Optik

Estudio espacio-temporal de regímenes de generación de cuasi-CW de longitud de

onda única y múltiple en una cavidad de anillo de dispersión totalmente normal
--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number:

Article Type: Full length article

Section/Category: Lasers and Quantum Optics

Keywords: Nonlinear polarization rotation.

Quasi mode-locked.
Quasi CW.
Pulse formation process.
Real-time measurements.
Multi-Wavelength.

Corresponding Author: Luis Alberto Rodríguez Morales, Ph. D.

Center for Research in Optics
MEXICO

First Author: Luis Alberto Rodriguez Morales

Order of Authors: Luis Alberto Rodriguez Morales

L.M. González-Vidal

I. Armas-Rivera

M. Durán-Sánchez

M.V. Hernández-Arriaga

Miguel Bello-Jiménez

J. Hernandez-Garcia

J. Lauterio-Cruz

Olivier Pottiez

Abstract: In this paper, we report a comprehensive experimental study of quasi-continuous-wave

operation in an all-normal-dispersion ring cavity laser with nonlinear polarization
rotation based saturable absorber action. Using the temporal mapping technique, we
analyze in real time spiking dynamics, characterized by the existence of ephemeral
spikes that continually emerge and decay amidst the background radiation. In
particular, the effects of the pumping level and its direction of variation on the laser
emission dynamics were analyzed. The overall behavior, in particular the well-defined
pattern of spike evolution between their emergence until their vanishing, is found to be
qualitatively invariant over a broad range of pump power, from 70 mW to 550 mW,
albeit the values of spiking parameters vary widely over this range. The spiking
phenomenon appears from low pumping powers, just above the laser threshold. A
phenomenon of hysteresis was also discovered, as some emission parameters, in
particular the optical spectrum, depend on whether pump power is being raised or
decreased. 2D autocorrelation analysis also proved insightful, showing that each spike
appears at random, having no connection with other spikes. Finally, high pump power
settings and birefringence adjustments enabled the discovery of more complex spiking
dynamics where emission at various wavelengths occur, some of the lines presenting
additional slow dynamics at the millisecond scale. These results indicate that
deterministic complexity is, together with stochasticity, an essential ingredient to take
into account for a better understanding of the operational modes in fiber lasers far from
the pulsed regime.

Suggested Reviewers: Miguel V. Andrés

miguel.andres@uv.es
He is an expert on fiber lasers

Baldemar Ibarra

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 baldemar@inaoep.mx
He is an expert on fiber lasers

Antonio Diez
antonio.diez@uv.es
He is an expert on fiber lasers

Hector Santiago
hector.santiagoh@academicos.udg.mx
He is a fiber optics laser expert

Jorge Camas
jcamas@ittg.edu.mx
He is an expert on the field

Opposed Reviewers:

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Author Agreement

Author Agreement Statement

We the undersigned declare that this manuscript is original, has not been published before
and is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. We confirm that the
manuscript has been read and approved by all named authors and that there are no other
persons who satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further confirm that
the order of authors listed in the manuscript has been approved by all of us. We understand
that the Corresponding Author is the sole contact for the Editorial process. He is responsible
for communicating with the other authors about progress, submissions of revisions and final
approval of proofs.

Signed by the primary author as follows:

Dr. Luis Alberto Rodríguez Morales

Impact and Scope Statement

León, Guanajuato., México; October 11, 2023

Prof. Dr. Jer-Shing Huang

Editor-in-Chief
Optik

This letter is to inform you that we are sending a new manuscript entitled “Spatio-temporal
study of single and multi-wavelength quasi-CW generation regimes in an all normal
dispersion ring cavity”, written by the authors: L. A. Rodríguez-Morales, L.M. González-Vidal,
I. Armas-Rivera, M. Durán-Sánchez, M.V. Hernandez-Arriaga, C. Hernandez-Garcia, J. P.
Lauterio-Cruz and O. Pottiez.

In this article, we report a comprehensive experimental study of quasi-continuous-wave

operation in an all-normal-dispersion ring cavity laser with nonlinear polarization rotation
based saturable absorber action. ssing the temporal mapping technique, we analyze in real
time spiking dynamics, characterized by the existence of ephemeral spikes that continually
emerge and decay amidst the background radiation. In particular, the effects of the pumping
level and its direction of variation on the laser emission dynamics were analyzed. The overall
behavior, in particular the well-defined pattern of spike evolution between their emergence
until their vanishing, is found to be qualitatively invariant over a broad range of pump power,
from 70 mW to 550 mW, albeit the values of spiking parameters vary widely over this range.
The spiking phenomenon appears from low pumping powers, just above the laser threshold.
A phenomenon of hysteresis was also discovered, as some emission parameters, in
particular the optical spectrum, depend on whether pump power is being raised or
decreased. 2D autocorrelation analysis also proved insightful, showing that each spike
appears at random, having no connection with other spikes. Finally, high pump power
settings and birefringence adjustments enabled the discovery of more complex spiking
dynamics where emission at various wavelengths occur, some of the lines presenting
additional slow dynamics at the millisecond scale. These results indicate that deterministic
complexity is, together with stochasticity, an essential ingredient to take into account for a
better understanding of the operational modes in fiber lasers far from the pulsed regime.

Thank you for your time of this manuscript.

Regards

Dr. Luis Alberto Rodríguez Morales.

Cover Letter

León, Guanajuato., México; October 11, 2023

Prof.
Dr. Jer-Shing
Huang
Editor-in-Chief
Optik

This letter is to inform you that we are sending a new manuscript entitled “Spatio-
temporal study of single and multi-wavelength quasi-CW generation regimes in an all normal
dispersion ring cavity”, written by the authors: L. A. Rodríguez-Morales, L.M. González-Vidal,
I. Armas-Rivera, M. Durán-Sánchez, M.V. Hernandez-Arriaga, C. Hernandez-Garcia, J. P.
Lauterio-Cruz and O. Pottiez.

