Bonding Bonding

Bond – a force that holds atoms together
• Ionic Bonds – atoms held together by columbic
forces of attraction
• Covalent Bonds – atoms held together by sharing
electrons to obtain a closed shell configuration
• Metallic Bonds – atoms held together by
overlapping orbitals
Ionic Bonding - atoms held together by columbic
forces of attraction
• Atoms adopt charges to satisfy the octet rule
• Opposite charges attract
• The force of attraction is omnidirectional
• Ionic compounds form extended ordered structures
of alternately charged particles
• Ionic formulas are adopted such that the positive
and negative charges are balanced

Bonding Bonding
Ionic compounds form from balanced charges • The energy associated with an ionic bond can be
Reacting Groups General Formula Example described by the lattice enthalpy
1 and 17 MX KCl • Lattice enthalpy – energy needed to separate an
2 and 17 MX2 CaF2 ionic solid to gaseous ions
3 and 17 MX3 AlBr3 • The stronger the forces of attraction, the larger the
1 and 16 M2X Li2S lattice enthalpy
2 and 16 MX BaO • Stronger forces of attraction also gives rise to
3 and 16 M2X3 Al2O3 higher melting points
1 and 15 M3X Na3N
2 and 15 M3X2 Mg3P2
3 and 15 MX AlN

Bonding Bonding
Coulombic Force of Attraction • Small ions with high ionic charges have large
Coulombic forces of attraction.
q1q2 • Large ions with small ionic charges have small
F∝ Coulombic forces of attraction.
r2
Al2O3 > CaO > KCl
• The Coulombic force of attraction is directly
proportional to the charges q1 and q2
• The Coulombic force is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between particles
Bonding Bonding
Covalent Bonding
• Formed when 2 atoms share one
or more pairs of electron
• The 1s orbitals overlap – both
electrons are now in the orbitals
of both H atoms
• Mathematically the wave
function of H2 is the sum of the
wavefunctions of the 2 H (Linear
Combination of Atomic Orbitals)
• Ψ(H2) = c1Ψ(1s) + c2Ψ(1s)
• The bond is unidirectional and
the atoms are interconnected
• Much much stronger than a
Coulombic force of attraction

The potential energy of the molecule can be represented by the Morse potential diagram

Bonding Bonding
• Bond length –the internuclear distance in any • Higher bond orders = shorter bond lengths
covalent bond at which the attractive and repulsive • C-C > C=C > CΞC
forces balance and the bond is most stable
• Shorter bond lengths = larger bond energy
• Bond energy (bond enthalpy or bond strength) –
• Short bonds are stronger and more difficult to break
energy required to separate atoms, endothermic
• Bond order –number of electron pairs being shared • Bond length follows the trend in atomic radius
• Single bond – one bonding pair, bond order = 1 • H-I > H-Br > H-Cl
• Double bond –2 bonding pairs, four electrons shared,
bond order = 2
• Triple bond – 3 bonding pairs, 6 electrons shared, bond
order = 3

Bonding
Covalent bonding can be represented by Lewis dot
structures
• Graphical representation of a molecule
• Electrons between atoms are considered to be part of
both atoms, giving both a closed shell configuration
• An electron pair between two atoms is a bonding pair
• The number of bonds are determined by the octet rule
• Number of bonds = 8 – N
• N = valence electrons
Bonding
1. Select a reasonable (symmetrical) central atom for
the molecule or polyatomic ion
• The least electronegative element is usually the
central atom, except for H
• C can form 1 to 4 bonds, but never more than 4
• N bonds to 1(rare), 2, 3(most common), or 4 atoms
• O bonds to 1, 2(most common) or 3 atoms
• For ions or molecules that have more than one
central atom, the most symmetrical skeletons
possible are used
Bonding Bonding
2. Draw the elements with their valence electrons 4. If necessary, add or remove electrons to introduce charge

3. Bond the electrons together

Bonding Bonding
Resonance Structures – when more than one Lewis • The resonance hybrid is a better representation of
structure can be drawn then we can say that the the molecule
molecule alternates through all possibilities

All bond lengths in CO32- are equal

• The electrons on the second bond are considered

to be delocalized

Bonding Bonding
Incomplete octets – Be and B will be stable with 2 Expanded Octets – Heavier elements allow for more
and 3 bonds respectively than 8 electrons in its outermost shell. In these
cases, d orbitals participate in bonding
• SF6
• BrF3
• IF5
• SO42-
• PO43-
Bonding Bonding
Formal Charges – hypothetical charge on an atom in • The best Lewis structures will have zero or nearly
a molecule zero formal charges on all the atoms
• Formal Charge = Valence – lines – dots
4–4=0
-1 C
6–2–4=0

5 – 4 = +1 • A negative formal charge will more likely occur in

7 – 8 = -1
the more electronegative element
6 – 1 – 6 = -1

Bonding Bonding
Bond Polarity – electronegativity gives rise to a Intermolecular Forces of Attraction – force of attraction between
two particles (based on coulombic forces)
dipole moment. The electron cloud will be denser • Full charges > Partial Charges
around the more electronegative element giving it a • Ionic compounds melt at a higher temperature than covalent
compounds (NaCl vs H2O)
partial charge. • Van Der Waals Forces (aka London Dispersion)
• Generated by instantaneous dipoles. The electrons move within the
orbital, and at any given instant will be on one side of the particle.
e- • There is a low probability that the instantaneous partial charges of two
particles will be aligned such that the two particles will attract
e-
• Besides the low probability, the duration of the attraction is short
because the electron will move immediately
• Weak forces can be compensated by adding together a large
number of forces
• Plastic has a higher melting point when the polymer chains are longer

Bonding Bonding
Solubility – ability of particles to be separated by a Metallic Bonding - atoms
solvent. held together by
overlapping orbitals
• Solubility depends on the ability of a solvent to • Omnidirectional covalent
surround a solute (like dissolves like) bond
• Charged solutes dissolve in charged solvents • Each orbital overlaps with
• Uncharged solutes dissolve in uncharged solvents all other orbitals around
• This applies to partial charges (polar-polar) it
• Mathematically the
wavefunction is the sum
of all the wavefunctions
• Ψ = c 1 Ψ1 + c 2 Ψ2 + c 3 Ψ3 + …
Bonding
• The electrons move through
all orbitals, making the
material conductive
• Shifting the position of a few
atoms does not significantly
affect the bonding, due to the
fact that the metal orbitals
overlap with all orbitals
around it
• This gives rise to ductility and
malleability
• Since the atoms are held
together essentially by a giant
covalent bond, the melting
points of metals are high