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Mathematics for Engineering and the Environment
Self-study course MATH1054

MATH1054
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERING AND THE ENVIRONMENT
MODULE 0: COURSE DESCRIPTION
1. Introduction: Aims and Objectives

Mathematics is an essential tool for the engineer. In this course you are introduced to some
of the mathematical techniques which you will need in the rest of your engineering studies.
The aims and objectives of this course include the knowledge and understanding of the
material, but also other additional skills you are expected to develop through this self-paced
course. Having successfully completed this module, you will be able to:
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of basic di↵erential and integral calculus,

di↵erential equations, complex numbers, vectors and matrices, and be familiar with
partial di↵erentiation and some more advanced techniques of calculus;
• Show logical thinking in problem solving;
• Work more e↵ectively with self-study material;
• Demonstrate organisational and time-management skills;
• Critically analyse and solve some mathematical problems;
• Perform calculations in simple situations and work through some longer examples.
Outline
This is a self-study course, written around a textbook – there are no lectures. The
syllabus is divided into what we call modules, each of which is designed to cover a similar
amount of work. (Elsewhere in the University, a module refers to a course running over a
whole semester or year; here it is a topic, taking about one week.)
The following are the main points describing how this self-study course works. All year-
specific information (marking/testing room, timetable, people, etc.) can be found in the
Organisational Data document given to you separately.
• You have a list of modules (topics) to study and a recommended list of deadlines for the
topics.
• For each module (topic) you get a set of instructions detailing which section of the
textbook to read, which exercises to do, and a specimen test. All the modules are in
in this booklet, in the order they must be studied; all solutions are in a separate
solutions booklet, in the same order. Occasionally a module will be self-contained
(i.e. all the material is in the module itself with no reference to the textbook).
• After working through a module, and when you think you are ready, come to the testing
room and get a module test from the administrator. The test should take you about
20-30 minutes to complete.
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• After finishing the test, take it to the marking room, and sit down with any free marker.
They will mark your work and go over your answers with you, giving you feedback on
any errors. This “marking” session is really about feedback and one-to-one
teaching.
• After marking, take the test back to the administrator in the testing room to have
your mark recorded.
• That’s it. If you passed, go home and study the next module. If you didn’t pass, go home
and revise this module: you have one more opportunity at passing the test.
• In January there is a one-hour multiple-choice class test. This test covers first half of
the syllabus (the first 10 modules).
• All module tests and the January class test are formative, i.e. they do not count towards
your final mark. They are however fundamental for your study! If you study weekly
to complete all of them along the year you will be in an excelent position to have a
good mark in the final exam. Thus, we absolutely encourage you to complete all of
them. Please take this advice!
• In May/June there is a final exam, worth 100% of the mark. This covers the material
of the entire year.
2. Details
• TEXTBOOK: To be able to follow this self-study course, you need a copy of the
textbook. The main book is Modern Engineering Mathematics by Glyn James,
Pearson, 2015 (5th edition). A copy of this book is provided by your Faculty.
There are alternatives to this textbook: see section 5.
• STUDY: Make sure you go through all the work in each module, especially the specimen
test, which is similar in length and difficulty to the module test you will take. Once
you complete the specimen test of the module, go through your work with the solutions
(that we provide), and self-mark your work. The module instructions are a minimal
amount of work necessary to learn a topic. You would of course benefit from doing
more than the minimum: there are many more exercises in the book and online, see
section 5 below.
• HELP: If you are having difficulties, come and get help. For short queries, the markers
are glad to help. Come to any of the marking sessions and ask away. If there are many
people queuing to get their tests marked, they will get priority from the markers, but if
you come at the beginning of a session you will probably find a free marker. For longer
queries, come to the Engineering Maths Workshop (MATH1061). See section 8
below for more details about available help.
• TIMING: The module test is not timed, so time yourself: if you can do it in about 25
mins, that’s good. If you are taking longer than 35 minutes, this means you probably
haven’t prepared enough: keep that in mind for the next topic. The formula sheet
is available for the test (please bring a copy), as for the final exam (you will be given
a copy), so get familiar with what is in there. If you take a long time for a test and
don’t finish it or get it marked in one session, give it to the administrator who will give
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it back to you when you come to the next session to finish the test or get it marked
(this should rarely be necessary). Note that no tests begin in the last half hour
of a session, so you cannot start a test after 10:15am. So please arrive early to
avoid disappointment, as there may be queues.
• MARKS: Tests are formative and they are marked, although they do not count for
the final mark (which is 100% final exam). They are in place for valuable feedback and
revision purposes, and to spread the workload over the two semesters. Don’t worry
too much if you get a low mark every now and then, but do go over the material
again, think about the feedback you got from the marker, make sure you know it for
the class test in January, and especially, for the final exam in May/June, that’s
when it counts. The marks are whole numbers from 0 to 4. The typical pass mark
is 3 (corresponding to 75/100, or an A grade!). The maximum mark of 4 requires an
answer that is completely correct and clear, and markers are instructed to be strict.
Marks 0, 1 or 2 means ‘fail’ and you have one more chance at taking a di↵erent test
on the same topic. If you fail the same module a second time, the best mark will be
recorded and you move on to the next topic. You can only retake a module if you
fail, that is, you cannot retake a test to improve a mark of 3 to a 4, as the test are
not about scoring a high mark but about checking your understanding, learning, and
preparing yourself for the final exam. See also section 7 below.
• ARRIVE EARLY: Make sure you turn up on time for the testing/marking sessions,
especially as you cannot take a test in the last half an hour, and queues may build
up at busy times. The testing/marking sessions are scheduled 9-11am but actually
marking starts at 8.30am and you can take a test as early as 8:10am, as some markers
and the administrator will be there early.
• RECORDING YOUR MARK: Don’t walk o↵ without having your test marked,
and the mark recorded by the administrator. If you take an unmarked or unrecorded
test home, you will get a zero mark for that attempt. Please look at Grade Centre
on Blackboard regularly to check that your marks have been correctly recorded.
It is your responsibility to make sure that the correct mark has been recorded on
Blackboard. Please let the administrator know if there is a problem, but allow at
least 1 week since you did the test for the marks to be uploaded.
• MULTIPLE TESTS: You may do more than one test on the same session, time per-
mitting: if you pass a test, you may take a test for the next module if you wish to.
However, if you fail a test (for the first time), you must go home, revise, and take
another test on the same module on a di↵erent day.
• ORDER OF MODULES: The modules (topics) that you will study are shown below,
in the order chosen by your Faculty. You must study the modules, and take the tests,
in this order (no skipping allowed). This is the material you are expected to learn
this year, to a greater or lesser degree, without ‘picking and choosing’ the material you
want to learn, and the material you want to discard: they are all equally important.
Moreover, some modules are prerequisites for later modules, or are needed for other
courses in your first year (see below), and all this have been reflected in the order
below.
Semester 1: 14, 3, 4, 6, 5, 16, 13, 17, 9, 18, online class test (January).
Semester 2: 15, 11, 24, 25, 7, 8, 10, 12, 20, 22, final exam (May/June).
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Note: You may start Semester 2 modules in Semester 1, if you have already finished all
the previous modules. In fact, it is not impossible to finish all 20 modules by January!
• PREREQUISITES: Modules 1 and 2 on Algebra and Trigonometry are included in

the booklet for revision. It is assumed that you know this material. If you find that
you have forgotten some of the topics in these modules, you are strongly advised to
work through them! If you find yourself having to do a lot of catching up with these
prerequisites, get some help in the Engineering Maths Workshop (MATH1061)
(see above, or section 8 below).
• PACE YOURSELF: The course is “self-paced” and you are not expected to follow a
strict timetable. However, the mathematics is used in the other engineering courses
you are taking in your department. You are expected to cover approximately one
module per week, in the order listed above. Your other lecturers will expect you
to have learned the relevant material by the weeks shown in the Organisational Data
Sheet. And, of course, you need to have advanced to Module 18 by the end of teaching
in December, for the multiple-choice online class test in January. Note that: the
University is closed on May Bank Holiday (a Monday); that you may miss test/marking
sessions due to field trips, illness, etc.; and that you must come another day if you fail
a module test for the first time. Please plan ahead and make sure you do not
run out of time for taking tests. Untaken tests get a mark of zero. Finally, note
that we send personal tutors a weekly progress report, and that if you do fall behind,
you may be contacted by your tutor.
• REMEMBER: Taking and passing the module tests is not a goal but the means to a
goal: It is very important to plan your pace throughout the year so that you do
each module in a way that prepares you for the final exam. In particular, avoid
short-term memorisation of topics/exercises and make sure you are confident with the
material, including all types of exercises, before moving on.
3. People involved
(i) Co-ordinators: Dr Oscar Dias and Dr Nansen Petrosyan (both Mathematical Sciences)
are responsible for the course as a whole.
(ii) Academic Supervisors: Each of the self-paced sessions is overviewed by a Mathe-

matics or Engineering sta↵ member (the coordinator of the self-paced session).
(iii) Administrators: responsible for the distribution and invigilation of the module tests,
and keeping an accurate record of your progress. Sometimes the queues get large:
please be always patient and polite! If you have feedback about the self-paced session
please provide it to the administrators: they always give it to the co-ordinators.
(iv) Markers: Mathematics and Engineering PhD students (several in each session) plus
an academic supervisor in each session. They will: (a) mark and discuss tests, and
(b) answer all your short mathematical questions. If you appreciate the explanations
provided by a particular marker you can choose to be marked by her/him (just give
your way in the queue until she/he is available). If you feel that your mark requires a
revision please approach the academic supervisor of the session.
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(v) Mathematics helpers: Mathematics PhD students who run the MATH1061 En-
gineering Maths Workshop (Mondays & Wednesdays 3-6pm); they will answer all
your (short or long) questions and provide any mathematical help you may need.
4. List of modules (topics)