In this article, we report a comprehensive experimental study of quasi-continuous-wave

operation in an all-normal-dispersion ring cavity laser with nonlinear polarization rotation
based saturable absorber action. Using the temporal mapping technique, we analyze in real
time spiking dynamics, characterized by the existence of ephemeral spikes that continually
emerge and decay amidst the background radiation. In particular, the effects of the pumping
level and its direction of variation on the laser emission dynamics were analyzed. The
overall behavior, in particular the well-defined pattern of spike evolution between their
emergence until their vanishing, is found to be qualitatively invariant over a broad range of
pump power, from 70 mW to 550 mW, albeit the values of spiking parameters vary widely
over this range. The spiking phenomenon appears from low pumping powers, just above the
laser threshold. A phenomenon of hysteresis was also discovered, as some emission
parameters, in particular the optical spectrum, depend on whether pump power is being
raised or decreased. 2D autocorrelation analysis also proved insightful, showing that each
spike appears at random, having no connection with other spikes. Finally, high pump power
settings and birefringence adjustments enabled the discovery of more complex spiking
dynamics where emission at various wavelengths occur, some of the lines presenting
additional slow dynamics at the millisecond scale. These results indicate that deterministic
complexity is, together with stochasticity, an essential ingredient to take into account for a
better understanding of the operational modes in fiber lasers far from the pulsed regime.

Thank you for your time of this manuscript.

