GEOPRESSURE ESTIMATION – AN OVERVIEW.

The estimation of formation pore pressure is performed in several steps. The philosophy
in assessing the occurrence and magnitude of geopressure is the recognition of the
undercompaction phenomenon. To use undercompaction for geopressure recognition,
several processing steps are required.

Step 1: Create a Normal Hydrostatic Gradient (NHG).

Compute the local Normal Hydrostatic Gradient, (NHG) using the sea water density and the local
fluid gradient (constant or variable with depth), then compute the NHG in EMW and corrected for
the air gap.

Step 2: Create an Overburden Gradient Curve.

The overburden gradient curve is a model of the total vertical stress created by the
combined lithostatic and hydrostatic load. It can be created in several different ways.

- Constant (density or overburden gradient)

- Integrated bulk density log
- Porosity decay function
- Gardner equation

For offshore surveys, it is important to correct to the effect of the water column on the
overburden gradient. Water significantly lowers the total vertical stress because of its
relatively low density (when compared to sediment). The air gap is also important,
however its effect diminishes to negligible levels at the mud line in water depths greater
than 1,000 ft / 300 m.

Constant Overburden Gradient:

The historical method for incorporating the overburden gradient into pore pressure
calculations is to treat the overburden gradient as a constant, normally 1.0 psi/ft. Generally
this method will over-estimate the overburden near the mud line and under-estimate the
overburden at depths greater than 10,000 ft / 3000 m.

Integrated Bulk Density Logs:

The first step is to integrate the bulk density curve (RHOB). The RHOB curves are
extended over the intervals where they are absent by obeying the apparent trend of the
curve both above and below the intervals where the curves are defined. The resulting
curves, are continuous logs from the mud line to TD.

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Integrating the bulk density is a straightforward operation:

tvd
0.433 ∫ ρ b dx
0
obg =
tvd

Where:

obg overburden gradient (psi/ft)

tvd true vertical depth
ρb bulk density ~ rhob (g/cc)

Gardner Equation:

Creating an overburden gradient curve using the Gardner equation involves the conversion
of the interval velocity to bulk density. The Gardner equation (Gardner, 1974) is a simple
empirical relationship between interval velocity and density:

ρ b = 0.23 · Vint0.25

Vint interval velocity (feet/sec)

ρb bulk density (g/cc)

Once the bulk density has been calculated, the overburden gradient is calculated by
numerical integration.

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 Step 3: Calculation of Pore Pressure Gradient.

The pore pressure gradient is a model of the formation fluid pressure created by the
combined lithostatic and hydrostatic load. It can be created in several different ways.

- Eaton Equation
- Equivalent Depth
- Ratio

Calculation of Pore Pressure:

The first step is to identify significant shale sequences. Once shales have been identified,
relative porosity estimates are made using porosity sensitive logs. The filtered porosity
sensitive logs are then compared to calculated normal trend values. Any deviation from
the normal trend is treated as an indication of abnormal pressure.

The logs that show changes in porosity include Sonic (DT), Resistivity (RD) and Drilling
Exponent (DXC). The pressure estimation is made using the value of the porosity
sensitive log in the shale zones. These values are plotted on a logarithmic scale with
respect to depth. Once the porosity log values are plotted, the points are inspected for a
trend or multiple trends.

When abnormal pressure exists in a well and pore pressure is caused by or indicated by
undercompaction, a deviation from the normal compaction trend should be apparent. A
trend line is drawn through the points in the zone that are interpreted to be normally
compacted. This is the normal compaction trend (NCT). Interpretation of a normal
compaction trend is made only in zones where normally compacted sediments are
identified.

At and below the point of deviation is the zone of overpressure. It is important to realize
that while deviation from a normal compaction trend indicates overpressure, the absence of
deviation does not indicate normal pressure. Other factors such as salinity, temperature,
and diagenetic effects can mask the development of detectable geopressure.

Derivation of Drilling Exponent:

d exponent is a method of producing a normalised Rate of Penetration (ROP) curve that

can be used to indicate pore pressure. This method can be used for Pre-drill analysis if data
available. It also can be used for real time pore pressure calculations.

The d exponent curve can be used with any of the pore pressure prediction methods.

The equations used are those of Jorden and Shirley (1966) as modified by Rehm and
McClendon (1971) to correct for ECD:
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Jorden and Shirley:

R
log
60N
d exp =
12W
log
106D
Where:
R rate of penetration (ft/hr)
N bit RPM
W weight on bit (lbs)
D bit diameter (inches)

Rehm and McClendon:

ρn
dxc = d exp x
ρe
Where:
ρn normal hydrostatic gradient
ρe equivalent mud density at bit while circulating

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Eaton Equation Method:

Once the deviation from the normal compaction trend is determined, the estimate of the
magnitude of the geopressure can be accomplished using the Eaton equation method.

The general form of the Eaton (1975) equation for predicting pore pressure is:

PP = obg – ( obg – nhg ) · ( Xobs / Xnct )n

Where:

Where:
obg overburden gradient
nhg normal hydrostatic gradient
Xobs observed data
Xnct normal compaction trend for the observed data.
n Eaton exponent - n is a calibration parameter and usually taken to
be:

Symbol Data Type Usual Value

R Resistivity + 1.2
C Conductivity – 1.2
Vint Interval Velocity + 3.0
∆t Interval Transit Time – 3.0

The sign of the exponent corresponds with the normal trend for the data being modelled.