Here is the complete list of self-paced modules, in numerical order. You will study most of
them following an order that is not the natural numerical order displayed below (see the
Organisational Data sheet for the precise ordering or the item “ORDER OF MOD-
ULES” in section “2. Details” above), but feel free to dip into any of them at any time.
In the Booklet and Blackboard you will find more than 20 modules. However, you will only
be tested and examined on the 20 modules that are in your syllabus (also identified pre-
cisely in the Organisational Data sheet). The leftover modules are kept in the Booklet
and Blackboard in case you find them useful in future years: of course, you are also welcome
to try them out for yourself right away! If you want help on any of the other modules, you
can ask a marker, or use the MATH1061 Engineering Maths Workshop, see section 8
below.
1. Algebra (revision of basic rules; equations; inequalities; partial fractions)
2. Trigonometry (revision of standard trigonometric functions and formulae)
3. Di↵erentiation I (basic rules; standard di↵erentials; Newton’s method for finding
roots; simple partial di↵erentiation)
4. Integration I (standard integrals; simple substitutions; integration by parts; numerical
integration)
5. Complex numbers I (Argand diagram; polar form; exponential form and Euler’s for-
mula)
6. Di↵erential equations I (classification; separable first order ODEs; homogeneous sec-
ond order ODEs with constant coefficients)
7. Functions (functions and inverse functions; trigonometric and inverse trigonometric
functions; exponential and logarithmic functions; hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic func-
tions; di↵erentiation of inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions)
8. Di↵erentiation II (maxima, minima and points of inflection; curve sketching; para-
metric, implicit and logarithmic di↵erentiation; Maclaurin’s series; Taylor’s series)
9. Integration II (more advanced substitutions; applications including volumes of revo-
lution, centroids, centres of gravity, mean values, arc length)
10. Integration III (integration of rational functions; improper integrals)
11. Integration IV (double integrals; polar integrals; triple integrals)
12. Di↵erential equations II (dx/dt = f (x/t); linear and exact first order ODEs)
13. Di↵erential equations III (inhomogeneous second order ODEs with constant coeffi-
cients; free and forced oscillations)
14. Vectors I (basic properties; Cartesian components; scalar and vector products)
15. Vectors II (triple products; di↵erentiation and integration of vectors; vector equations
of lines and planes)
16. Matrices I (terminology; basic properties; determinants)
17. Matrices II (solving sets of linear equations; calculation of inverse using cofactor and
elimination methods)
18. Matrices III (rank of a matrix; eigenvalues and eigenvectors)
19. Further calculus I (chain rule for partial derivatives; higher partial derivatives; total
di↵erentials and errors)
20. Further calculus II (sequences and series; Rolle’s theorem; Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s
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theorems; l’Hôpital’s rule)
21. Laplace transforms (definition; simple transforms and properties; solution of first and
second order linear ODEs with constant coefficients)
22. Complex numbers II (complex trigonometric and hyperbolic functions; logarithm of
a complex number; de Moivre’s theorem; nth roots; simple loci)
23. Fourier series (periodic signals; whole-range Fourier series; even and odd functions)
24. Statistics I (probability; conditional probability; combinations and permutations; dis-
crete and continuous random variables)
25. Statistics II (mean and standard error of sample data; normal distribution; sampling;
confidence intervals; hypothesis testing)
26. Applications to electrical circuits (complex numbers and alternating currents; com-
plex impedance; di↵erential equations for RLC circuits; forced oscillations and resonance;
complex solutions of di↵erential equations; phasors)
27. Further applications to electrical circuits (inverse of a matrix using elimination;
mesh analysis of circuits; node analysis of circuits)
5. What is in a Module?
A ‘Module’ (topic) consists of a batch of printed material which is to be used in conjunction
with either of the course textbooks, and from Module 3 onwards it is essential to have
easy access to a copy of a book (you will have to self-study the 20 modules listed in the
Organisational Data sheet and also in the item “ORDER OF MODULES” of section
“2. Details” above).
The main book, which will be referred to as J. throughout the modules, is:
Modern Engineering Mathematics by Glyn James, Pearson 2015 (5th edition), ISBN
978-1-292-08073-4 (print).
You will be given a copy of the 5th edition, and copies of the 3rd and 4th edition are also
available in the library.
Many of you arrive to the University coming from di↵erent schools, countries or programmes.
It is thus natural that some of you have a less strong mathematical background at the
beginning of the year. If this is your case, as a warm-up textbook to help you getting into
the pace before you move to the main book, we suggest that you first read/study the “easier”
textbook (with less mathematical background) referred to as S. throughout the modules:
Engineering Mathematics by K A Stroud, Palgrave 2007 (6th edition), ISBN 978-
403942463.
It is important to emphasize that you should use this Stroud textbook only as a warm-
up. It is then fundamental that you proceed to the next stage and study the main
textbook (James). Indeed, although at the beginning of the year you might have a less
strong mathematical background, in the end of the year you must all have a similar strong
mathematical background! Moreover, Stroud does not cover all the material of the 20
modules! So, definitely do not use Stroud as the single textbook! You will be excellent
engineers and for that you need to be strong at maths.
These two textbooks, J. and S. were chosen by a group of engineers and mathematicians to
be the most appropriate books for this course. However, no book (or set of lecture notes)
is perfect for everyone and the intention of the Modules is to guide you through the book,
sometimes supplementing its contents.
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Each Module begins with Module Topics—a list of the main points covered in it. In
some Modules there may also be an introductory paragraph. This is followed by the Work
Scheme based on James (FIFTH edition), which is split into numbered sections. Most
of the sections will refer to particular parts of J., which you will be asked to read (usually for
background) or study (essential for the understanding of the Module). Some sections of the
work scheme, however, will contain material not in J. At various places in the work scheme
you will be asked to do Exercises, most of which will be taken from J. The handwritten
Worked Solutions to these Exercises are included in the solutions booklet.
Some of you that begin the year with a less strong mathematical background may find
the book by Stroud, a programmed learning text, more appropriate to initiate the studies
(recall the ‘warm-up’ discussion above). This covers less of the syllabus, but for certain
Modules it can be very useful to first study this textbook and only then move to the main
textbook (James). Therefore, a Work Scheme based on Stroud (6th edition) is also
included in each Module.
After completing the work scheme you should attempt the Specimen Test, which is included
in the Module and is similar to the module test you will take in the testing session. Solutions
to the Specimen Test are included in the solutions booklet too. These tests show whether
you know the basic material in the Modules, although the examination Section B questions
(see Section 10) can be longer and more difficult.
Optional lecture notes which summarise the content of the Modules 1– 25 are on Black-
board and on the course website (see section 11). Using these is optional, but they may be
a good introduction to each module, although you still need to work through the modules
and sample problems in the self-study guide. You learn mathematics by doing!
A new edition of S. has been published in 2012, but the modules refer to the old 6th edition,
published in 2007. If you feel you need the gentler approach of Stroud, you can get it from
the Library or buy a second-hand copy of the sixth edition. Do not buy the new seventh
edition, as the references in the modules may not be accurate.
All the references to J. in Modules 1-27 are up to date for the 5th edition published in
2015. However, on Blackboard and on the course website (see section 11) you will also find
versions of the self-study guide for Modules 1-25 which refer to the previous editions of J.
and S., also available in the Library. These are equally well suitable for the course.
Pearson, the publisher of J., runs an online platform called MyMathLab. This can be
helpful for students who need extra practice, as they provide many additional exercises
with interactive step-by-step solutions. However, you will need to buy an access card from
Pearson, at a cost. You can find more information about MyMathLab on Blackboard.
We have video solutions to some of the problems in the Solutions booklet, available in
Blackboard. You may prefer watching someone solving the problem, particularly if you find
the handwritten solution not clear enough. The videos have been recorded by Mathematics
academic sta↵ volunteering their time.
6. How to study
You may work through the self-study guide in whatever manner you choose, but the following
notes and tips may be of some guidance. First of all, understanding is not an all or nothing
process; one understands at various levels. Thus, when studying a section of a book it is
suggested that you might adopt the following approach. First read the section quickly and
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try to get a feeling for the scope of the material and its level. Then go back over it carefully,
more than once if necessary, each time trying to get a deeper understanding of what you are
reading. If you come across something on which you are stuck leave it for the time being
and carry on. Even leaving it for a day or two before going back to it can sometimes help.
If it does not, get help (see section 8) before going for a test.
You will get more out of your reading if you become actively involved in the sense of con-
stantly asking yourself questions such as ‘What is this all about?’, ‘Why is it done this way?’
and ‘Is this a significant or a trivial point?’. Simply underlining key words in the text or
jotting down thoughts and queries in the margin can be valuable ways of increasing your
concentration.
Another golden rule in studying is that a little and often is far better than a lot in one go.
So do not try to cram everything in just before taking a test. It is far better to spread your
learning over the week. The ‘cramming’ approach may just enable you to pass the test but
you will find that the knowledge gained will not stick and your will pay the consequences
later. Remember that if you pass the test without being fully prepared for it you are only
cheating yourself—the tests are primarily for your benefit and to tell you whether you have
properly understood material on which you will subsequently be examined and which is
essential for the proper understanding of your engineering work.
It is very important to go through the worked examples in J. - one often first understands a
piece of bookwork by seeing it in action in a particular instance. Try the Module exercises
- unless you can do the exercises you haven’t fully understood the bookwork! This is so
important that it is worth repeating: try the exercises before you look at the worked
solutions. Even if you do not get very far with some of them it will be of much greater
benefit to you if you try them on your own first. This way you can often isolate your difficulty
and then, when you do see how something is done, it is much more likely to remember it.
It is far too easy to read through a solution thinking you understand what is going on but
then to find that you are completely unable to do anything like it yourself later on. Finally,
do the specimen test and check your answers! The specimen test is of the same length,
difficulty and choice of material as the module test and will give you a very good idea of
how well you have understood the material.
7. Testing and Marking

When you feel competent in a module (topic), go to the testing room and ask the admin-
istrator for the appropriate test. Please show the administrator your student ID card. If
you do not have your student ID card you may not be allowed to take a test.
When you have collected the test, sit down, write your name and department/faculty on
the test sheet and answer the questions by writing on the test sheet. During the testing
sessions you MAY use a university approved calculator (please bring your own), and
consult the Formula Sheet (please bring a copy with you) but nothing else. The test
should take approximately 25 minutes to complete. Remember that the object of the test
is not to get the best possible score, but for you and the marker to check what you already
know, identify those points where you are struggling, and learning through the process.
Hence if you get stuck with something in the test do not spend too long over it, but rather
ask the marker later.
After you have finished the test bring it to the marking room. Choose any marker in the
marking room and ask him/her to mark your test. If you prefer you may choose the same
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Marker every week. In order to allow adequate time for discussion you should take your test
sheet to the marking room at least 15 minutes before the end of the session. There may not
be sufficient time to mark your test. In this case you should return the unmarked test to
the administrator and come back at the beginning of the next session. Please do not take
unmarked tests home.
The test will be marked and discussed with you and it will be given a mark of 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4.
The main purpose of the test is to discover whether you have sufficient knowledge to proceed
to the next module. The discussion with the marker is the key feedback in this
module. It provides you with an opportunity to obtain help with any difficulties
you may have. If you are given a 3 or 4, you have passed. Then take the marked test back
to the administrator who will record your mark. The marked test will be returned to you;
please keep it for the whole semester; it will be useful when you revise for the exam, and in
the unlikely case that we need to double-check your mark. If you are given a mark of 0, 1 or 2
you have not passed, the administrator will record your mark and you will be asked to return
on a di↵erent day to take a di↵erent test on the same topic. The marker may also suggest
that you should attend the Engineering Mathematics Workshop (MATH1061), see
Section 8. A maximum of two attempts is allowed for each module, but only if you fail (0,
1 or 2 marks); you don’t get a second attempt if you already achieved a 3, since the tests
are about learning and preparing you for the final exam, not about achieving perfect scores.
You can check the correct entry of your marks in Blackboard Grade Center (please allow
at least 1 week for the administrator to upload the marks). If you find any error, please
show the corresponding marked test to the administrator at your next visit to the testing
room.
8. Available help
(i) Quick queries: Except when they are engaged in marking tests the markers will be
available during the timetable periods in the marking room to help you with any points
that cause you difficulty. The most appropriate time is usually in the first 30 minutes
of the session whilst most people are still taking their tests, or during the last half-hour
when most people have finished! Don’t be shy: come and ask for help, we are always
pleased when people keep us busy. Remember: there are no stupid questions!
(ii) All queries: If your problems require lengthy discussions then you should attend the
Mathematics Workshop (MATH1061). This runs Mondays and Wednesdays 3-
6pm throughout the teaching weeks of both semesters, and continues in the May/June
exam period until the final exam. There are two or three mathematics helpers to
answer your questions. There are also a few copies of the course texts available for con-
sultation. The Workshop is there principally to support this course but it can also be
used by any other student in the University with mathematical queries. The Workshop
has proved an extremely useful facility for first and second year engineering students.
If you experience difficulties during the year, or your mathematical background is weak
or rusty, then you are strongly advised to make use of the Workshop. You can drop in
any time it is open, for five minutes with a quick query, or go along for the full three
hours each session and work through the week’s module with help readily available
when you get stuck. It is there to help you: Use it!
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9. Assessment
At the end of the year, in May/June, you sit a two-hour written final examination. The
final exam covers the entire year’s material. It counts for 100% of your final mark.
MATH1054 is core to your programme, so you must pass the course (a final mark of 40% or
more). If you fail, you will normally be required to take a referral/resit examination paper
in August/September and your final mark will be 100% the referral exam mark (normally
capped at 40%). Please ask your personal tutor or the student office if in doubt about
referral rules.
The format of the examination paper will be as follows: Part A with short multiple-choice
questions, similar to the multiple-choice questions in the online January Class Test, and
Part B containing longer questions. All questions are compulsory. You must be able to
do the longer questions in the Modules to be able to cope with the longer questions in the
examination. The rubric of the exam (the first page, containing the exam instructions) will
be published on Blackboard in advance.
10. Blackboard
All the material for this course is available on Blackboard.
In Blackboard you will find the Formula Sheet, this Course Description (= Module 0),
Organizational Data sheets, Modules 1-27, lecture notes for Modules 1-25, video solutions
for selected problems, and examination papers and solutions from recent years.
Whenever we find appropriate, we will also use Blackboard to send important announce-
ments that might guide/help you in your studies. These Blackboard messages are directly
connected to your university email. Therefore it is important that you check your univer-
sity email regularly.
11. Contact and Feedback