Regards

L. A. Rodríguez-Morales.
Manuscript Click here to view linked References

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11 Spatio-temporal study of single and multi-wavelength quasi-CW
12 generation regimes in an all normal dispersion ring cavity
L.A. Rodríguez-Moralesa,*, L.M. González-Vidal a, I. Armas-Rivera b, M. Durán-Sánchez b, M.V. Hernández-Arriaga c,
13 M. Bello-Jiménez c, J. C. Hernandez-Garcia d,e, J. P. Lauterio-Cruz f, O. Pottiez a
14 a
Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C., Loma de Bosque 115, Col. Lomas del Campestre, León Gto. 37115, México
15 c
b
Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica, L. E. Erro 1, Sta. Ma. Tonantzintla, Pue. 72824, México
Instituto de Investigación en Comunicación Óptica (IICO), Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, 78300 San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
16 d
Division de Ingenierias CIS, Universidad de Guanajuato, Carretera Salamanca-Valle de Santiago km
3.5+1.8 km, Comunidad de Palo Blanco, Salamanca, Gto., 36787, Mexico.
17 e
Investigadoras e investigadores por Mexico CONAHCYT, Av. Insurgentes Sur No. 1582, Credito
Constructor, Benito Juárez, 03940, Mexico.
18 f
Departamento de Investigación en Física. Universidad de Sonora, Blvd. Luis Encinas y Rosales,
Hermosillo, Sonora 83000, Mexico.
19
*corresponding author
20 email: beto7500@hotmail.com
21 Abstract. In this paper, we report a comprehensive experimental study of quasi-continuous-wave operation in an all-normal-dispersion
22 ring cavity laser with nonlinear polarization rotation based saturable absorber action. Using the temporal mapping technique, we analyze
in real time spiking dynamics, characterized by the existence of ephemeral spikes that continually emerge and decay amidst the background
23 radiation. In particular, the effects of the pumping level and its direction of variation on the laser emission dynamics were analyzed. The
overall behavior, in particular the well-defined pattern of spike evolution between their emergence until their vanishing, is found to be
24 qualitatively invariant over a broad range of pump power, from 70 mW to 550 mW, albeit the values of spiking parameters vary widely
25 over this range. The spiking phenomenon appears from low pumping powers, just above the laser threshold. A phenomenon of hysteresis
was also discovered, as some emission parameters, in particular the optical spectrum, depend on whether pump power is being r aised or
26 decreased. 2D autocorrelation analysis also proved insightful, showing that each spike appears at random, showing no connection with
27 other spikes. Finally, high pump power settings and birefringence adjustments enabled the discovery of more complex spiking dynamics
where emission at various wavelengths occur, some of the lines presenting additional slow dynamics at the millisecond scale. These results
28 indicate that deterministic complexity is, together with stochasticity, an essential ingredient to take into account for a better understanding
of the operational modes in fiber lasers far from the pulsed regime.
29
30 Introduction.
31 All-Fiber lasers (AFLs) are very appealing devices that have a wide range of applications [1-3]. They are used
32 in all-fiber optical setups where free-space or bulk components are not used, besides they have a very high
33 optical and electrical-to-optical conversion efficiency. AFL regimes include encompass continuous wave (CW),
quasi-continuous-wave (Q-CW), spiking regime, and pulsed regimes including Q-switching and mode-locking
34 with pulse widths from hundreds of nanoseconds down to tens of femtoseconds. In particular, various mode-
35 locking methods have been successfully developed so far which are mainly classified as active or passive mode-
36 locking [4]. Because of their many applications in fundamental research and industry, passively mode-locked
37 fiber lasers (PMLFL) have sparked considerable attention as optical sources [5-7]. Furthermore, PMLFL
provide an excellent environment for studying nonlinear optical processes [8-10] and pulse formation processes
38 [11]. Different categories of pulses, such as conventional solitons [12,13], dissipative solitons [14,15], noise-
39 like pulses (NLPs) [16,1717], rogue waves [18], stretched pulses [19,20], and dark pulses [21, 22] were
40 numerically predicted and experimentally generated in passively mode-locked fiber lasers with adequate
41 dispersion management.
Whereas some of these regimes are stationary (pulses that repeat periodically without significant changes),
42 others are inherently nonstationary, the waveforms evolving, often in complex ways, over the cycles. This is
43 the case, for example, of NLPs, with their chaotically evolving internal structure, and of rogue wave formation
44 [18]. Characterization of nonstationary regimes is challenging, in particular because conventional measurement
techniques are aimed mostly at characterizing stationary regimes. Despite the limited measuring bandwidth and
45 reaction speed of standard measuring equipment, the non-real-time multi-averaging measurements that they
46 provide are frequently used in the experimental analysis of PMLFL emission dynamics, and some ultrafast
47 transient events can be inferred indirectly from conventional average measurements, for example, the coherence
48 peak in an autocorrelation trace corresponds to internal sub-picosecond structures of NLPs [16]. Indeed, real-
time diagnostics of these events ideally required a precise characterization of the emission dynamics as a
49 function of time;, however, this type of real-time measurements are not currently available or are limited by the
50 finitedfinite electronic instrument bandwidths. Fortunately, certain achievementsadvances in the study of Formatted: English (United States)
51 ultrafast dynamics have been made thanks to technological advances and the availability of high-speed
oscilloscopes with response bandwidths that now exceed 50 GHz [23,24], making it possible to track ultrashort
52 pulse dynamics, which is particularly challenging in anomalous dispersion regimes, a few examples include
53 multiple soliton dynamics [25,26], pulsating instabilities [27], NLPs [28–32], or soliton explosions [33], or Formatted: English (United States)
54 rogue wave formation, among others.
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Therefore, real-time acquisition equipment and techniques allow the characterization of dynamics in non-
11 stationary regimes. The most widely used technique is the temporal mapping technique [34,35], which allows
12 the study of temporal waveforms that evolve over time. Through this technique, it is possible to identify non-
13 stationary patterns of emission throughout successive cycles at the AFL output. Additionally, the time-lensing
technique is a very useful technique for analyzing the temporal pulse structure. Using this technique in
14 combination with ultrafast acquisition devices, it is possible to resolve the internal pulse structure and track its
15 chaotic evolution [26, 32]. However, a complete characterization also requires a real-time spectral study of the
16 laser emission. Spectral dynamics is commonly characterized using the time-stretch technique, which is based
17 on the dispersive Fourier transform (DFT), allowing for spectral mapping (real-time spectroscopy) [25, 26, 28,
33, 36, 37]. The combination of time lensing and real-time spectroscopy these two characterization techniques Formatted: English (United States)
18 provides a full description of the emission dynamics of ultrashort pulse lasers (fs-ps); it is worth mentioning
19 that these two characterization techniques were this technique was recently used for characterizing CW/Q-CW Formatted: English (United States)
20 components as well [38].
21 While much of the existing literature primarily delves into the dynamics of PMLFLs in anomalous regimes, it
is important not to disregard sources that function within normal dispersion regimes, specifically all-normal-
22 dispersion (ANDi) lasers. Despite In particular, reports of ANDi cavities,; these have predominantly
23 concentrated on a pulsed operating regimes, where the dynamics are linked relatively close to some the stable
24 pulsed behavior [39-41]. This type of laser can exhibit diverse emission regimes when mode-locking is reached.
The dissipative soliton resonance (DSR) is one type of pulses emitted by ANDi lasers; interestingly, thesey
25 pulses can reach high energy levels without breaking. Although NLPs were mostly studied in the anomalous
26 dispersion regime, ANDi lasers can produce this category of pulses too [42]. Because they are essentially a
27 collection of incoherent pulses that evolve chaotically, studying the dynamics of their evolution as a function
28 of time becomes critical to understand their internal structure in detail. The mechanisms of NLP generation and
dynamics of rogue waves have been studied using numerical simulations and DFT approaches in some ANDi
29 laser setups [43].
30 Even though the characterization of non-stationary regimes has focused mainly on pulsed dynamics, there are
31 recent works where attention is focused on dynamics taking place in regimes intermediate between CW and
pulsed regimes. Although in the literature lasers not intended to produce pulses are often qualified as “CW”, in
32 most cases the emission of these sources could hardly be described as displaying constant intensity over time
33 [44]; indeed, in the absence of mode-locking, one would expect that the coexistence of multiple modes with
34 random phases yields a noisy temporal evolution (the so-called free-running laser operation). However, even
35 this description often turns out to be oversimplified. For example, it has been reported that there are repetitive
patterns within CW lasers and noise lasers [45]. However, this study does not analyze the dynamics of these
36 patterns over time. On the other hand, Tarasov et al. [47] present an experimental analysis of intensity spatio-
37 temporal dynamics in quasi-CW Raman anomalous dispersion fiber laser. They show that the laser operates in
38 different regimes depending on the pumping power, observing partial mode-locking, emission of stochastic
39 radiation, and generation of short-lived pulses. By means of two-dimensional autocorrelation functions, further
insight into temporal and spatial properties of these regimes is provided.
40 Recently, using temporal mapping, we reported the existence of short-lived spikes in the quasi-CW emission
41 regime of an ANDi laser for specific birefringence adjustments and under nominal pumping conditions [34,46].
42 In the present work, we perform a comprehensive experimental study of the quasi-CW regimes of a ring cavity
ANDi laser, including a saturable absorber mechanism implemented by nonlinear polarization rotation (NPR).
43 Using the temporal mapping technique, a broad range of spiking regimes are presented and analyzed, focusing
44 on their evolution as pump power is raised or decreased, and for different polarization controller adjustments.
45 Among the most relevant findings is the existence of the ephemeral spike dynamics showing invariant pattern
46 of spike evolution over a broad range of pump power, starting slightly above lasing threshold, the evidence of
a hysteresis phenomenon, revealed in particular byof the emission spectrum, the absence of correlation between
47 spikes and, for high pump power and proper birefringence adjustments, the onset of complex multiwavelength
48 spike dynamics.
49
50 Experimental setup.
51 The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The laser is a NPR-based all-fiber ring cavity, it includes a 1.3-m
length of ytterbium-doped fiber (YDF, Liekki Yb 1200–4/125, 1200 dB m−1 peak core absorption at 976 nm)
52 as gain medium, the YDF was pumped by a 980-nm laser diode through a wavelength division multiplexing
53 (WDM) coupler; we inserted a polarization-independent isolator (PI-ISO) between the pump source and the
54 WDM to block the backward amplified spontaneous emission at the pump wavelength. The laser also includes
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a PI-ISO operating at the signal wavelength, inserted in the ring cavity to ensure unidirectional lasing operation.
11 The NPR saturable absorption mechanism was implemented by inserting a linear polarizer in the cavity, and
12 was adjusted through polarization controller (PC) plates. For the laser output, a 50/50 coupler at 1060 nm is
13 used. To characterize the laser emission, another 50/50 coupler is used to split the output signal, port 1 is used
to measure the spectral profile with an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA, Anritsu MS9740A), whereas the
14 temporal profile is detected at port 2 using a 25-GHz photodetector, and monitored with a fast oscilloscope
15 (Tektronix DPO71604C, 16 GHz, 50-GS/s (20 ps/pt)). The total length of the cavity is 12.2 m with total normal
16 dispersion of ∼−0.44 ps/nm. Unlike most ANDi laser architectures, the one presented here does not include a
17 narrow bandpass filter [15, 48-51].
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33 Figure 1. Experimental setup.

