is the competition of a few groups of
people for scarce resources.
Symbolic Interactionism
- Society is essentially a set of daily interactions
that are guided by symbols.
Pioneers of Sociology
Auguste Comte
- The Father of Sociology.
Harriet Martineau
- The first woman sociologist.
Herbert Spencer
- Coined the phrase “Survival of the Fittest”.
Karl Marx
- Known for his societal analysis called Marxism.
Emile Durkheim
- Pioneered the systematic application of
scientific methodology in sociology.
Max Weber
- Known for his bureaucratic model.
Value of Sociology for the 21st Century
Contemporary society is constantly
facing reality-altering developments not just in
technology but also in its environment as
brought about by climate change.
Sociology finds its value today in
providing us with a conceptual tool in
understanding the plight of humans as they
adapt to their varying environments and social
conditions.
Through the scientific analyses of social
phenomena, sociology provides policy makers
with concrete bases for decisions that affect
human population and alter their social
landscape.
POLITICAL SCIENCE AND THE STUDY OF
POLITICS
Political Science
- From two Greek words: “polis” and “scire”
meaning city-state, political activities within a
“polis” are later termed as “politikus” (Latin),
“scire” means to know.
- The body of knowledge relating to the study of
the state and government. The study of politics.
It deals with systems of government and the
analysis of political activity and political
behavior within the state.
- Help us understand the nature and
characteristics of authority and power
distribution and how it shapes the way societies
is organized.
- It analyze a wide array of topics including
systems of governance, political theories, the
making process, political behavior and ethics,
policies and their implications, political
organization, and the electoral process. The
effect of these concepts to individuals and
groups in society.
Goal of Political Science
✔ It deals extensively with the theory and
practice of politics which is commonly
thought of as the determining of the
distribution of power and resources.
✔ Aims to know the activities within the
state.