Please send any comments you have about the course (e.g. typographical errors in the
paperwork, topics which you feel could be better explained) to the respective Academic
Supervisors or to the Self-Study Course Coordinators:
Dr Oscar Dias, Mathematical Sciences, office 54/6003, telephone 023 8059 5112, email
O.J.Campos-Dias@soton.ac.uk
Dr Nansen Petrosyan, Mathematical Sciences, office 54/8001, telephone 023 8059 5111, email
N.Petrosyan@soton.ac.uk
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SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS FOR PART I ENGINEERING
Self-paced Course
MODULE 1 ALGEBRA
Module Topics
1. Simplifying expressions and algebraic functions

2. Rearranging formulae
3. Indices
4. Rationalising a denominator containing a square root
5. Linear and quadratic equations
6. Simultaneous linear equations
7. Inequalities
8. Partial fractions
Most modules are based on the book by James but the first two, on Algebra and Trigonometry, are self-
contained. Facility in carrying out algebraic manipulation is very important in your studies, and Module 1
covers most of the basic algebraic topics.
Many of you will know much of the material in the first two modules and so these will be mainly revision.
It is important, however, that you are able to carry out mathematical manipulations quickly and so, even
if the material is familiar, you are still strongly advised to work through the exercises to improve your
speed and accuracy. To some of you the discussed material will not all be revision, in which case you
should spend time working carefully through the modules. The book (not the course text) Introduction
to Engineering Mathematics by Croft, Davison and Hargreaves, published by Addison-Wesley,
contains a large number of chapters on the basic material covered in the first two modules and this book is
recommended if you need extra examples.
Work Scheme
Study the following sections, read carefully the worked Examples and do the stated Exercises. Solutions to
the Exercises are given towards the end of this module, starting on p.21.
1. Removing brackets A basic rule in removing brackets from mathematical expressions is
a(b + c) = ab + ac.
The quantity a outside the bracket multiplies both the quantities b and c inside. Note that the meaning
of an expression depends crucially on including brackets, where appropriate. Omitting them in the above
expression, for instance, gives ab + c, which is not the same. You should also recall that
(a + b)c = ac + bc, a(b c) = ab ac.
If more than one set of brackets is present the inner ones are removed first. Now go through the following
worked Example.
–1–
Example 1. Remove the brackets in the following and simplify the resulting expressions by com-
bining like terms: (i) a 3 2(4b 2 3(3a 2b)), (ii) (x 2)2 .
(i) =a 3 2(4b 2 9a + 6b) = a 3 8b + 4 + 18a 12b = 19a 20b + 1.
(ii) = (x 2)(x 2) = x(x 2) 2(x 2) = x2 2x 2x + 4 = x2 4x + 4.
In determining the above solution note that it was essential to use the following rules:
(positive) ⇥ (positive) = positive, (positive) ⇥ (negative) = negative
(negative) ⇥ (positive) = negative, (negative) ⇥ (negative) = positive.

The process of removing brackets is also commonly called expanding brackets.
***Do Exercise 1. Remove brackets and simplify the following

(i) x 1 + 2(3x 8), (ii) 2a + 3(c a) 2(b a), (iii) (x + 7)(x 5), (iv) (x + 4)2 ,
(v) (x 1)(x + 2)(x 3), (vi) (y 3)3 .
2. Factorisation This is the reverse of the process of removing brackets. You are given an algebraic
expression and you try to rewrite it as the product of factors. In many cases you may have an additional
implicit requirement that the factors contain only integers (positive or negative) - you will not always be
able to find factors satisfying this constraint.
With very simple expressions the factorisation is straightforward:
e.g. 5x 10 = 5(x 2), t2 + t = t(t + 1).
Sometimes you must try to factorise a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are numbers, into
a product of linear factors. For example, if you are asked to factorise the quadratic expression x2 4x 21
then you seek integers m and n such that
x2 4x 21 = (x m)(x n).
Since the right-hand side can be expanded to give
x(x n) m(x n) = x2 nx mx + mn = x2 (m + n)x + mn,
comparison with the original quadratic shows that you require
(i) m + n = 4, (ii) mn = 21.
There are eight possible ways of satisfying condition (ii) with integers: m = 1, n = 21; m = 3, n = 7;
m = 7, n = 3; m = 21, n = 1; m = 1, n = 21; m = 3, n = 7; m = 7, n = 3; m = 21, n = 1. It is
easily seen that only the third pair of numbers satisfies condition (i). Hence, the required factorisation is
x2 4x 21 = (x 7)(x ( 3)) = (x 7)(x + 3).
When the coefficient of x2 is not unity then the above approach must be slightly modified. For the quadratic
2x2 + 5x 3 you write
2x2 + 5x 3 = (2x m)(x n)
and, after expanding the right-hand side and comparing coefficients, require
2n + m = 5, mn = 3.
–2–
It relatively easy to deduce that the above pair of equations has solution m = 1, n = 3, so the appropriate
factorisation is
2x2 + 5x 3 = (2x 1)(x + 3).
In many situations the quadratic does not factorise into linear factors with integer coefficients. Show, for
instance, that x2 + x + 1 cannot be written in the form (x m)(x n) for any integers m and n.
With practice you will be able to spot the linear factors and write them down, although it is advisable to
remove the brackets in your answer to verify that you do indeed get back to the original expression. That is
to say, you should verify that your answer is correct.
***Do Exercise 2. Factorise

(i) x2 + 7x + 12, (ii) x2 2x 3, (iii) x3 25x, (iv) 8 + 2x x2 , (v) 2x2 3x 2.
3. Algebraic fractions The rules for adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing arithmetic fractions
carry over into algebra. It is important you express fractions in their simplest form, by cancelling common
12x3
factors. The numerator and denominator of the quotient both have factors of 3 and x, and cancelling
3x
these gives
12x3
= 4x2 .
3x
This answer applies only when x 6= 0, since division by zero is not allowable.
As a further example of simplifying fractions you can see that
3x3 3x2
= .
3x2 + x 3x + 1
Note that the denominator 3x2 +x = x(3x+1) and so it is not divisible by 3 or x2 , just x or 3x+1. In general
a fraction (either arithmetic or algebraic) is expressed in its simplest form by factorising the numerator and
denominator separately and then cancelling any common factors.
x2 2x 15
Example 2. Simplify
x+3
On factorising the numerator the above quotient can be written
(x 5)(x + 3)
=x 5,
x+3
provided x 6= 3. The latter restriction on x is necessary because in obtaining the answer x 5

the common factor x + 3 was cancelled by dividing both numerator and denominator by this factor.
Clearly this is only acceptable provided x + 3 6= 0, i.e. x 6= 3, and hence the quotient in Example 2
simplifies to x 5 only if x 6= 3. When x = 3 the original fraction has the value 0/0 which has no
meaning.
To add or subtract algebraic fractions you must first write each fraction in its simplest form by cancelling
any common factors. Next you have to determine the simplest algebraic expression that has the given
denominators as its factors - i.e. the lowest common denominator (LCD). Each fraction is then written with
this LCD as its denominator, before combining.
–3–
x y 3 2x + 1
Example 3. Express as single fractions (i) + , (ii) + 2
y x (x + 1)2 x + 3x + 2
(i) LCD of denominators y and x is xy, so
x y xx yy x2 + y 2
+ = + = .
y x xy xy xy
(ii) This time the LCD of denominators (x + 1)2 and x2 + 3x + 2 (= (x + 1)(x + 2)) is (x + 1)2 (x + 2),
hence
3 2x + 1 3(x + 2) (2x + 1)(x + 1)
+ = +
(x + 1)2 (x + 2)(x + 1) (x + 1)2 (x + 2) (x + 2)(x + 1)2
3x + 6 + (2x2 + 2x + x + 1)
=
(x + 1)2 (x + 2)
2
2x + 6x + 7
= .
(x + 1)2 (x + 2)
Note that the numerator in the above expression does not factorise into linear terms with integer coefficients.
3
Example 4. Express as a single fraction x+2+
2x 1
x+2
x + 2 can be expressed and the LCD of 1 and 2x 1 is 2x 1. Hence
1
3 (x + 2)(2x 1) 3 2x2 x + 4x 2 + 3
x+2+ = + =
2x 1 2x 1 2x 1 2x 1
2x2 + 3x + 1
= ,
2x 1
which can be written
(2x + 1)(x + 1)
.
2x 1
***Do Exercise 3. Express as a single fraction

1 1 1 2 1 2x 3x
(i) + , (ii) 2
+ , (iii) x+ , (iv)
x x 1 (t + 2) t+2 x2 +1 x2 +x 2 (x 1)2
4. Formulae Physical quantities are often related to each other using formulae, e.g. the area of a circle,
A, is related to its radius, R, through the formula A = ⇡R2 .
To evaluate a formula you must substitute numbers in place of the symbols, remembering that you must be
very careful about the units you use.
In the formula A = ⇡R2 , A is called the subject of the formula since it appears by itself on one side of the
formula, and nowhere else. It is often necessary to rearrange a formula so that a di↵erent variable becomes the
subject. During this rearrangement, or transposition, you can carry out a number of di↵erent operations to
the formula provided you do the same thing to both sides. The possible operations are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division (by a non-zero quantity) and taking ’functions’ of both sides (e.g. taking the square
or square root).
Example 5. An object with initial speed u and constant acceleration a travels a distance s in time
t given by s = ut + 12 at2 . Rearrange the formula so that the subject is a.
Subtracting ut from both sides gives
1 2
s ut = at ,
2
–4–
then multiplying both sides by 2 leads to
2(s ut) = at2 .
Finally dividing both sides by t2 implies
2(s ut)
a= .
t2
***Do Exercise 4. Rearrange the following formulae to obtain expressions for the stated variable
(i) A = ⇡r2 for r, (ii) v 2 = u2 + 2as for s,
1 1 1
(iii) = + for R, (first express right-hand side as a single fraction),
R R1 R2
s
l
(iv) T = 2⇡ for l.
g
5. Indices Products of a number can be written compactly using indices, or powers. For example,
81 = 3 ⇥ 3 ⇥ 3 ⇥ 3 and you write
81 = 34 .
The basic rules for manipulating indices are
am an = am+n ,
am
= am n ,
an
m 1 1
a = or (am = ),
am a m
(am )n = (an )m = amn ,

1 1 m
(am ) n = (a n )m = a n .
Note that
(am cn )3 = (am cn )(am cn )(am cn ) = am am am cn cn cn
= am+m+m cn+n+n = a3m c3n ,
and in general one obtains the result
(am cn )p = amp cnp .
3
Example 6. Evaluate 16 2
Using the above rules
3 1
16 2 = (16 2 )3 = 43 = 4 ⇥ 4 ⇥ 4 = 64.
Check the answer using the xy button on your calculator.