34 Results.
The lasing threshold is ~60 mW. To achieve mode-locked operation, multiple PC adjustments were tested; with
35 a proper orientation of the polarization controller, starting at ∼70 mW pump power, a periodic spiky operation
36 is observed on the scope, Fig. 2a, the laser emission is composed of an apparently random peaked signal, the
37 time separation between the repetitive signal features is equal to 59.5 ns, corresponding to the cavity period.
38 Although Fig. 2a is compatible with free-running operation of the laser (where the signal has a stochastic nature,
corresponding to a superposition of multiple longitudinal modes with random phases), such a single-shot
39 measurement, which only displays a few successive periods of the signal, does not provide conclusive evidence
40 or exclude the possibility that more complex dynamics (in particular involving nonlinear and/or dissipative
41 effects) take place over larger numbers of round-trips. The average spectrum is presented in Fig. 2b, centered
at 1063.34 nm and with a spectral full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 0.2 nm, the resolution was fixed at
42 the maximum allowed by the OSA, 30 pm. Lower-amplitude spectral lines are also visible, with a regular
43 wavelength spacing of 1.04 nm, which we attribute to small internal reflections causing a Fabry-Perot filtering
44 effect in the cavity.
45 These spectral characteristics are compatible with a quasi-CW regime, nevertheless, some experimental works
have been presented where a DSR regime was reported with similar spectral characteristics [14]. Besides, an Formatted: Highlight
46 OSA only provides average spectral information, so that any possible dynamical spectral evolution (signal
47 bandwidth that varies over the cycles, for example, which could indicate intermittent mode-locking) cannot be
48 discarded. In summary, the measurements in Fig. 2a and 2b do not show precise information about the regime
of laser emission. In the present work we implement a real-time measurement technique, namely temporal
49 mapping, to evidence temporal spiked operation.
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12 a) b)

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20 Figure 2. Spiked regime a) temporal trace, b) spectral trace.
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Under the same operating conditions as previously, we take a long single-shot measurement, the acquisition
22 resolution was 20 ps/pt, and the acquisition time was 400 s (∼6750 cycles) as shown in Fig. 3a. A significant
23 increase of peak intensity starting beyond 100 s is noticeable; however, more precise information cannot be
24 extracted directly from this figure, so in order to evidence the signal evolution over the cycles, data from figure
25 3a was processed to obtain the temporal mapping presented in figure 3b.
26 a)
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b) c)
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54 Figure 3. Temporal evolution over thousands of cycles; a) scope trace, Formatted: English (United States)
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10 b) temporal map, c) 3D view.Figure 3. Slow time evolution a) typical scope, b) temporal map, c) 3D temporal mapping. Formatted: English (United States)
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Finally, Fig. 3c presents a 3D view of Fig. 3b. Figures 3b and 3c allow a study of the temporal evolution of the
13 signal over several thousands of cycles; these traces now exhibit a number of spikes distributed along the cavity,
14 which emerge from background radiation and tend to dominate the intracavitary radiation, before eventually
15 vanishing after a few hundreds of s. One of them (highlighted in yellow in Fig. 3b and c) gets to be particularly
16 intense, causing the increase already observed in Fig. 3a, even though its evolution is truncated by the limited
acquisition time. The evolution of this and other spikes are incomplete in Fig. 3b and c because their lifetime is
17 relatively long, and of the same order than the size of the measurement window, 400 s, limited by the
18 equipment memory. Still, for some of them the complete evolution could be captured, from their emergence
19 until vanishing, these will be analyzed in detail in the following.
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21 a) b)