✔ Political Science aims to know the activities
within the state. Such activities include the
following:
1. human interaction and conflict,
2. human and state relations, and
3. power distribution.
Political Science and its Sub-fields
- Political science is a very big discipline that’s
why it is divided into sub-fields.
1. Comparative Politics
2. International Relations
3. Political Theory
4. Public Administration
5. Constitutional Law
6. Public Policy
Comparative Politics
- Studies the politics within other nations. This
sub-field tries to compare theories on specific
nation to other nation.
International Relation
- Studies the politics among nations. In this
sub-field, conflicts, diplomatic affairs, and
international law is being studied.
Political Theory
- Studies classical and modern politics. This
sub-field aims to discover what theory suits the
characteristic of good politics.
Public Administration
- Studies bureaucracies on how it is functional
and how to improve it by certain theories.
Constitutional Law
- Studies how laws are made and being applied
on a certain nation or state. Its major aim is to
study legal systems.
Public Policy
- Studies the interface politics and economic. It
aims to create a plan to develop programs that
would be sufficient and adequate to societies.
Known Contributors in Political Science
1. Plato
2. Aristotle
3. Niccolo Machiavelli
4. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
5. Baron de Montesquieu
6. Thomas Hobbes
7. John Locke
Definitions of Politics
1. Alfred Boyer
- Politics is the interaction between the civil
society and the government in the activity of
governance.
2. Max Weber
- Politics is the exercise of power within a state.
- Weber introduced two essential concepts in
political science: Power and State.
Power, as the likelihood of achieving
desired ends in spite of resistance from others.
A state is a political entity that consists
of four elements: territory, government,
people, and sovereignty.
Territory
- This is the geographic space in which the
sovereignty of a state is exercised. A territory
includes the terrestrial, fluvial, and aerial
domains, including its territorial seas, the
seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and
other submarine areas.
Government
- The set of personnel who manages the affairs
of the state in its act of allocating scarce values.
The authority, present in a society that enforces
is laws and oversees its members.
People
- The most crucial of all, as it is through the
existence of the people that concepts on
government, state, territory, and sovereignty
take shape.
Sovereignty
- The capacity of a political system to make
independent decisions within its territory.
- Two defining characteristics of a state are the
following:
1. It is dependent from external control and
2. It may consist of many nations
3. David Easton
- Politics is the authoritative allocation of scarce
values.
Lesson 2: Culture and Society as
Anthropological and Sociological Concepts
Chapter I – Defining Culture and Society
Society
- Refers to a group of people who share a
common territory and a culture. Also defined as
an organized group or groups of people who
generally share a common territory, language,
culture, and who act together for collective
survival and well-being. (Haviland, et. al.:312)
- Society arises only when individuals are knit
together in a network. In other words, society
exists when social beings behave toward each
other in ways determined by their recognition
of one another.
- A society has more comprehensive sets of
culture in the sense that the group is culturally
self-sufficient. This means that diverse culture
exist in a specific society.
Culture
- The complex whole which encompasses
beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws norms,
artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything
that a person learns and shares as a member of
society. (Tylor 1920[1871])
Aspects of Culture
Visible/Tangible Culture
- Include all material objects or those
components or elements of culture with physical
representation such as tools, furniture,
buildings, bridges gadgets, etc. These are
created or produced, change or utilized by
human.
Non-visible/Non-tangible Culture
- Without physical representation such as ideas,
concepts, designs, expectations, standards and
rules for human behavior.
Classification of Culture
This form is categorized into cognitive and
normative.
Cognitive Culture
- Consists of concepts, ideas, and philosophies
that are considered the products of the rational
functioning of the human mind.
Normative Culture
- Consists of shared expectations, rules, and
standards of human behavior.
Three Components of Culture
Ideas
- Are thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and rules.
- ex. religions, way of life like gender roles, love,
etc.
Activities
- Are the dynamic components of culture. It is
what people do as opposed to what they
believe or feel.
- ex. rituals and/or celebrations like religious
holiday ”Christmas”.
Artifacts
- Are man-made products of ideas and activities.
- ex. religious books, etc.
Elements of Culture
All cultures are made up of elements
that are fundamental to human life. Such
elements include beliefs, languages, norms,
symbols, technology, and values. These
elements are defined as follows:
1. Beliefs are ideas, viewpoints, and attitudes of
peoples based on common sense, folklore,
religion, or science.
2. Language is a shared set of spoken and
written symbols for the transmission of culture
(Arcinas, 2016).
3. Norms are rules or standards that guide the
behaviors of individuals.
4. Symbols, whether verbal or nonverbal, are
used to communicate meanings to others.
5. Technology is the application of scientific
knowledge for practical purposes.
6. Values are principles or standards of
behavior.
Characteristics of Culture
Cultures share principal characteristics
that are essential to the existence of each
other. These are as follows:
1. Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive;
2. it is shared and contested;
3. it is learned through socialization and
enculturation;
4. it is composed of patterned social
interactions;
5. is integrated and, at times, unstable;
6. it is transmitted through socialization and
enculturation; and
7. it requires language and other forms of
communication.
Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.
- Culture is a product of society through the
dynamic interactions of humans with one
another. It is dynamic and flexible because
human needs change as they relate to the
environment as a means for survival. Hence,
individuals continuously reinvent culture to
meet the demands of the changing times.
Culture is shared and contested.
- The set of attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs an
individual has is part of a bigger collection
customarily owned and practiced by other
members of a society. It implies that culture is
shared among a group of people commissioned
to pass it on to the future generations. However,
because of cultural differences and diverse
contexts, individuals and groups encounter
misunderstandings that lead to conflicts.
Culture it is learned through socialization and
enculturation.
- Culture comprises attitudes, beliefs, behaviors,
knowledge, laws, norms, and practices that
people learn from their family, school, church,
and other social institutions. The process of
learning one's culture is called enculturation. It
is a process of learning one's culture from birth
until death. Through enculturation, individuals
learn, understand, and appreciate cultures
existing in their own communities.
Culture is composed of patterned social
interactions.
- It is evident that we interact with many people
each day. Such social interactions are regular
and repetitive aspects of the exchanges among
members of a given social entity. Sociologists
have identified five patterns, namely,
cooperation, competition, exchange, conflict,
and accommodation.
Culture is integrated and at times, unstable.
- All aspects of a culture are interrelated. Hence,
its development is the integration of all its
parts. It is indeed essential to study all its
aspects in order to understand it as a whole.
Culture is transmitted through socialization
and enculturation.
- An enduring process where individuals develop
a self-concept in order to prepare for their roles
is known as socialization (Panopio,
Cordero-MacDonald, & Raymundo, 1994). This
occurs when individuals acquire knowledge and
skills through education, training, exposure, and
experience (Santarita & Madrid, 2016).
Socialization, therefore, results in the formation
of identity, observance of norms and values,
and recognition of statuses and roles.
Culture requires language and other forms of
communication.
- It is essential to understand the nature of the
relationship between language and culture.
Using language does not just help to convey
meaning; it also enables individuals to
communicate with and understand one another
to get the message/meaning across. Thus,
"language in its cultural context that creates
meaning—creating and interpreting meaning is
done within a cultural framework" (Scarino &
Liddicoat, 2009).
Cultural Threats
- Certain changes brought about by
globalization, technological revolution, and
even cultural homogenization. Also, lack of
support, appreciation, and understanding of
people.
- If culture is not nurtured, it may lost forever.
Preserving cultural heritage and passing it on to
future generations strengthens and keeps it
alive while allowing it to evolve and adapt.
Orientations in Viewing Other Culture
1. Ethnocentrism
- The belief that one’s culture regard as the best
and more superior compared to another. They
view other cultures as different and strange.
- All societies and groups display a certain
amount of ethnocentrism, it has the positive
effect of promoting solidarity and loyalty within
the group. Collectivism develops cultural pride
and identify, the most important ingredients in
nation building.
- Ethnocentrism in excess leads to conflict with
groups considered inferior, to oppression and
sometimes genocides.
2. Xenocentrism
- The belief that one’s culture is inferior to one
another.
3. Cultural Relativism
- The practice of viewing and analyzing other
culture by its own terms, in the context of their
own societal setting rather than assessing it
based on the standard of one’s own culture.
- Cultural relativism states that there are no
universal norms or moral absolutes, any act can
appear either good or bad.
Chapter II – Importance of Cultural Relativism in
Attaining Cultural Understanding and to