1
a 2 b3 c 2
Example 7. Simplify 1
acd 2
1
3 1 3
a 2 b3 c 2
a2 b 2 c 2 2 1 3 1
1 1 3 1 1 ab 2
1 = 1 =a b c 2 2 d 2 = ab c 2 2 d 2 = 1 1 .
acd 2 acd 2 c2 d2
–5–
***Do Exercise 5. Simplify
1 3
3 1
2 (a 3 ) 1 2
(i) (81) , 4 (ii) a a ,
2 (iii) , (iv) a 3 b 3 c(a2 c4 ),
a
✓ 4
◆ 13
a
(v) 1
, (vi) x(xa )2 .
a
6. Rationalising a denominator involving a square root This section is concerned with rewriting
1
an expression such as p so that no square roots appear in the denominator. The method for achieving
a b p
2 2 2 2
this
⇣ uses the result (x + y) (x y) = x y = x xy + yx y . Putting x = a and y = b gives
p ⌘⇣ p ⌘ p
a+ b a b = a2 b. Hence, multiplying numerator and denominator by a + b you obtain
⇣ p ⌘
1 a+ b p
1 a+ b
p =⇣ p ⌘⇣ p ⌘ = a2 b .
a b a b a+ b
1
Example 8. p .
Rationalise the denominator in
1+ 2
p
Multiply the numerator and denominator by 1 2 to give
p p p
1 1 2 1 2 1 2 p
p p = = = 1+ 2.
1+ 2 1 2 1 2 1
Check your answer again using your calculator.
***Do Exercise 6. Rationalise the denominator in

6 1
(i) p , (ii) p p .
1 7 2+ 3
7. Linear equations Physical quantities are related by equations. You often need to solve an equation
in an unknown quantity, say x. That is to say you need to find the value, or values, of x which will make
both sides of the equation equal.
The simplest equations to solve are linear equations, in which x appears only to the first power, that is as
1
x, and not as x3 , x 4 , etc. The standard form is
ax + b = 0,
but linear equations often appear in non-standard form.
Example 9. Solve the equation 3x + 10 = 4(1 x).

Multiplying out the right-hand side (RHS)
3x + 10 = 4 4x.
Adding 4x to each side gives

3x + 4x + 10 = 4,
–6–
and then subtracting 10 from both sides
7x = 4 10 = 6.
Dividing both sides by 7 then leads to the solution x = 6/7.
8. Quadratic equations Quadratic equations have the standard form
ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a 6= 0.
If the quadratic expression on the left-hand side can be factorised then it is easy to write down the solution
of the quadratic equation.
Example 10. Solve 6x2 13x 5 = 0.

The left-hand side factorises to give
(3x + 1)(2x 5) = 0,
and hence either 3x + 1 = 0 or 2x 5 = 0. Solving these linear equations leads to

1 5
x= or x = .
3 2
There are two values of x, therefore, which satisfy the above quadratic equation.
Sometimes you may be given a quadratic which you find difficult, or impossible, to factorise. In these
situations you can always use the result:
the solutions of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (with a 6= 0) are
p
b ± b2 4ac
x= .
2a
Comparing the general equation with that considered in Example 10 it is seen that a = 6, b = 13, c = 5.
1 5
Substitute these values into the general formula and verify the solutions x = , x= .
3 2
2
Note that if b 4ac > 0 then its square root is also a non-zero real number, with the plus and minus signs
in the general formula leading to two distinct real roots.
When b2 = 4ac there is only one value of x which satisfies the equation. For instance, the equation x2
6x + 9 = 0 can be written (x 3)2 = 0, with solution x = 3 (twice). x = 3 is known as a repeated root.
Finally, if b2 4ac < 0 then its square root is a complex number (see a later module). In this situation the
quadratic is said to possess complex roots.
A third method for solving quadratic equations involves completing the square. Since
(x + a)2 = (x + a)(x + a) = x2 + ax + ax + a2
= x2 + 2ax + a2 ,
by subtracting a2 from both sides it follows that
(x + a)2 a2 = x2 + 2ax.
Hence, by choosing a = 4, the expression x2 + 8x can be written
x2 + 8x = (x + 4)2 42 = (x + 4)2 16.
–7–
Confirm the above answer by removing the bracket. Completing the square is used in the example below.
Example 11. Solve x2 + 6x + 6 = 0 by completing the square.
The method consists of rewriting the first two terms of this quadratic by completing the square. Using
the result proved above it follows that
x2 + 6x = (x + 3)2 32 = (x + 3)2 9.
Hence
x2 + 6x + 6 = (x + 3)2 9 + 6 = (x + 3)2 3,
and so the given quadratic equation can also be expressed

(x + 3)2 3 = 0.
Adding 3 to both sides gives

(x + 3)2 = 3
which, after taking square roots, becomes
p
x + 3 = ± 3.
p p p
The two solutions, therefore, are x = 3 ± 3 (i.e. x = 3 + 3 and x = 3 3).
You can verify the above solutions by using the general formula for the solution of a quadratic.
It is important to note that the technique of completing the square is also very useful in other areas. For
instance, you will certainly use the technique for some integration problems.
9. Solution of simultaneous linear equations A linear equation in two unknowns x and y has the
form
ax + by = c,
where a, b, c are constants and a and b are non-zero. If you have two such equations then you have two
simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns. A set of values for x and y which satisfies both equations is
called a solution of the pair of equations. To solve the system of equations it is necessary to eliminate one
of the unknowns by adding or subtracting appropriate multiples of the equations (see below).
Example 12. Solve the set of equations
4x + 2y = 5
5x 3y = 2.
First you must decide which unknown to eliminate. Suppose the variable y is chosen, then it is
necessary to ensure the coefficients of the y terms in both equations have equal magnitude. An
obvious way to achieve this is to multiply the first equation by 3 and the second equation by 2:
12x + 6y = 15
10x 6y = 4.
Adding the above equations leads to 12x + 10x = 15 4, which gives 22x = 11, or x = 12 . Substituting
back into the first given equation leads to
✓ ◆
1
4 + 2y = 5.
2
This implies 2 + 2y = 5, i.e. 2y = 3, y = 32 .

Hence, the solution set is x = 12 , y = 32 .
You should always verify your answer by substituting back into both equations stated in the question.
–8–
10. Solving equations using graphs A variety of di↵erent types of equation can be solved using graphs.
By drawing a graph (or graphs) you can see whether the given equation has a solution and, if so, obtain
approximate values for each solution. Note that a graphical method may not give you precise values for these
solutions although the accuracy of the answer can usually be improved by drawing better graphs, using the
zoom facility on graphical calculators to home in on the points of intersection or by algebraic means.
Example 13. Solve, by using graphs, (i) 3x + 10 = 4(1 x), (ii) 6x2 13x 5 = 0,
(iii) 4x + 2y = 5, 5x 3y = 2, (the equations solved algebraically in Examples 9, 10 and 12).
(i) In this case you can plot y = 3x + 10 and y = 4(1 x) and then look for the point of intersection.
Alternatively, you rearrange the terms as in Example 9 to obtain 7x + 6 = 0, plot y = 7x + 6 and look
for the value (or values) of x where it intersects the x-axis (where y = 0).
... y
.......
....... y = 7x + 6
.. .... ..
...
.... ...
.... ...
.. . ....
... ..
...
... ... . The lines y = 3x + 10 and
... ... .......
. ... .......
. . . ......
......
......
......
20....
..
.
. .
....
...
.
...........
.......
y = 4(1 x) intersect near x = 0.8.
...... .... .. ......
...... ... .......
...... ... ... ............
...... ... ... ... A more accurate graph would provide
......
...... ... ..... .............y = 3x + 10
...... ... ... ......
.........
......
......
......
......
...
...
. ............ .....
........
.......... a better solution.
...... .
.......... .....
......
......
...... ............. ... .....
10
......... ..
..
...........
.
.. ..
.
..... .........
.. ..
......
. .
In the alternative method the graph of
.... ...... ..... . .
.......
......
....... ....... ..
.....
... .......
y = 7x + 6 is again a straight line, and
....... ... .... ...........
....... .
...
... ....
. .....
.
.
.
..
. ..
...
......
...... x it is easily seen that y = 7x + 6 = 0
....... ... . .... ....
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...........
..... ...
. .
.
.
......
...... .... when x is approximately 0.8.
3 2 ...
...
. 1 .
.
.
....
1 2 ...
.......
......
3
..... .
. ......
.. ......
... .... ......
... ... ......
... ... ......
... ......
.. .. ..
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
...... y = 4(1
......
x)
.
..
.
.....
10.... .
.
.
.
......
......
......
... .
. .
.. .
.
. ... ..
.
. ... ...
.
. ...
...
...
...
..
20......
(ii)
..
......
y
.......
... .... ...
..
...
....
..
...
...
...
......
..
..
..
20 ..
....
..
..
..
.. ..
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
....
..
.
.
..
To find a solution of 6x2 13x 5 = 0
.. ... ..
..
..
..
...
...
.
. ..
.
.
..
.. draw a graph of y = 6x2 13x 5
.... ...
...
...
.......
.. ...
...
and look for the values of x, if any, for
...
... 10 .... ....
...
... ...
..
..
...
which y = 0 (i.e. where the graph
... ... ...
...
...
...
...
...
..
.
.
...
intersects the x-axis).
... ... ..
.. ..
.. .. ..
.. .... ..
. x
. . ..
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.. ..
....
...
The graph suggests that approxi-
... . ...
3 2 1 ... ...
... ... 1 2 ..
.
..
3 mate solutions for x are 0.3 and
...... ...
.
...
....
.......
..
..
..
2.5. By zooming in and expanding the
... ... ..
... .... ...
. graph near these points it is possible
.. .... ..
...
...... ....... ....
10 ... .....
........ ............
.... to achieve more accurate solutions.
... ..............
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
20
.....
–9–
(You should observe from the graph that y never becomes 20, for instance, and hence the equation
6x2 13x 5 = 20, which can be written 6x2 13x + 15 = 0, has no real solutions (or roots).)
(iii) In this case you look for the point of intersection of the two graphs 4x + 2y = 5 and 5x 3y = 2.
First draw the graphs of both these equations.
..
.......
.........
y
..
... ... .
... ... ..
... ...
... .... .....
... ..... . .
3
... ...
... ..
...
...
...... ...
.... .
....
.. .
........ ...
.
... .... ...
. . ...
........ ..... 5x .. 3y = 2
2 .... .... .....
. ...
...
...
... ..
...... Clearly the lines intersect at
... .......
.
. .
... ..... ....
. . ... approximately x = 0.5, y = 1.5.
........ ....
1 ........
.
...
...
...
. ... ...
...
.
.
..
.. ...
...
... These values can again be con-
..
.... ...
. ...
...
...
.
x . firmed by drawing more accu-
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . .
. ... .
. . ...
... ..
rate graphs
2 .
1
..
...
. .
....
.
1 .
2
...
...
.
. . ...
... .... ...
.. ...
... .......
..
..
...
... 2 ..
.
.
...
...
...
.. .
. ...
.... .
.
. ...
.... .
.
. ...
.... ..
.
.
...
...
... .
. ...
.. ...
..
.
...
.
2 . . .
.
..
.
.
.
...
...
...
.. . ...
... .
. ...
....
..
.
.. 4x + 2y = 5
.
.
.
.
..
.
...
...
.. .. ...
. . ...
... 3 ........ .
..
....
...
It is worth noting that if the two graphs are parallel then they do not intersect and the system has no
solution. This situation would arise if you were asked to solve the equations x + y = 1 and 2x + 2y = 5,
for instance.
Graphical methods can easily be extended to more complicated equations.
***Do Exercise 7. Solve the equations