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c) d)
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Figure 4. Isolated pulse a) 3D view, b) Slow time evolution, c) RMSW evolution, d) normalized pulse energy and amplitude, e) 3 pulses
45 phase diagrams, f) truncated pulses phase diagrams
46
Figure 4a presents a close-up 3D view of one of these spikes (green dashed ellipse in Fig. 3b and c). The spike
47 is bounded in a temporal window of ∼0.3-ns portion of the period. Figure 4b shows a waterfall view of the
48 spike evolution. When the peak emerges, it has a flat, nearly rectangular shape as it can be seen in figure 4b.
49 As it grows in intensity, it gradually narrows and adopts a smoother profile; after reaching maximal intensity,
50 it decays and eventually vanishes. The Root Mean Square Width (RMSW) [53] was used to determine the
evolution of the waveform temporal width over the cycles, Fig. 4c; the spike duration monotonically decreases
51 over the whole sequence.
52 Figure 4d depicts the evolution of normalized intensity and spike energy as a function of slow time. Both
53 parameters display similar evolutions, with a smooth increase then decrease; however, the two curves are
54 shifted, and energy reaches a maximum about 50 s prior to intensity (this is related to the monotonous decrease
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of duration shown in Fig. 4c). As a consequence of this delay, in the intensity vs. energy phase space
11 representation, a counter-clockwise trajectory is observed, the phse space trajectories for 3 arbitrarily taken
12 pulses, marked with green arrows in Figure 3c) are shown in Fig. 4e. The total lifetime of the spike is ~250 s.
13 Similar trajectories in the phase space are obtained for other spikes (green arrows in Fig. 3c). As contrast 3
14 arbitrarily truncated pulse phase diagrams are also shown in Fig. 4f, including the one marked in Fig. 3b and c
in yellow; in spite of their incompleteness, it is clear that the counter-clock wise trajectories their describe are
15 similar to the initial portions of the full trajectories presented in Fig. 4e.
16 The behavior of these ephemeral spikes detailed in Fig. 4 has been reported before in similar cavities [34,46];
17 however those works focused on the laser behavior under nominal pumping conditions (in which pump power
was several times higher than threshold); here we observe that a similar behavior is already observed under
18 moderate pumping, with a pump power close to the laser threshold (which can account for the noisier aspect of
19 the curves in Fig. 4 compared to those reported in [34,46]). Whereas nonlinearities, in particular the Kerr effect,
20 is primordial for the formation of pulses through mode-locking (even incomplete), this finding questions its
21 importance in the present dynamics.
To investigate further the dynamics of the fiber laser, we increase the pump power while keeping the PC
22 adjustments unchanged. With the further increase in the pump power and, thus, the variation in the gain
23 spectrum, the laser emission wavelength changes. We increased the pump power by 36 mW steps (50 mA),
24 from 70 mW until the maximum available pump power, 550 mW. The minimum pump power is chosen at 70
mW since this is the lowest pump power value where spiked dynamics is observed in the temporal analysis, as
25 illustrated in Fig 3b and c.
26 Figures 5a and 5b show the evolution of the lasing wavelength(s) as a function of pump power, when the pump
27 power is successively increased and decreased, respectively. The difference between the two figures indicates
28 that a spectral hysteresis phenomenon is observed, this phenomenon will be discussed in detail in the following.
The lasing wavelength changes during increasing/decreasing pump process as a result of the varying balance
29 between gain and losses because no additional filter or other wavelength-controlling elements are used in the
30 cavity.
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50 Figure 5. Spectral emission as a function of pump power, when pump power is a) increased and b) decreased; c) emission wavelength
map.
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52 Figure 5c depicts a summary of emission wavelengths at various pump powers (blue and red points stand for
53 emission lines observed for increasing and decreasing pump power, respectively, see arrows). This figure
54 clearly reveals that the laser emission is divided into two zones: 1060 nm to 1064 nm (green circle) for moderate
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pumping power values (70-250 mW), and 1064 nm to 1073 nm (yellow ellipse) for higher pumping power
11 values (150-550 mW). At a pump power of 70 mW, lasing is observed in the green region only. As pump power
12 is raised up to 210 mW, the emission wavelength gradually shifts to shorter wavelengths (solid blue arrow),
13 giving way to a dual emission at 175 mW, with wavelengths centered at 1060.95 nm and 1061.94 nm. Blue
shifting of the emission with increasing pump power makes sense, considering that the balance between
14 emission and absorption is altered, causing a blue shift of the gain spectrum as pump power is raised [53].
15 However, when pump power reaches 210 mW, the shorter wavelength loses its energy to a new longer
16 wavelength, 1070.12 nm, emerging in the yellow region. The surviving short-wavelength component endures
17 until it disappears at 250 mW, at which point only the long-wavelength component remains. All intracavity
energy now concentrates in the long-wavelength zone, where the emission at 1070.12 dominates, competing
18 for gain until it gives up its energy to slightly shorter wavelengths at 400 mW, still remaining inside the region
19 marked by the yellow ellipse. Although at pump power values of 210-250 mW the emission has jumped to
20 longer wavelengths, from the green to the yellow zone, the behavior within the latter remains the same as in the
21 green region, the emission gradually shifting towards shorter wavelengths as pump power is raised, as
highlighted by the dashed blue arrow.
22 Besides, a hysteresis effect is observed when decreasing the pump power, starting from the maximum value of
23 550 mW to the minimum. Figures 5b and 5c show the emission wavelength as a function of pumping (red
24 circles) when the pump power is decreasing. As pumping power increases, the emission jumps from the green
to the yellow zone; conversely when it decreases, a transition from the yellow to the green zone takes place,
25 with a region of intermediate powers where laser lines coexist in both regions. In each zone, pump power
26 reduction results in a gradual red shift of the lasing line, which is also consistent with the opposite evolution as
27 pump power was raised. Still when the pumping is reduced, the emission appears almost always at a shorter
28 wavelength than when it is raised, for the same pump power value. This occurs in both zones, the green circle
and the yellow ellipse, however this effect is more noticeable in the area marked with the green ellipse in Fig.
29 5c, and in the lower portion of the yellow ellipse. This behavior is visualized with the red arrows in Fig. 5c.
30 According to Fig. 5, it can be noted that the spectral hysteresis also manifests itself in the following ways: when
31 pumping is increased, the emission in the green zone is maintained up to a power of 250 mW, but when power