Mitigate Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
- Today, we live in a rapidly changing globalized
society. And, as modern technology get more
innovative, people from various cultures get
closer in interaction with each other. Depending
on the level of sensitivity and respect people
have for other cultural groups, this interaction
may be seen as positive or negative.
- Each culture differs from another as each
defines reality differently. As a result, some
people find it difficult to get along with or
understand other people’s ways of thinking and
doing.
- To avoid judging the cultural practices of
groups that are different to yours, we should try
to understand cultural practices of other groups
in its own cultural context.
- Members of a particular society have the
tendency to regard its culture as the best and
more superior compared to another society.
- The view that one’s group is superior compared
to another is called ethnocentrism.
- In an ethnocentric viewpoint, a group is
considered as the center or core of everything
and all other groups are scaled and rated in
relation to it or called peripheral (Sumner: 38).
Cultures that are viewed as different and
strange are compounded by ethnocentrism –
the tendency to evaluate other cultures in
terms of one’s own and to conclude that other
cultures are inferior, barbaric, or immoral (OU:
13).
- All societies and groups display a certain
amount of ethnocentrism and, in moderation, it
has the positive effect of promoting solidarity
and loyalty within the group. Cultural pride and
identity is the most important ingredients in
nation building. However, ethnocentrism in
excess leads to conflict with groups considered
inferior to oppression and sometimes genocide
(OU: 13).
- While ethnocentrism may develop solidarity of
the group, it also restricts interaction between
groups and when accompanied by antagonism
and hostility, may lead to conflict (Panopio:
38-39).
- Cultural sensitivity is expected especially if one
is a visitor. Non-sensitivity to cultural practices
of other groups may be misinterpreted and this
may lead to conflict with others or maybe seen
by others a rude behavior especially when
articulated or expresses in front of others.
Learning to take the role of the other person
gives one the ability to see the perspective of the
other before articulating or giving judgement.
To do this, it is important to:
1) study the cultural context in which the action
occurs,
2) determine the circumstances of place, time
and condition surrounding it, and
3) look into the reasoning behind any cultural
element.
Cultural Relativism
- To mitigate the negative effects of
ethnocentrism, it has been suggested that
cultural relativity be popularized. Cultural
relativity or relativism assert that cultures must
be viewed and analyzed on their own terms, in
the context of their own societal setting. No
culture should be considered better than
another; different cultures should be accepted,
tolerated, and appreciated rather than
condemned. No society has the right to use its
own values and norms as the standard to view
the traits of another society.
- Cultural relativism states that there are no
universal norms or moral absolutes; in specific
circumstances, any act can appear either good
or bad (OU: 13).
- Culture is seen to have equal value. It rests on
the idea that truth itself is relative, depending
on the cultural environment. The idea of cultural
relativism embraces the view that religious,
ethical, aesthetical, and political beliefs are
completely relative to the individual within a
cultural identity. It also covers ideas or moral
relativism (ethics depend on a social construct),
situational relativism (right or wrong is based
on the particular situation), and cognitive
relativism (truth itself has no objective
standard).
Chapter III – Significance of Cultural, Social,
Political and Economic Symbols and Practices
Symbols and Symbolism
Symbol
- Is an object, word, or action that stands for
something else, without natural relationship,
that is culturally defined.
- Symbols, such as gestures, signs, objects,
signals and words help people understand the
world.
- Symbols provide clues to understanding
experiences. They convey recognizable
meanings that are shaped by societies
Symbolism
- Is when something represents abstract ideas or
concepts; it assigns names, denominations, and
defines relation between various elements
(actors, actions, goals, means objects, values,
etc.) articulated within a narrative.
Symbols
Cultural Symbols – manifestation that signifies
the ideology of a particular culture that has
meaning within that cultures.
Social Symbols – relating to human societies
and its modes of organization (i.e. social classes,
social problems, social issues, etc.
Political Symbols – used to represent a political
standpoint seen in various media & forms such
as banners, flag, motto, etc.
Economic Symbols – used in production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and
services like currency, market, labor, demands
and other economic activities.
Functions of Symbols & Symbolism
✔ Social symbols are used to transfer culture,
ideologies or beliefs from group to another
group of people.
✔ Symbols are also used to preserve
traditions or beliefs of a certain group of
people.
✔ All symbols contain the “face” and