2 2 1
(i) 4 2x = 3, (ii) = 5, (iii) 4(1 x) = 3(2x 1), (iv) = .
x+1 x x+1
***Do Exercise 8. Solve the equations

8
(i) x2 x 12 = 0, (ii) x2 9x + 14 = 0, (iii) x2 9x 8 = 0, (iv) =6 x.
x+3
***Do Exercise 9. Solve the following sets of equations

(i) 2x + y = 3, (ii) 3x + 4y = 12, (iii) 4x 2y = 5
4x y = 3, 9x + 2y = 9, 5x + 3y = 2
***Do Exercise 10. Solve the following equations (using graphs in both cases to illustrate your results):
(i) x3 = 2 x, (ii) x3 = x.
11. Inequalities The statement that the number a is less than the number b is written a < b. This
means the same as the statement b is greater than a, which is written b > a. Every inequality, that is a
statement that one number is less than another, may be written using either the symbol < or the symbol
>. An inequality a < b has a geometric meaning; if a and b are represented by points on a number line with
– 10 –
positive numbers to the right of the origin, then the point with coordinate a lies to the left of the point with
coordinate b.
. . .
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . .
0 a b
The symbol < in a b.
The statement a  b means that either a b or a = b.
(You read the symbols  and as “less than or equal to” and “greater than or equal to” respectively.) The
statement “a is positive and b is negative” is equivalent to a > 0 and b < 0; whereas “a non-negative” and
“b non-positive” may be written a 0 and b  0 respectively.
If a and b are two distinct numbers then one of them must be greater than the other; this is the first basic
rule for inequalities, rule I below. If a and b are both positive and given by non-terminating decimals you
pick the greater number by successively comparing digits. For example, if a = 12.47325 and b = 12.475111,
then a < b since the first digit in which they di↵er is the third digit after the decimal point and that digit
is greater for b.
A negative number is less than any positive number. If a and b are both negative it is useful to refer to the
number line if you are in any doubt about which is the greater. For example, 3.18 > 7.23.
. . .
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
7.23 3.18 0
When working with inequalities there are a number of basic rules.

I. If a and b are two numbers, then one of the three statements a = b, a < b, a > b is true and
the other two are false.
II. If a 0 then ac < bc
(multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by the same positive quantity does not
change the sign of the inequality).
V. If a bc
(multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by the same negative quantity reverses the
sign of the inequality).
The above rules can be illustrated using the number line. Rule III is equivalent to translating the figure
to the right or left, depending on the sign of c - translation preserves the order. Rule IV is equivalent to
magnifying (or shrinking) the number line - again the order is unchanged. However, you can easily show
that Rule V implies a magnification and reflection, with the order (and hence sign of inequality) reversed.
12. Solution of inequalities To solve an inequality you must find all numbers x for which the inequal-
ity is true. The actual steps taken in determining the solution are similar to those used in solving the
corresponding equation, but you must be careful in dealing with the sign of the inequality.
Example 14. Solve 3 2x < 4x 5.

First you must move all terms involving x to the left-hand side and all numbers to the other side. To
achieve this you must remove all x terms from the right-hand side (by subtracting 4x) and all numbers
– 11 –
from the left-hand side (by subtracting 3). Hence
(3 2x) 4x 3 < (4x 5) 4x 3

i.e. 6x < 8.
1
To obtain the inequality for x you must multiply by (or divide by 6), remembering from Rule
6
V that you must also reverse the inequality
6x 8
>
6 6
4
i.e. x> .
3
4
The solution is a set of numbers (called the solution set) - it consists of all numbers greater than .
3
If a and b are numbers such that a a and x < b. In writing the double inequality it is essential that a < b. Thus, the inequalities x > 1
and x < 2 can be expressed by the double inequality 1 < x < 2, but it is not possible to write x > 2 and
x < 1 as the double inequality 2 < x < 1 (since 2 is not less than 1).
You may find it helpful to observe that acceptable double inequalities, such as 1 < x < 2, represent a single
region on the number line, whereas the inequalities x > 2 and x < 1 give two distinct sections of the line.
The solution of a double inequality is equivalent to the solution of two simultaneous inequalities, each of
which is solved using the method discussed above.
Example 15. Solve x 6 < 2x 5x 3.

This means that you must find the values of x which satisfy the inequalities x 6 < 2x 5 and
2x 5  x 3.
Each of these is treated separately:
(x 6) x < (2x 5) x
(x 6) x + 5 < (2x 5) x+5
i.e. 1 < x.
(2x 5) x  (x 3) x
(2x 5) x + 5  (x 3) x+5
x  2.
Hence the double inequality implies x > 1 and x  2. The solution set therefore consists of all
numbers x such that 1 < x  2.
The absolute value | a | of a number a is defined by

⇢
a if a 0
|a|=
a if a < 0.
Thus | 8 |= 8, | 8 |= ( 8) = 8. Note therefore that | a |> 0 if a 6= 0, and | a |= 0 if a = 0. It also follows

that
|ab| = |a| |b|,
1 1
= ,
a |a|
a |a|
= .
b |b|
|a| is also often called the modulus of a or the magnitude of a.
– 12 –
The absolute value has a geometric interpretation and it is the distance from the origin to the corresponding
point on the number line. Hence |a| < 4 means 4 < a < 4, i.e.
.. |a| ! ..
.. ..
. .
... ..
.. ..
. .
. .
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. .
4 a 0 4
The quantity |a b| is the distance between the points a and b on the number line, whatever the numerical
values of a and b. The corresponding graphs, of course, may vary:
e.g. if a < 0, b > 0 if a > 0, b > 0
... |a b| ! ... ... |a b| ! ...

... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
a 0 b 0 a b
Example 16. Solve |x 2| < 5.

From the comments above the inequality means 5 < x 2 < 5. This is a double inequality which is
equivalent to 5 < x 2 and x 2 < 5. Adding 2 to both sides of the first of these inequalities gives
3 < x whereas adding 2 to the second inequality leads to x < 7. Hence the solution set consists of
all numbers greater than 3 and less than 7; i.e. 3 < x < 7.
As discussed above the result has a geometrical interpretation. The quantity |x 2| is the distance of
the point x on the number line from the point 2, and this distance is less than 5.
.. 5 ! .. 5 ! ..
.. ... ...
.. .. ..
... ... ...
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. .
3 0 2 7
Hence the point x must satisfy 3 < x < 7.
Inequalities containing a quotient must be solved with care as shown below.

2 x
Example 17. < 4. Solve
3+x
The denominator can be removed by multiplying both sides by 3 + x. However, the quantity 3 + x
can be positive or negative and the sign of the inequality depends on which of those values it takes.
Both situations must be treated separately.
Case (i) 3 + x > 0. In this case multiplying both sides by 3 + x gives
2 x < 4(3 + x)
2 x < 12 + 4x
2 12 < 4x + x
10 < 5x
i.e. x> 2.
– 13 –
It is important to note that when x > 2 it follows that x + 2 > 0, (or x + 3 > 1) and hence the
necessary condition 3 + x > 0 is always satisfied.
Case (ii) 3 + x < 0. Now you can again multiply both sides by 3 + x, but after doing so the inequality
must be reversed. This time, therefore, you obtain
2 x > 4(3 + x)
2 x > 12 + 4x
10 > 5x
i.e. x< 2.
However, case (ii) requires 3 + x < 0, i.e. x < 3, and the latter inequality and x < 2 are both
satisfied only if x < 3. The final solution to the original inequality, therefore, is the set of values of
x satisfying x < 3 and x > 2.
13. Solving inequalities using graphs To solve an inequality of the form f (x) < g(x) you can draw
graphs of f (x) and g(x) and investigate where the first lies below the second. Generally this will be achieved
by finding the points of intersection, which involves solving the equation f (x) = g(x) (which has been
considered in previous sections).
Example 18. Solve graphically the inequality x2 4x + 1 < 3.

The graphs of y = x2 4x + 1 and y = 3 are shown on the diagram and you can see that the solution
of the inequality consists of all values of x between the points P and Q.
..
.. y .....
........
.
..
..
... ... ... ..
..
.. . . .. ...
. ..
.
. .
.. .... ..
.. ..
..
.. ... ..
.. ... ..
.. . ...
.. 3 .
..
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
..
.
...... .... ....
... .
. ...
.
... .... .... ... ...
.. ... ... ... .
... ........ ... .
... .... .... .... ...
.. .... ... .. .
... .. .. .
... ...... ... ...
..... ....
.
.. . . .
. ..
............ ...
... ....... .. ...
.. ... ... ..
. ..
... .. .
..
... ... ...
. ..
...
. .
...
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . .
x ....
.... .... ... ....