is decreased, this emission only reappears for a value of 170 mW. Similarly, the emission in the yellow zone
32 appears from a value of 200 mW when pumping is increased, but it is maintained down to 140 mW when it is
33 decreased. Therefore, the pumping ranges where emissions in both regions coexist are also different: 210-250
34 mW when pumping is increased, and 140-170 mW when pumping is decreased.
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20 Figure 6. Average pulse a) lifetime, b) RMSW, increasing pumping blue line, decreasing pumping red dashed line, and c) average
maximum peak intensity independent on wavelength.
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22 Figure 6 shows the results of an analysis of the temporal properties of the ephemeral spikes, extracted from
23 time-domain maps obtained for different values of pump power. As in Fig. 5, each value is reached by
24 successively increasing and decreasing pump power in a range between 70 and 550 mW. To calculate the
average lifetime and temporal width of the ephemeral pulses for each pump power in each direction, 5 randomly
25 picked individual pulse evolutions were extracted from each map, the pulses were isolated and normalized to
26 determine both their lifetime (extension of the event along the slow time axis) and RMSW (duration along the
27 fast time axis) [53]. Because the RMSW varies strongly along the spike evolution, the criteria employed in this
case was to consider the pulse during its rising stage, when its normalized power reaches 25% of the maximum
28 obtained during its life span. Figure 6a depicts the average lifetime. The data points are labeled with their
29 corresponding emission wavelength. As pump power is increased, independently of the emitted wavelength,
30 the pulses lifetime decreases, blue solid line in Fig. 6a. Conversely, the lifetime increases as the pump power is
31 reduced from maximum to minimum, red line in Fig. 6a. Blue and red curves are nearly superposed, showing
little evidence of a hysteresis phenomenon in terms of lifetime (somewhat larger differences appear for some
32 values of pump power, in particular in the 150-250 mW range, where the emission wavelengths also
33 significantly differ). Still, when the pumping power is reduced under the spiking threshold, 70 mW, the spiky
34 behavior is preserved; however, these pulses have a longer lifetime, which was not possible to measure because
35 it was larger than the time window of the temporal mapping. When the pump power was further reduced down
to 50 mW, the spiked emission disappeared. Finally, it is noticeable that, when dual-wavelength emission occurs
36 for some intermediate values of pump power, the lifetime of the spikes at each wavelength (which can be
37 distinguished through their different trajectories in the temporal map) are almost equal.
38 The average RMSW is presented in Fig. 6b, when the pump power is increased from minimum to maximum,
blue line, and when it is reduced from maximum to minimum, red dashed line. Although the two curves do not
39 overlap, they cross each other several times and there is no indication of a hysteresis phenomenon. Overall,
40 pulse duration decreases with pump power in both cases. As pump power is raised, intracavity power increases,
41 which favors the NPR-based saturable absorber effect, causing the RMSW duration to decrease, making the
42 pulse shorter in the fast time axis. Finally, at those intermediate values of pump power where dual-wavelength
emission occurs, there is some significant difference in the RMSW values of each spectral component. Finally,
43 Fig. 6c shows the average value of maximum peak intensity reached during the spikes lifetime, again averaged
44 over 5 spikes. independently on wavelength, in function of increasing and decreasing pump power. It can be
45 seen that overall it increases with pump power in both cases. Again, the two curves show no evidence of
46 hysteresis phenomenon. When dual-wavelength emission occurs, the peak power decreases since the energy is
shared between the two spectral components. If pump power increases/decreases spectral competition occurs
47 until a single wavelength prevails.
48
49 Measurements of the spatio-temporal dynamics of intensity provide an opportunity to conduct more advanced
analysis of the characteristics of generation. By employing two-dimensional auto-correlation analysis, denoted
50 as 𝐺𝐼 (𝜏, 𝜉) =< 𝐼(𝑡, 𝑧)𝐼(𝑡 + 𝜏, 𝑧 + 𝜉) > [47], we can extract additional information about the generated
51 dynamics by the two-bidimensional correlation function (TBCF). This mathematical tool helps reveal the
52 periodic properties and typical lifespan of the dynamic being analyzed. Figure 7 shows the two-dimensional
53 intensity autocorrelation for 2 different values of pump power when pumping is increased and decreased.
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45 Figure 7. Two-dimensional auto-correlation autocorrelations: a) 215 mW increasing pumping, b) 520 increasing pumping c) transversal
46 cuts depending on color in a) and b).
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In Fig. 7a, autocorrelation was computed at pump power of 215 mW, when the pump power was increased.
48 Notably, the TBCF exhibits a distinctive pattern. Specifically, it features a central peak, and its
49 vertical/horizontal extension provides valuable information about the average lifetime and duration of the pulses
50 being generated, respectively. By analyzing the TBCF, it is possible to verify that the average lifetime of the
51 pulses is consistent with the data shown in Fig. 6a, whereas their RMSW corresponds to the data in Fig. 6b.
The absence of lateral peaks on the horizontal axis indicates that the spikes emerge at random within the cavity
52 round-trip time and are not correlated. Additionally, Fig. 7a offers further insights. Four black lobes are visible,
53 symmetrically disposed around the central peak, as indicated by yellow arrows. These lobes indicate a lower-
54 than-average likelihood of finding a high energy density in certain regions of the temporal map in the vicinity
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of the spikes. However, due to the long spike lifetime at 215 mW pump power and the limited acquisition time
11 window, these lobes are only partially observed in Fig. 7a. As pumping is increased, a similar behavior is
12 observed, however, the shorter lifetime (and RMSW) of the spikes contracts the figure, so that the black lobes
13 are completely visible. Figures 7b shows the autocorrelation map for 520 mW pump power when it is increased.
These results suggest that the likelihood of finding another spike in the vicinity of a given spike is particularly
14 low for delays corresponding to the average spike lifetime on the slow time axis and the average spike RMSW
15 along the fast axis. Hence, an event that takes place around a particular cycle and a particular position in the
16 cavity affects what happens at a different position, thousands of cycles away. Such a negative correlation
17 between different regions of spatio-temporal maps with both slow and fast time separations is particularly
intriguing, and we are not aware of such a phenomenon previously reported in the literature. Notably, this
18 contrasts with the spikes presented in [47], where their presented dynamics' TBCF contains no dark lobes in