1.2 −1.2 1.2 3 −3

σ R C  Dc   V   Dt 
=   =   =   =   =  
σ n  Rn   Cn   Dcn   Vn   Dtn 

Normalized Eaton Equation Method:

Many rock measurements such as interval transit time and interval velocity have a specific
range over which the measurement varies. In order to accommodate the full range of
values for the effective stress ratio ( Xobs / Xnct ), it is often necessary to normalize the
measurement:

PP = obg – ( obg – nhg ) · ( (Xobs – Xmin) / ( Xnct – Xmin) )n

(See above for parameter explanation.)

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Equivalent Depth Method:

The equivalent depth method has the advantage of being applicable to various types of
data. It also relies on a normal compaction trend and therefore it is an undercompaction
method. Geopressure is estimated by equivalent depth method using a form of this
equation:

PP = obg – (obg – nhg) · (Deq / D )

Where:

D observed depth
Deq normal compaction trend equivalent depth of the projected curve point

Ratio Method:

The ratio describes a direct relationship between the normal compaction trend, the
observed data values and the observed pressure.

PP = nhg · ( Xnct / Xobs )

Where:

PP predicted pore pressure

nhg normal hydrostatic gradient
Xobs observed data
Xnct normal compaction trend for the observed data.

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 Step 4: Fracture Gradient Estimation

The fracture gradient is a model of the fracture strength of the rock in proportion to the
overburden. The relationship can be generally described using the following relationship:

FG = PP + K · (OBG – PP)
Where:

FG Fracture Gradient
PP Predicted Pore Pressure Gradient
OBG Overburden Gradient
K Matrix stress coefficient

The fracture gradient can be created in several different ways:

- Constant Offset of Overburden

- Constant Percent of Overburden
- Direct Calculation of K from LOT Data
- Matthews and Kelly Ki Method
- Eaton’s Poisson’s Ratio Crossplot (Used in the present study)
- Daines’ Tectonic Stress Correction
- Stress Ratio Method

Constant Offset of Overburden Method:

A constant offset for the fracture gradient is a simple arithmetic calculation based on the
computed overburden gradient:

FG = OBG – offset
Where:

OBG Overburden Gradient

offset Normally offset is taken to be 0.5 ppg (0.02595 psi/ft).

Constant Percent of Overburden Method:

A constant offset for the fracture gradient is a simple arithmetic calculation based on the
computed overburden gradient:

FG = OBG · percent / 100

Normally percent is taken to be 95%.

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Direct Calculation of K from LOT Data:

To obtain an appropriate K curve by direct calculation, compute the ratio between Leak-off
Test data obtained in the particular area and the overburden gradient.
To create a matrix stress coefficient model, extrapolate the values to the mud line. When
creating a more general model, mud line depth is subtracted from all the values and use
depth below mud line as the frame of reference.

Matthews and Kelly Ki Method:

Uses a variation on the variable effective stress coefficient, Ki, in the expression:
FG = Gp + Ki · s
K = sh / sv
Where:

Gp Pore Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)

Ki matrix stress coefficient in the zone that has normal pressure
s effective stress, usually the overburden gradient (psi/ft)
sh stress in the horizontal direction (psi/ft)
sv stress in the vertical direction (psi/ft)

Eaton’s Poisson’s Ratio Crossplot Method:

The Eaton method is used to estimate fracture gradient in each of the wells and from the
seismic velocity functions. The fracture pressure, expressed as a gradient in the analysis,
is the point beyond which excessive mud weight will cause mechanical fractures to
develop in the rock.

Petrospec uses a variable overburden gradient (OBG) and a variable Poisson's ratio (v) for
analysis of the fracture gradient. The equation for prediction fracture gradients using
Poisson's ratio is:

FG = PP + (OBG - PP) · (v / (1 - v))

Where:

PP Pore Pressure
OBG Overburden Gradient
V Poisson's ratio

Daines’ Method:

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Daines’, or the Zero Tensile Strength concept, introduces a regional horizontal stress, σt.

FG = σt + (OBG – PP) · (v / (1 - v)) + PP

σt is derived from Leak Off Test data:

σt = FG – (OBG-PP) · (v / (1 – v)) – PP

σt remains directly proportional to the maximum compressive stress (OBG – PP):

σt / (OBG-PP) = β

So that at depths below the LOT:

σt = (OBG-PP) ·β

The Poisson’s ratio used for the Daines’ method is dependent on lithology, as distinct from
the Eaton method which uses an empirically derived Poisson’s ratio which increases with
depth and is independent of the rock type.

Although the same terms and symbols are used, the two ratios are unlike and cannot be
used interchangeably.

Daines suggested the following Poisson’s ratios for different lithologies:

Clay 0.17
Limestone, fine, micritic 0.28
Limestone, medium, calcarenitic 0.31
Limestone, porous 0.20
Limestone, shaly 0.17
Sandstone, coarse 0.05
Sandstone, medium 0.06
Sandstone, fine 0.03
Sandstone, very fine 0.04
Siltstone 0.08
Shale, calcareous (<50% CaCO3) 0.14
Shale, dolomitic 0.28
Shale, silty (<70% silt) 0.17
Shale, sandy (<70% sand) 0.12

The Daines’ Poisson’s ratio values may also be obtained from Sonic shear and
compressional data:
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 0.5 × (dTs/dTc)2 - 1
ν = 
(dTs/dTc)2 - 1

Stress Ratio Method:

Stress Ratio Method (Traugott, 1984) is a simple direct formula for K, based on analysis of
sands in the Gulf of Mexico coastal area. It can be used for similar depositional
environments around the world.

K = 0.039 · z0.33

Where:

K Matrix stress coefficient

z True Vertical Depth

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