1 P ...
...
...
...
... ..
.
..
.. Q 5
... ... ..
.......... ... ...
.. ... ...
... ..
.. ...
... ... ...
... ... ...
.. ... ...
.......... ... ...
....
...
... .
....
... .... ..
.... ...
... ..... ....
... ...... ....
.
. ........ ..
..
......
.
.
......................
3 .........
....
...
P and Q are determined by solving x2 4x + 1 = 3, which reduces to x2 4x 2 = 0. Using the

formula gives p p p
4 ± (( 4)2 4(1)( 2)) 4 ± 24 4±2 6 p
x= = = = 2 ± 6,
2(1) 2 2
p p
and so the solution of the inequality is the set of all x satisfying 2 6 < x < 2 + 6.
Example 19. Use graphical means to solve the inequality in Example 17.
2 x
Here you need to draw the graphs of y = and y = 4. The first graph is not easy to obtain
3+x
but from plotting points, using a graphics calculator or using methods discussed in a later module on
graph plotting you can find the graph is in two parts as shown below:
– 14 –
... ....
y .....
........
... .... .. ... ...
. ..
... ....
. ..........
... ..
..
10 ....
... .
.. ...
... ...
... ... ...
.
. ...
... ...
... ...
... ... ...
...
.
.. ...
.. ...
... ...
... 4 ...
.
y=4
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
... .. ..... ....
. .
.... ...
... .. .......... ...
... ... .......
........ ...
........... ....
... .. ................
x
. . .............. ....
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . .
... .... ....
6 3 ... P ... 3
...
... ...
.............
......... ... ...
........ ...
......
...... ... ...
..... .
.
. ...
....
... .. ...
... . ...
... .
.
. ....
... ..
... ... ...
... ..
. ....
... ..
... ..
. ...
...
... ... ....
. ..
... .........
.
... 10 ..
...
... ...
... ...
The straight line y = 4 has also been added to the figure. You can easily observe that the solution
of the inequality consists of all values of x to the right of P and to the left of the asymptote x = 3.
2 x
From solving = 4, (i.e. 2 x = 4(3 + x) = 12 + 4x, 5x = 10, x = 2), you know that P is
3+x
situated at x = 2. Hence the solution set is all values of x satisfying x < 3 and x > 2 (which
agrees with the earlier result!).
***Do Exercise 11. Solve the inequalities

(i) 6x + 5 x 5, (ii) 5<x 4<2 x, (iii) x + 10 < 2x 5x 3,
3x 1
(iv) 2x2 2 < x2 x, (v) 1< < 2, (vi) |2x 5| < 9, (vii) |4 3x|  3.
x 3
14. Partial fractions Polynomial functions arise in many engineering situations. A polynomial of
degree n has the form
an xn + an 1x
n 1
+ · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ,
where an , · · · a0 are all constants. The degree is the highest power occurring in the polynomial. Hence,
x2 + 1 is a polynomial of degree 2 and x4 + x2 + 1 is a polynomial of degree 4.
In solving problems it is sometimes necessary to consider a quotient of polynomials (i.e. one polynomial
divided by another). Such quotients can be split into a sum of much simpler fractions, called partial
fractions, and this splitting is very important, for instance, in determining solutions to some integration
problems and in applying Laplace transform methods to di↵erential equations.
Given a quotient of polynomials in which the denominator has degree d and the numerator has degree n
then the quotient, or fraction, is proper if n < d and is said to be improper if n d.
It can be shown that any polynomial with real cofficients can be factorised into a product of linear and
quadratic factors (with all coefficients real). In particular, therefore, the denominator can be expressed as a
product of such factors.
For the moment consider only proper fractions. Next, factorise the denominator, if it is not already in the
required form, so that it consists of a product of linear and quadratic factors. Each factor produces a partial
fraction of a particular form according to the following rules:
– 15 –
factor in denominator partial fraction
A
ax + b (linear)
ax + b
A B
(ax + b)2 (repeated linear) +
ax + b (ax + b)2
Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c (quadratic)
ax2 + bx + c
Ax + B Cx + D
(ax2 + bx + c)2 (repeated quadratic) +
ax2 + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)2
In all cases the unknown constants A, B, C... are determined by evaluating an identity at some chosen values
of x or by equating coefficients, or from using some combination of the two methods (as shown in the
examples below).
x 5
Example 20. Express as partial fractions
x2 + 2x 3
The denominator can be factorised to give (x + 3)(x 1), and then there is a partial fraction corre-
sponding to each linear factor. Hence,
x 5 A B
= + ,
(x + 3)(x 1) x+3 x 1
where A and B are constants. Rewriting the right-hand side using a common denominator gives
x 5 A(x 1) + B(x + 3)
= ,
(x + 3)(x 1) (x + 3)(x 1)
and multiplying both sides by (x + 3)(x 1), or by equating numerators (since the denominators are
identical), leads to the equation
x 5 = A(x 1) + B(x + 3).
The latter equation must hold for all values of x, and in these situations is often called an identity.
Substituting particular values for x into the equation gives linear equations in A and B (most of which
will be related to the others). Obviously you can save a lot of e↵ort by choosing suitable values for x
and with linear factors it is usually best to choose values which ensure the linear factors are zero, in
turn. For the above, therefore, the convenient choices are x = 1 and x = 3. Consider these in turn:
x=1 1 5 = A(0) + B(4)

4 = 4B, i.e. B= 1.
x= 3 3 5 = A( 3 1) + B(0)
8= 4A, i.e. A = 2.
Thus the partial fractions are

x 5 2 1
= .
x2 + 2x 3 x+3 x 1
– 16 –
x
x2 + 6x + 9
The denominator factorises again: x2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3)2 , so
x A B
= + ,
x2 + 6x + 9 x + 3 (x + 3)2
and multiplying both sides by (x + 3)2 leads to the identity
x = A(x + 3) + B.
With a linear factor it is convenient to choose x = 3, in which case
3 = A(0) + B, i e. B= 3.
The remaining coefficient could be found by substituting a di↵erent value for x (for example, with
x = 0, 0 = A(3) + B, 3A = B = ( 3) = 3, A = 1). Alternatively you can compare
coefficients of powers of x on both sides of the identity x = A(x + 3) + B.
For the x term, equating coefficients gives 1 = A, as above. From the constant terms (i.e. x0 terms)
it follows that 0 = 3A + B, which is identically satisfied by A = 1, B = 3, as expected.
The final result, therefore, is
x 1 3
= .
x2 + 6x + 9 x+3 (x + 3)2
Let us now consider a more complicated example.
3x2 + 5x + 2
(x2 + 4x + 5)(x 1)
The quadratic x2 + 4x + 5 does not split into a product of linear factors with real coefficients, so the
denominator is already in its simplest form. The rules stated earlier tell you that for this example the
appropriate partial fractions are
3x2 + 5x + 2 A Bx + C
= + .
(x2 + 4x + 5)(x 1) x 1 x2 + 4x + 5
Writing the right-hand side in terms of the common denominator (x 1)(x2 +4x+5) and then equating
numerators, or multiplying throughout by the product (x 1)(x2 + 4x + 5), gives
3x2 + 5x + 2 = A(x2 + 4x + 5) + (Bx + C)(x 1).
Choose x = 1 (to make the linear factor zero)
3 + 5 + 2 = A(1 + 4 + 5) + (Bx + C)(0),
10 = 10A, A = 1.
Before equating coefficients, multiplying out the right-hand side leads to
3x2 + 5x + 2 = A(x2 + 4x + 5) + Bx(x 1) + C(x 1)

2 2
= A(x + 4x + 5) + Bx Bx + Cx C.
– 17 –
Equating coefficients now gives
x2 3=A+B =1+B (since A = 1)
i.e. B = 2.
x 5 = 4A B + C = 4(1) 2+C
C=5 4 + 2 = 3.
All three constants have now been calculated but comparing constant terms on both sides of the
equation provides a check on your answers:
constant 2 = 5A C,
and this equation is satisfied by A = 1, C = 3.
Examples 20-22 have involved partial fractions for proper fractions.

Attention is now fixed on improper fractions. Recall that the fraction (or quotient) is improper if the degree
of the polynomial in the numerator, n say, is greater than the degree of the polynomial in the denominator,
x4 + 1
d. For example, the fraction 2 is improper, since the numerator has degree 4 and the denominator
x +1
degree 2.
It can be shown that
x4 + 1 2
= x2 1+ .
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
The corresponding general result can be written

polynomial degree n polynomial degree  (d 1)
= polynomial degree (n d) + .
polynomial degree d orig. denominator degree d
Note that for the specific example and the general result the final term on the right-hand side is a proper
fraction. Considering the right-hand side of the general expression, both the first term and the numerator
in the final term can be determined by long division, but partial fractions would still usually be needed for
this final term. An alternative, and often simpler, approach is not to use long division but determine the
polynomial of degree (n d) as part of the partial fraction process. This second method is illustrated below.
(2x + 1)(x + 1)
Example 23. Express in terms of partial fractions.
2x 1
Here the numerator is quadratic, the denominator is linear and hence the general result above gives
(2x + 1)(x + 1) const

= linear + .
2x 1 2x 1
Note that the denominator of the final term above is linear, and hence its numerator (which is of lower
order) must be a constant. To be more precise
(2x + 1)(x + 1) C
= Ax + B + ,
2x 1 2x 1
and, after multiplying both sides by 2x 1, the identity obtained is
(2x + 1)(x + 1) = (Ax + B)(2x 1) + C.
Choosing x = 12 , ✓ ✓ ◆ ◆✓ ◆
1 1
2 +1 + 1 = (Ax + B)(0) + C
2 2
– 18 –
✓ ◆
3
2 = C, C = 3.
2
Equating coefficients in the identity:

x2 2 = 2A, A = 1.
constant 1= B + C, B=C 1 = 2.
[check term in x : 2+1= A + 2B, satisfied.]
Hence
(2x + 1)(x + 1) 3
=x+2+ ,
2x 1 2x 1
which is the reverse of Example 4.
***Do Exercise 12. Express in partial fractions

1 x 1
(i) , (ii) , (iii) ,
(x 1)(x 2) (x2 + 5x + 4) (x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)
2
x x3 1
(iv) 2
, (v) .
(x 1) (x + 1)(x + 3)
– 19 –
Specimen Test 1
1. Expand (x + 1)(3 2x)
1
x(x 3 )4
2. Simplify 1
x2
2 3
3. Express as a single fraction
x+1 x+2
3
4. Solve =2
x+1
5. Solve x2 + 3x + 1 = 0
6. Solve the set of equations

4x y= 9
x + 3y = 1
7. Solve 5 x  3(x 1)
8. Solve |2 + x| < 3
x2 + 1
9. Express in partial fractions
x(x 1)
– 20 –
Worked solutions to Exercises
1. (i) =x 1 + 6x 16 = 7x 17
(ii) = 2a + 3c 3a 2b + 2a = a 2b + 3c
2
(iii) = x(x 5) + 7(x 5) = x + 2x 35
(iv) = (x + 4)(x + 4) = x(x + 4) + 4(x + 4) = x2 + 8x + 16
(v) = (x 1)(x(x 3) + 2(x 3))
= (x 1)(x2 x 6)
= x(x2 x 6) 1(x2 x 6)
3 2 2
=x x 6x x +x+6
3 2
=x 2x 5x + 6
(vi) = (y 3)(y 3)(y 3) = (y 3)(y(y 3) 3(y 3))
2 2
= y(y 6y + 9) 3(y 6y + 9)
= y3 9y 2 + 27y 27
2. (i) x2 + 7x + 12 = (x + 4)(x + 3)
[ (x m)(x n) = x2 (m + n)x + mn requires mn = 12, m + n = 7. Solution is m = 4, n = 3
or equivalently m = 3, n = 4.]
(ii) x2 2x 3 = (x 3)(x + 1)
[as above : m = 3, n = 1].
(iii) x3 25x = x(x2 25) = x(x 5)(x + 5)
(iv) 8 + 2x x2 = (x2 2x 8) = (x 4)(x + 2) = (4 x)(x + 2)
2
(v) 2x 3x 2 = (2x + 1)(x 2)
2
[(2x m)(x n) = 2x (2n + m)x + mn ) mn = 2, 2n + m = 3, leading to the solution n = 2,
m= 1.]
3. (i) LCD of x and x 1 is x(x 1)