19 close temporal proximity. Figure 7c illustrates selected cross sections extracted from Fig. 7a and 7b (straight
20 lines). These diagrams depict intersecting lines aligned with the fast time axis, providing insight into the peaks
21 and valleys of each TBCF. Each individual graph corresponds to the color-coded lines visible in the TBCFs.
Notably, when the cross sections are taken at the TBCF's maximum points, an observation can be confirmed:
22 RMSW demonstrates a decrease at higher pumping levels. When focusing on the negative lobes, a noteworthy
23 asymmetry emerges at a pumping level of 520 mW, the left is deeper than the right one, in contrast with the
24 215 mW lobes that they are symmetrical. This difference is attributed to the alignment process of the 520 mW
temporal mapping. During this alignment, a slight wavelength change led to a marginal alteration in the cavity's
25 period. The spikes in the 520 mW trace exhibit a slight slope due to this minor mismatch. Particularly, all the
26 TBCF calculated from Fig. 6 also show the absence of secondary peaks along the vertical axis (slow time delay),
27 confirming that the spikes occur at random and do not tend to repeat quasi-periodically along the slow time axis
28 (as opposite to Q-switched like self-pulsing, for example). Essentially, these spikes appear randomly, with no
discernible pattern of reappearance, at least within the 400 s mapping window.
29 When we analyze a PMLFL output power, the emission characteristic displays two thresholds: the lasing
30 threshold, which is the lowest pump power required to create sufficient stimulated emission in the amplification
31 process to sustain lasing; at this point, the output power begins to increase linearly with pump power. Now the
32 mode-locking threshold is a higher amount of pump power at which mode locking begins, it is usually
associated with a discontinuity in the linear characteristic. The output power versus pump power characteristic
33 of the laser under study is presented in Fig. 8a, when the pump power is successively increased, blue line, and
34 decreased, red line. In this figure, no second threshold could be detected in this case because the slope of the
35 output power vs pump power was maintained from the lasing threshold up to the maximum attainable pump
power, no matter the direction of pumping variation. However, slightly higher values of output power are
36 obtained when pump power is decreased from the maximum, creating a hysteresis.
37 If intracavitary energy increases as a function of pump power, as it comes from Fig. 8a, whereas the pulse
38 lifetime and RSMW decrease, and only the average maximum peak intensity increases as shown in Fig. 6, one
39 can expect that the number of pulses in the examined window will increase, as will their density, as pump power
is raised. Figure 8b depicts a count of intermittent pulses in each map, for the different values of pump power
40 which is respectively increased and decreased. As shown by the figure, the number of pulses grows and decays
41 linearly as pump power is increased and decreased, respectively. Again, a small hysteresis effect is noticeable.
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28 Figure 8. ANDi laser characteristics, a) Power output vs pump power, b) number of pulses vs pump power, c) phase diagrams for
different pump power values.
29 Figure 8c shows normalized phase diagrams for pulses taken from different temporal maps at different pump
30 powers. The phase diagrams show that as pump power is raised, the width of the trajectories is reduced (see
31 arrows), meaning that the delay between maximal intensity and maximal energy of the pulse relative to its
lifetime decreases.
32 It is apparent from Fig. 5 that there are certain regions where multiwavelength emission appears. It should be
33 noted that this behavior can be achieved in two ways: 1) by adjusting the pumping power to intermediate values
34 around 200-300 mW, or 2) by changing the PCs orientations. When the pump power is fixed at 215 mW
35 (pumping is increased from a minimum, see Fig. 5c) and by changing the PC´s orientations, dual-wavelength
operation was obtained. Figure 9a shows the spectral emission in dual-wavelength operation, the two main
36 emissions are centered at 1062.8 and 1070.1 nm, one in each of the two spectral regions defined in Fig. 5c, with
37 FWHM values of 0.14 and 0.15 nm respectively. In order to analyze the temporal dynamics, we present the
38 temporal mapping in Fig. 9b and c, which only differ by the slightly different values of round-trip time
considered for segmenting the same single-shot measurement. These figures show two different patterns of
39 emission, at the shorter wavelength, white solid arrow, and the longer wavelength, white dotted arrow, which
40 are readily distinguished due to their different trajectories caused by their relative group delay in the dispersive
41 cavity. In Fig. 9b, mapping was performed by segmenting the data according to the round-trip time at the shorter
42 wavelength, whereas the slightly shorter round-trip time at the longer wavelength was considered in Fig. 9c.
Both views are useful for better visualization of the temporal dynamics of the respective spectral components.
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27 Figure 9. Dual wavelength operation a) spectrum, b) temporal mapping adjusted to short wavelength, c) temporal mapping adjusted to
long wavelength.
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29 Using the group delay between both spectral components determined from Figs. 9b, and c and the spectral
30 separation obtained from Fig. 9a, we calculated the net cavity dispersion of -0.44 ps/nm. From the analysis of
Figs. 9b, and c we determine that the two components do not have the same temporal properties. Indeed, the
31 longer wavelength component has longer average RSMW and average lifetime that the shorter wavelength
32 component. Keeping pumping power at 215 mW, we changed the PC’s configuration. Figure 10a depicts a dual
33 wavelength spectrum and was obtained using the OSA's narrowest video bandwidth (VBW), 10 Hz, as in the
previous measurements. This trace shows two dominant components at adjacent wavelengths, 1064.63 and
34 1065.66 nm, the former being ~5 dB lower than the latter in intensity. It should be emphasized that all the
35 previously presented measurements were performed at least three times in a 20 min period with 10 min intervals
36 and the traces showed no discernible change, confirming the stability of the average spectrum. In contrast, the
37 temporal maps obtained from measurements at different times significantly differ. Figure 10b shows the first
temporal map; this figure is qualitatively similar to Fig. 9b, with two distinct trajectories (see arrows)
38 confirming the coexistence of two spectral components. Besides, taking into account the net cavity dispersion
39 previously calculated, the rate of walk-off between these two components allows confirming that their spectral
40 separation is 1.03 nm, thus matching the separation between the two main components observed in the optical
41 spectrum.
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Figure 10. Ephemeral emission a) spectrum, b) temporal mapping 1, c) temporal mapping 2. d) temporal mapping 3. e) zoomed temporal
35 mapping 3.