“hidden” values, the hidden values, in a
functional perspective, holds greater
meaning and importance that the face
value.
✔ Symbols and symbolism have been utilized
to create movements, spread ideas, and
share advocacies.
Cultural Symbols & Practices
- Common examples are objects, figures, sounds
and colors.
- Sometimes. It can be in a form of facial
expressions, word interpretations, or gestures
such as handshakes and hand signals, instead of
symbols or signs.
- Cultural practices are the manifestation of a
culture or subculture, especially concerning the
traditional and customary practices of a
particular ethnic or other cultural group.
e.g. religious and spiritual, medical treatment,
forms of artistic expressions, culinary, housing
and child-rearing practices.
Cultural Practices in the Philippines
- Traditional Medical Practices – belief in
“albularyo”, herbal medicines, alternative
medicines, and other home remedies.
- Religious/ Spiritual Practices – Obando Festival
in Bulacan for fertility, Panaad sa Camuguin as
act of penances and pilgrim, Feast of the Black
Nazarene in Manila, etc.
- Culinary Practices – Rice 3 meals a day, Adobo,
Sinigang, streetfoods, Balut, rice cakes,etc.
- Child-rearing Practices – respectful (mano, po
& opo), obedience to parents and elders, no
talking back to elders, removing footwear
before entering the house, family mealtime,
ninong/ninang, ate/kuya, punishment using
belt/tsinelas.
Social Symbols & Practices
- Visible, external denotation of one’s social
position, indicator of one’s social or economic
status.
- Status Symbol – relating to how individuals
and groups interact and interpret various
cultural symbols.
- Can be seen in clothing and possession, societal
recognition, material possessions and other
recognized symbols used worldwide such as
white dove for peace, red heart for love, etc.
Political Symbols & Practices
- Artifacts or objectifications of different political
meanings, especially related to power.
- Political practices are common things that are
done within a state or country. It is related to
the practices done in administration,
distribution and attainment of power,
bureaucratic composition, etc.
Economic Symbols
- Represents economic standpoint.
- May be seen in various media such as Stock
Exchange, Money and Currency, Gold and
Petroleum, Life Insurance, Banking, etc
Significance of Symbols & Symbolism
As rational thinkers, we have been
making and giving meaning to symbols for a
long time. Symbols have been a part of our lives
and growth as humankind.
The usage of symbols and symbolism
have given mankind an avenue to communicate
with different groups of people, influence others
of different ideologies, and preserve values that
were transferred from generations to
generations.
Lesson 3: Human Bio-cultural and Social Political
Evolution
Chapter I – Key Terms
Species
- A population capable of interbreeding – of
producing viable, fertile offspring.
Speciation
- The process by which new species form. It
occurs when groups in a species become
reproductively isolated and diverge.
Biological Evolution
- Refers to the process of whereby
organisms/species undergo various genetic and
physical changes that pave the way for
biological diversity. Adaptation is a key
evolutionary process in which variation in the
fitness of traits and species are adjusted by
natural selection to become better suited for
survival in specific ecological habitats.
- ex. People living at high altitudes, such as
Tibet. Tibetans thrive at altitudes where oxygen
levels are up to 40 percent lower than at sea
level. Breathing air that thin would cause most
people to get sick, but Tibetans’ bodies have
evolved changes in their body chemistry. Most
people can survive at high altitudes for a short
time because their bodies raise their levels of
hemoglobin, a protein that transports oxygen in
the blood. However, continuously high levels of
hemoglobin are dangerous, so increased
hemoglobin levels are not a good solution to
high-altitude survival in the long term. Tibetans
seemed to have evolved genetic mutations that
allow them to use oxygen far more efficiently
without the need for extra hemoglobin
Bio-cultural Evolution
- Refer to as “the mutual interactive evolution of
human biology and culture”. The concept
focuses on the idea that “biology makes culture
possible and that developing culture further
influences the direction of biological evolution".
- ex. Modern Filipino houses are structure in an
adaptation to the tropical conditions of the
Philippines, particularly with regard to the
climate. To highlight, houses are construct
because of the physical or biological conditions
of Filipino physiques.
Social Evolution
- Is the process of social development from an
early simple type of social organization to one
that is complex and highly specialized.
- ex. Human strive for development, this is very
evident of how fast our world takes itself to
change. Through the years, communication has
evolved. The way people communicate with
each other today is entirely different from the
prehistoric era. Before, communicating is
limited to interpersonal interaction – person to
person. Until it evolved to alphabets, signs and
symbols, letters, and telephone, mobile phones,
android phones and now to smart phones.
Bipedalism