1(x 1) 1(x) x 1+x 2x 1
Solution = + = =
x(x 1) (x 1)(x) x(x 1) x(x 1)
(ii) LCD of (t + 2)2 and (t + 2) is (t + 2)2
1 2(t + 2) 1 + 2t + 4 2t + 5
Solution = 2
+ = 2
=
(t + 2) (t + 2)(t + 2) (t + 2) (t + 2)2
1 x 1
(iii) x+ = + 2
x2 + 1 1 x +1
LCD of 1 and x2 + 1 is x2 + 1
x(x2 + 1) 1 x3 + x + 1
Solution = 2
+ 2 =
1(x + 1) x + 1 x2 + 1
(iv) x2 + x 2 = (x + 2)(x 1)
LCD of (x + 2)(x 1) and (x 1)2 is (x + 2)(x 1)2
2x(x 1) 3x(x + 2) x(2(x 1) 3(x + 2))

Solution = =
(x + 2)(x 1)(x 1) (x 1)2 (x + 2) (x + 2)(x 1)2
x( x 8) x(x + 8)
= =
(x + 2)(x 1)2 (x + 2)(x 1)2
– 21 –
r
A A
4. (i) = r2 , r = ± (positive if distance)
⇡ ⇡
v2 u2
(ii) v2 u2 = 2as, s=
2a
(iii) LCD of R1 and R2 is R1 R2
1 1(R2 ) 1(R1 ) R2 + R1
= + =
R R1 (R2 ) R2 (R1 ) R1 R2
R1 R2
R=
R1 + R2
s
T l T2 l
(iv) = , =
2⇡ g 4⇡ 2 g
gT 2
l=
4⇡ 2
3 3
5. (i) (81) 4 = (34 ) 4 = 33 = 27
1 5
(ii) a 2 a2 = a 2
1
(a 3 )3 a 1
2 1
(iii) = =a =
a a a2
1 2 7 2
(iv) = a 3 b 3 c(a2 c4 ) = a 3 b 3 c5
✓ 4 ◆ 13
a 1 1
(v) 1
= (a 3 ) 3 = a 1 =
a a
(vi) x(xa )2 = x(x2a ) = x2a+1
p p p
(1 + 7) 6 6(1 + 7) 6(1 + 7) p
6. (i) = p = p = = (1 + 7)
(1 7) (1 + 7) 1 7 6
p p p p
1 ( 2 3) 2 3 p p
(ii) = p p p p = = 2+ 3
( 2 + 3) ( 2 3) 2 3
1
7. (i) 2x = 4 3=1)x=
2
3
(ii) 2 = 5(x + 1) = 5x + 5, 5x = 3, x =
5
1
(iii) 4 4x = 6x + 3, 2x = 1, x =
2
x
(iv) 2= , 2(x + 1) = x, 2x + 2 = x, x = 2
x+1
8. (i) x2 x 12 = (x 4)(x + 3) = 0 ) x = 4 or 3
2
(ii) x 9x + 14 = (x 7)(x 2) = 0 ) x = 7 or 2
p p
( 9) ± (( 9)2 4(1)( 8)) 9 ± 113
(iii) x= = = 9.8151; or 0.8151.
2 2
(iv) 8 = (6 x)(x + 3) = 6x + 18 x2 3x = 18 + 3x x2
) x2 3x 10 = (x 5)(x + 2) = 0 ) x = 5 or 2
– 22 –
9. (i) Adding the given equations leads to 6x = 6, x = 1. Substituting this value into the first given equation
then implies 2(1) + y = 3, so y = 1. Hence solution is x = 1, y = 1.
(ii) Eliminate y
3x + 4y = 12 (first equation)
18x + 4y = 18 (second equation ⇥ 2)
Subtracting second equation from first, 15x = 12 ( 18) = 30, which implies x = 2. Substituting
this solution back into the original first equation gives
18 9
3( 2) + 4y = 12, 4y = 12 ( 6) = 18, y= = .
4 2
9
Hence solution is x = . 2, y =
2
(iii) This time we choose to eliminate x
(first equation ⇥ 5) 20x 10y = 25

(second equation ⇥ 4) 20x + 12y = 8
(subtracting) 22y = 25 ( 8) = 33
3
y=
2
3 1
Substituting back into first equation in question 4x 2( ) = 5, 4x = 5 3 = 2, x= .
2 2
1 3
Thus solution is x = ,y= .
2 2
10. (i) The graphs of y = 2 x and y = x3 are shown below. Clearly they intersect at x = 1 approximately. In
fact this is a solution since when x = 1 both 2 x and x3 are equal (= 1). No other solution is possible.
.... y .... y
.
..... ........ ... ........ ...
.......... . .......... .
.....
..... ... ...
..... .... ... .... ...
..... .
. ..
. ... ..
.
.....
..... .... ... ... ...
..... ... ... ... ...
.....
..... ... ... ... ...
..... ... .... ... ....
.....
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..... ... .. ... ...
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..... .. . . . .....
..... .. ... ... ... .....
..... .. ... ... ... .....
.......
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. ..
......
.
..
... ....... .... ... ... .....
... ....... .. ... ... .....
....
... ..... ... ... ... .....
... .....
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.
... ..... .... ... ... .......
... ..... .. ... ... .....
...
.......
... ... ........
... ........ ... ........
.
... .. ......... ... ... .
..... ...
... ...
. ..... ... ..... ..
...
.. .....
... ..... ...
...
...
..... ..... ...
... ..... ... ........ .....
... .... .
...... .....
..... . x ... ........ ....... .
x
............................................................................................ ................................................................................................
.
. .
. .
...
... .
. .........................................................................................................................................................................................................
. .. . ...... . . . . .
..
..... .
.
.
. ..... ....... ......... ....
.
...
.
... 1
.
....
.
.
+1 .....
.....
. .
... ....... ...
.
... ........
1 ..
.
+1
..
. ...
. ... ....... ....
... .
. ... .... ...
.. .. ........ ...
.
...
.
.... ........
.
. ...
... ... .
........
. ...
... ... .
. ..... ... ...
.... ... ..
..... ... ...
... .... ..
..... .
.
. ...
.. .. ..
..... .
. ...
. ... .
...... .
. ....
... ... .. ... ..
... .... ... ....
.. .. .. ..
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
... .... ... ....
. ... . ...
Graph for Problem 10(i) Graph for Problem 10(ii)
(ii) Graphs of y = x3 and y = x are displayed above. These graphs intersect at x = 0, x = 1, x = 1

approximately. It is obvious by substitution that all three of the latter values are the exact points of
intersection.
– 23 –
Algebraically, at the points of intersection x3 = x. Hence
x3 x = x(x2 1) = x(x 1)(x + 1) = 0
with solutions x = 0, +1, 1.
11. (i)
6x + 5 x 5
6x + 5 x 5 x 5 x 5
5x 10, )x 2
(ii) Equivalent to 5<x 4 and x 4<2 x.
First inequality (add 4 to both sides) 5+4<x 4 + 4, i.e. 1 < x.

Second inequality (add x + 4 to both sides) (x 4) + x + 4 < (2 x) + x + 4
which implies 2x < 6, i.e. x < 3.
For this example, therefore, the solution set is 1 < x < 3.

(iii) Equivalent to x + 10 < 2x 5 and 2x 5x 3.
First inequality (x + 10) x + 5 < (2x 5) x + 5, i.e. 15 < x.

Second inequality (2x 5) x + 5  (x 3) x + 5, i.e. x  2.
A solution must satisfy both inequalities simultaneously and this is not possible. Therefore, there is NO
solution.
(iv)
(2x2 2) x2 + x + 2 < (x2 x) x2 + x + 2
x2 + x < 2
x2 + x 2<0
(x + 2)(x 1) < 0
For the product of brackets to be negative, the quantities in the two brackets must have opposite signs.
Hence x + 2 > 0 and x 1 < 0, or x + 2 < 0 and x 1 > 0.
Thus x > 2 and x < 1, or x < 2 and x > 1.
The second pair of inequalities is not possible, so the required solution is 2 < x < 1.
3x 1 3x 1 3x 1
(v) Equivalent to 1 < and < 2. The graphs of y = , y = 1 and y = 2 are shown on
x 3 x 3 x 3
the next page. The graphs show that the double inequality is never satisfied when x > 3. At points of
intersection
1(x 3) = 3x 1, 2x = 2, x = 1
3x 1 = 2(x 3) = 2x 6, x = 5
Therefore the solution set is 5<x< 1.
– 24 –
...
.......
y
......... ...
.. ...
... ...
.... .. ...
....
.. . .....
... .. .....
... .
. .....
.....
... . ......
... .. ......
.......
... .
. .......
... . ........
.........
... .. .......
... .
.
... .
... ..
... ..
... ..
... .
... ..
3
..
.
.... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ....... .... .... .... .... .... .... ....... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .
..... ..
.. ..
... .
.............................
.......................
.
.
. ...
.
...................
.............. 2 .
..
.
...
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........... ..
......... . ...
........
....... ....
.......
...... ... ...
...... .
. ...
..... ....
..... 1 .
. ...
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..... ..
... ... ..
... .
... ... ...
..... ...
...
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.......
... ... .. ..
...
. . . . . . .
x
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . .... .... . . ... . . . . . .
... ...
8 6 4 2 ... 2 ...
...
4 6
...
..
8
... ... .
... .. ...
... ..
... ..
.. ...
... ..
.. ...
... ..
... ..
.. ...
... ... ..
... ...
... ... ...
... ...
... ..
...
... ... ...
...
Graph for Problem 11(v)
(vi) The stated inequality implies
9 < 2x 5<9
which is equivalent to 9 < 2x 5 and 2x 5 < 9.
First inequality above gives 9 + 5 < 2x, x> 2.
Second inequality implies 2x < 9 + 5, x < 7.
Thus the solution set is 2 < x < 7.