36 A second temporal trace captured in the same operation conditions is shown in Fig. 10c. The behavior is
37 qualitatively similar to that of 10b; however, the spectral trace remains unchanged while the density of the long-
wavelength pulses (dashed arrow) is increased with respect to the previous case. Finally, we present a third
38 temporal measurement in Fig. 10d, in which the two wavelength components measured in 10b and 10c persist,
39 but are now accompanied by a new, shorter-wavelength component (dotted arrow). A close-up view is presented
40 in Fig. 10e for better visualization. The walk-off rate of the new component allowed us to determine its
41 wavelength at 1062.5 nm. Interestingly, in the optical spectrum (which remained unchanged, see Fig. 10a), this
component is hardly present. We thus conclude that the emergence of the 1062.5 nm component is ephemeral
42 or intermittent. Because this component is present in Fig. 10d over the whole 400-s measurement duration,
43 but was never observed in the average spectrum (sweep time ~100 ms), we estimate its lifetime to lie somewhere
44 between a few ms and a few tens of ms.
45 The changes in pulsed emission density, as well as the appearance of new components in real-time
measurements, which are not corroborated by average spectral measurements, are indicative of a complex
46 dynamical evolution of the laser emission.
47 For different adjustments of the PC’s, the spectral trace presented in Fig. 11a is obtained, red dotted line (VBW
48 was adjusted to 10 Hz). The spectral trace presents a single emission at 1069.26 nm. Although a single
wavelength component is dominant in the spectral trace, the temporal map exhibits a dual wavelength behavior,
49 Fig. 11b, where both the dominant component (dashed arrow) and a shorter-wavelength component (solid
50 arrow) are present, with a spectral separation of 2 nm, calculated from the slope of the temporal mapping in
51 Fig. 11b.
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Figure 11. Ephemeral emission a) spectrum, b) temporal mapping.
20 When the OSA VBW is increased, the measurement time is decreased, so it is possible to observe faster
21 spectrum variations at the cost of noisier spectral traces. The blue trace shown in Fig. 10a was taken after the
22 VBW was increased to 10 kHz, the trace acquisition time then decreased to 1 ms. Although this trace is noisier,
23 the shorter wavelength now clearly appears in the trace. We thus conclude that the lifetime of this ephemeral
component is larger than 1 ms.
24 These pulses tend to exhibit cyclical evolutions at various time scales based on the intracavitary gain-loss ratios.
25 The pulse extinction and birth dynamics, as well as pulse bursts at various wavelengths, may generally be
26 compared to those shown in [60], where these dynamics are triggered by turning the pumping source on and
off. Whilst under some PC settings there appears to be a Q-switched type behavior that is frequently seen in
27 transitory processes of soliton accumulation, the dynamics shown in this study are the consequence of the
28 interaction and competition of each spectral component under continuous pumping.
29
30
31 Conclusions.
32 In this paper we studied experimentally the dynamics of a NPR-based ANDi ytterbium-doped fiber ring laser.
At a pump power of 70 mW, only slightly above the lasing threshold, purely stochastic free-running operation
33 gives way to a regime characterized by the existence of short-lived spikes, which is maintained up to the
34 maximal available power of 550 mW. Over this whole range of pump power, qualitatively the same behavior
35 is revealed by the temporal maps: long, nearly rectangular waveforms continually emerge from background
36 radiation, grow then decay in energy and intensity whereas their duration monotonically decreases, until they
37 eventually vanish. Despite an overall invariant scenario, the spikes parameters vary considerably; in particular,
their average duration and lifetime decay, whereas their maximal peak power increases with pump power.
38 Although a growth in intensity and reduction in duration with increasing pump power and intensity is consistent
39 with nonlinear effects, in particular saturable absorber action, the existence of this regime even at low power,
40 barely above lasing threshold, advocates otherwise. As pump power is varied, a complex evolution of the
41 emission spectrum is also observed, which can only be partly explained by the mechanism of gain saturation.
42 Interestingly, the evolution of emission wavelength with pump power presents a hysteresis. A hysteresis
43 phenomenon is also observed in the evolution of output power and number of pulses per map, probably
indicating that nonlinear effects are somewhat significant, at least at relatively high values of pump power.
44 Despite the well-defined temporal evolution of the spikes and patterns of evolution with pump power described
45 above, this mode of operation still preserves a high degree of stochasticity; in particular, the numerous spikes
46 appearing in a temporal map are uncorrelated: there is no preferential separation between multiple spikes in the
47 cavity (below the cavity round-trip time), nor is there a repetitive pattern emerging along the slow time axis,
48 such as the slow, quasi-periodic (Q-switched like) oscillations that are commonly observed in these systems.
On the other hand, a lower-than-average correlation is found at some spots in the vicinity of the central peak in
49 the 2D autocorrelation map. Finally, for high values of pump power and some PC adjustments, the spiking
50 dynamics can be expanded to multi-wavelength operation, being in some cases further complicated by the
51 observation of ephemeral wavelength components, with lifetimes at the ms scale. The present work reveals the
52 puzzling behaviors than can be found in ANDi fiber lasers far away from conventional pulsed operation, even
53 at pump powers where free-running laser operation would normally be expected, as a result of the subtle
interaction between dispersion, dissipative and nonlinear effects, gain dynamics, and polarization evolution,
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among others. We hope that this work will stimulate further research work that will help clarify the mechanisms
11 beyond such dynamics, which as by now are still far from elucidated.
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15 Acknowledgments
16 L. A. Rodríguez-Morales thanks Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencias y Tecnologías postdoctoral
17 grant 2482407. I. Armas-Rivera thanks Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencias y Tecnologías
postdoctoral grant 3701567.
18
19
20 References.
21 Formatted: Spanish (Mexico)
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Highlights

Highlights:
 ANDi Ring Cavity Laser Study.

 Emergence and decay of ephemeral spikes within the laser's

background radiation.

 The pump power impact on the laser emission dynamics, from 70 mW

to 550 mW.

 The optical spectrum exhibits dependency on whether pump power is

increasing or decreasing, adding complexity to the laser's behavior.

 At peculiar pump power settings and with birefringence adjustments,

the study uncovers complex spiking dynamics involving emissions at
various wavelengths.
Declaration of Interest Statement

Conflict of Interest

There are no conflicts to declarate