- A special form of locomotion on two feet. This
is determine by looking at the curves of the
spine, shape of the pelvis, and shape of the foot
bones.
Chapter II – Human Bio-cultural and Social
Evolution
Natural Selection
- Is a process through which certain
environmentally adapted biological features are
perpetuated at the expense of less adaptive
features.
Continental Drift Theory
- The position of the continents has shifted
through continental drift. This process resulted
to the re-arrangement of adjacent land masses
as implied by the theory of plate tectonics. This
is important for understanding the distribution
of fossil primate groups as well as climate
changes in the environment that affected the
evolution of primates and other living things.
A. Stages Of Human Evolution
1. Hominid (Manlike Primates)
- At the start of the geological epoch known as
the Miocene, first fossil apes or hominoids began
to appear. Hominoids are broad-shouldered
tailless primates that include all living and
extinct apes and humans. The word hominoid
comes from the Latin root words “homo” and
“homi” (human being) and the suffix oxides
(resembling) – first fossil apes resemblance to
humans which were relatively small.
a. Ramapithecus
b. Lucy
c. Australopithecus
2. Homo Habilis (Handy Man)
- Had smaller teeth and larger brains. Probably
exercise higher abilities to learn and were
better at processing information than
Australopithecus. This apelike men used stone
tools as weapons and protection of their
enemies.
a. Zinjanthropus
b. Lake Turkana (1470 Man)
3. Homo Erectus (Upright Man)
- With an even larger brain, more able to adapt
to the environment and provide solutions to
problems of survival. Able to use fire which was
used to cook food, protect from colds and wild
animals. This manlike specie could walk straight
with almost the same brain with modern man.
He made refined stone tools for hunting and
weapons for the protection of the enemies.
a. Pithecanthropus Erectus (Java Man)
b. Sinanthropus Pekinesis (Peking Man)
4. Homo Sapien (Wise Man)
- Believed to be the direct descendant of
modern human. Had similar physical
descriptions with modern man. Originated as
primitive men whose activities were largely
dependent on hunting, fishing, and agriculture.
a. Neanderthal Man
b. Cro Magnon Man
B. The Evolutions of The Primitive Men
1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age)
- Rough stone tools were used as main weapons
and tools such as chisel, hand ax, knifes, spear,
and other.
- Lived in hunting, fishing and gathering any
fruits.
2. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)
- Development of refined stone tools and
weapons.
- Made their own house.
- Learned to domesticate animals such as horse,
pigs, dogs, etc.
- Learned to use wove clothes as the protection
of their skin.
- Begun to cut trees used boat as means of
transportation and fishing.
Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution
Evolution started from the Neolithic
revolution until the development of states, and
in contemporary times, the practice of
democracy.
Neolithic revolution means the New
Stone Age Revolution because of the polished
stone tools and the techniques that produced
such tools. The fundamental changes brought
by this period is when food production and
invention started.
C. Early Civilization and the Rise of the State
The word civilization comes from the
Latin word “civis”, which refers to person who
lives in a city; and “civets” refers to the urban
community in which one dwells. Civilization
refers to societies in which large numbers of Rise of Cities
people live in cities. The inhabitants of the cities Four basic transition from Neolithic villages to
are socially stratified and governed by a ruling first urban centers:
elite who work through centrally organized a. Agricultural Innovation
political systems called states. b. Diversification of Labor
c. Social Stratification
Features of Civilization d. Central Government

1. Cities. Neolithic villages grew into towns, the D. Democratization

world’s first cities developed. Cities were larger
and more complex than villages – larger size in
terms of land area and population.
2. Writing. Cities must have written language
that will preserve, organize and expand their
knowledge to carry out duties.
The process by which democracy
expands, within a government society which is
considered as the peak civilization’s evolution.
Democracy is the highest human
achievement in political development because it
gives the people a collective voice in the art of
governance.

3. Specialization. People in civilized societies

have their own job they are assigned. Example,
farmers are assign to crop and produce foods
and the like. Specialization encouraged trade,
local and regional, and trade encouraged the
exchange of ideas.

4. Government. Civilized societies must have

rulers who organize, control the economy,
protect, mandate, issue laws and officials to
carry them out.

5. Religion. Civilized societies had organized

religions with a worthy priest. Where people
will derive their values and attitudes toward life.

Early Civilizations
1. Tigris – Euphrates River Civilization of
Mesopotamia notes by: nora :)))
2. The Nile Valley Civilization of Egypt

3. The Yellow River Civilization of Chin

4. Indus Valley Civilization of India