5 9 5
[Alternatively you could divide the original inequality by 2 to give x < . Distance of x from
2 2 2
9
must be less than leading to the same answer].
2
(vii) In this case the given inequality leads to the double inequality 34 3x  3.
The above is equivalent to 34 3x and 4 3x  3.
7
The first inequality gives 3x  4 + 3, x
3
1
Second inequality implies 3x 4 3, x .
3
1 7
Hence the solution set is x .
3 3
4 4 4
[Alternatively x  1, or x  1, which means that the distance of x from must be less
3 3 3
than or equal to 1, giving the earlier answer).
– 25 –
12. (i)
1 A B A(x 2) + B(x 1)
= + =
(x 1)(x 2) x 1 x 2 (x 1)(x 2)
comparing numerators gives the identity 1 = A(x 2) + B(x 1)
choosing x = 1, 1 = A( 1) ) A = 1
choosing x = 2, 1 = B(1) ) B = 1
1 1
Hence the answer is .
x 2 x 1
(ii) Denominator factorises to (x + 4)(x + 1), hence
x A B A(x + 1) + B(x + 4)
= + =
(x + 4)(x + 1) x+4 x+1 (x + 4)(x + 1)
comparing numerators leads to identity x = A(x + 1) + B(x + 4)
1
choosing x = 1, 1 = B(3), B =
3
4
choosing x = 4, 4 = A( 3), A =
3
4 1
3 3
Answer is .
x+4 x+1
(iii)
1 Ax + B Cx + D (Ax + B)(x2 + 4) + (Cx + D)(x2 + 1)
= + =
(x2 + 1)(x2 + 4) x2 + 1 x2 + 4 (x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)
Equating numerators here leads to the identity
1 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 4) + (Cx + D)(x2 + 1)
Equating co-efficients of powers of x :-
x3 , A+C =0
2
x , B+D =0
x, 4A + C = 0
const. 1 = 4B + D
The only solution of the first and third equations is A = C = 0. From the second equation it follows
1
that D = B, so substituting into the fourth equation leads to 3B = 1, B = .
3
1 1
3 3
Hence the solution is .
x2 + 1 x2 + 4
(iv) Numerator has degree 2, denominator has degree 2; hence division gives constant plus remainder. That
is to say
x2 Bx + C D E
=A+ =A+ +
(x 1)2 (x 1)2 x 1 (x 1)2
[Note that you do not need to calculate the intermediate constants B and C.]
Thus
x2 A(x 1)2 + D(x 1) + E
=
(x 1)2 (x 1)2
which gives the identity x2 = A(x 1)2 + D(x 1) + E
– 26 –
Self-paced Course
MODULE 2 TRIGONOMETRY
Module Topics
1. The measurement of angles and conversion between degrees and radians

2. The elementary trigonometric ratios and relations between them
3. The solution of general triangles
4. Trigonometric ratios for various angles and graphs of the elementary trigonometric functions
5. Other trigonometric ratios and relationships between them
6. Various useful formulae involving multiple angles
7. Trigonometric equations
This module is again self-contained. It is another long module but it should be mainly revision for you.
Work Scheme
Study the following sections, read carefully the worked Examples and do the stated Exercises. Solutions to
the Exercises are given towards the end of this Module, starting on p.21.
1. The measurement of angles Angles are usually measured either in degrees or in radians. There
are, of course, 360 degrees (360 ) in a complete revolution, 180 in a ‘straight line’ angle and 90 in a
right-angle.
By definition, if the angle ✓ in figure 1 is measured in radians,
.......................... ......... ..........
....... .......
...... ...........
......
..... ...... .....
....... .
..... ..... ....
.
.
... ........ .....
.. ...
...
... r ..
.....
.
...
L
...
...
... ..... ... ...
.... ..
..... .....
. ... ...
.... ...
...
...
..✓
. . ... ...
............................................................ .........
... ..
... ....
...
... ...
... ..
.
.
... ...
...
..... ...
....
.....
...... .. ......
....... ....
......... .......
........................................
Figure 1
Length of arc L
then ✓= = ,
radius r
a ratio which is independent of the units in which both L and r are measured.
Since the length of the complete circumference of a circle of radius r is 2⇡r, in a complete revolution there
are 2⇡r/r = 2⇡ radians.
Conversion from degrees to radians and vice-versa is straightforward since 360 is equivalent to 2⇡ radians:
⇡
To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by .
180
180
To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by .
⇡
–1–
In trigonometry it is usually most convenient to work in radians and, therefore, you may assume that all
angles are measured in radians unless stated otherwise. If angles are measured in degrees then the usual
notation will be used (e.g. 45 ).
When using a pocket calculator, you must be very careful that it is operating in the correct—i.e. radian—
mode unless you specifically intend to use degrees. Remember, though, that an accuracy of four decimal
places in describing an angle in radians is equivalent to an accuracy of only two or three places in degrees.
The answers to many problems in this Module are given in both radians and degrees. These answers are
(hopefully!) accurate to four places. However, if you convert one answer directly to the other by using the
appropriate scale factor, because of rounding errors in the calculation you may well find an apparent error
in the last one or two decimal places.
Example 1. Convert 60 to radians.

⇡ ⇡
60 is 60 ⇥ = radians.
180 3
⇡
Example 2. Convert radians to degrees.
6
⇡ ⇡ 180
radians is ⇥ = 30 .
6 6 ⇡
One or two frequently used conversions are worth committing to memory:

⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡
30 = , 45 = , 60 = , 90 = , 180 = ⇡ , 360 = 2⇡ .
6 4 3 2
For other cases, use your pocket calculator (or tables) if necessary.
***Do Exercise 1. Express the following in degrees: (i) ⇡/4, (ii) 3⇡/2, (iii) 7⇡/3.
(N.B. In all the Exercises in this module give numerical answers correct to 4 decimal places (i.e. 4 d.pl.),
using degrees or radians as appropriate.)
***Do Exercise 2. Express the following in radians: (i) 18 , (ii) 35 , (iii) 350 , (iv) 420 .
2. The three elementary trigonometric ratios In a right-angled triangle, the sine, cosine and tan-
gent of an acute angle are defined to be:
side opposite adjacent side
Sine of angle = , Cosine of angle =
hypotenuse hypotenuse
side opposite
Tangent of angle = .
adjacent side
The notations used for the three ratios are respectively sin, cos and tan. Thus, in the right-angled triangle
shown in figure 2 (the side labelled c, opposite the right-angle is, of course, the hypotenuse):
b a b
sin ✓ = , cos ✓ = , tan ✓ = .
c c ..
.......
a
..... ..
..... ....
...
...... ...
....
..... ...
..... ...
..
....... ...
..
...... ...
.
....... ...
.
..
c
.
.
....
.
..... ...
...
b
..
..... ...
..
.....
. ...
. .
...... ...
.
...... ...
.........
..
..
.
.... .... ...............
..
......
.
✓ ... .
. ....
.
.
.............................................................................................................
a
Figure 2
–2–
Once again, assuming of course that all lengths are measured in the same units, these ratios are independent
of which units are used. This means that, given a right-angled triangle, if the length of any side and the
size of a second angle are known or if the lengths of any two sides are known then the triangle can be
‘solved’—that is to say all other sides and angles of the triangle can be found.
Example 3. Solve the triangle shown in figure 2 if a = 2 cm and ✓ = ⇡/6.

Since tan ✓ = b/a, cos ✓ = a/c, it follows that b = a tan ✓ and c = a/ cos ✓ and hence, putting in the
given values for a and ✓, we see that
⇣⇡⌘ 2
b = 2 tan = 1.1547 cm and c= = 2.3094 cm .
6 cos(⇡/6)
[Note that we do not need trigonometry to calculate the third angle—the sum of the angles of a
triangle is ⇡ and so the value of the third angle is ⇡/3. Also, having found b we could have used
Pythagoras’ theorem to give us c.]
Example 4. Solve the triangle shown in figure 2 if a = 2 cm and b = 1 cm.

Firstly we use Pythagoras’ theorem to find c:
p p p
c= a 2 + b2 = 22 + 12 = 5 = 2.2361 cm .
Next, since
b
tan ✓ =
= .5 ,
a
the inverse tangent button on your pocket calculator gives ✓ = .4636 or 26.5651 . The remaining
angle is then ⇡ ( 12 ⇡ + .4636) = 1.1072 or 180 (90 + 26.5651 ) = 63.4349 .
3. Important relations between sin, cos and tan Referring again to figure 2 you can see that, by
Pythagoras’ theorem,
c 2 = a 2 + b2 .
However, a = c cos ✓ and b = c sin ✓ and hence
c2 = c2 cos2 ✓ + c2 sin2 ✓ ,
from which it follows that

cos2 ✓ + sin2 ✓ = 1 .
Notice the notation carefully. We write, for example, cos2 ✓ to mean (cos ✓)2 . [The quantity cos ✓2 has no
meaning since it could represent cos(✓2 ) or (cos ✓)2 ].
Example 5. Verify the formula cos2 ✓ + sin2 ✓ = 1 for the angle ✓ in Example 4.
Since ✓ = .4636, your pocket calculators tell you that cos2 ✓ = .8, whilst sin2 ✓ = .2. Hence cos2 ✓ +
sin2 ✓ = 1.
Another relationship between cosine and sine is obvious from figure 2. The angles between a and c and
between b and c add to ⇡/2 since the third angle of the triangle is ⇡/2 and we know that the angles of a
triangle add to ⇡. It follows immediately that
⇣⇡ ⌘
cos ✓ = sin ✓ ,
2
⇣⇡ ⌘
sin ✓ = cos ✓ .
2
–3–
In addition it is easily shown that
sin ✓
tan ✓ = ,
cos ✓
since
b b/c sin ✓
tan ✓ = = = .
a a/c cos ✓
You can check for yourself that the above three formulae involving ✓ are true for the numbers given in
Example 4.
The four major results in this section are identities—that is to say, they hold for all values of ✓. They are
important and you should be sure to memorise them. They are repeated as numbers 4, 5 and 7 of the ‘useful
results’ at the end of this module.
4. The solution of general triangles If you are given any triangle together with any one of the fol-
lowing three pieces of information:
(a) the lengths of all three sides
(b) the lengths of two sides and the size of any angle
(c) the length of one side and the size of any two angles
you can still ‘solve’ the triangle completely although in the second case, unless the given angle lies between
the two sides, the solution may not be unique. To do this you can use two rules called respectively the
‘sine’ rule and the ‘cosine’ rule. In the notation used in figure 3 (which is the conventional notation with a
opposite A etc.), the ‘sine’ rule is written
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
and the ‘cosine’ rule gives the three formulae
a 2 = b2 + c 2 2bc cos A, b2 = c2 + a2 2ca cos B, c 2 = a 2 + b2 2ab cos C.
A ......
.... .................
..... .........
..... .........
..
..... .........
.........
.
..... .........
... .........
c .
...
....
.
.
.. .........
......... b
.........
..
. .........
..
.... .........
..
.... .........
.........
.
..... .........
... .........
.
... a .......
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
B C
Figure 3
The table below shows you which formula you need for which situation.
Facts known Rule to use
3 sides cosine
2 sides and the angle between
2 sides and either of the other angles sine

1 side and any 2 angles
The sine and cosine rules appear on the Formula Sheet (and in the Data Book) but it is useful to remember
them. You do not need to know the proofs of the two rules but they are included below since they are very
straightforward.
–4–
A
.........
.... ... ..........
.... .....
.... .. .....
.
..... ..
. .....
. .....
.... . .....
.
...... .
.
. .....
.....
.
....
. . .....
.
....
. . .....
.....
....
. .
. .....
c ...
.
...
..
.
... .
.
.h .....
b
.....
.....
.
....
. .
.
.
.....
.....
.
....
. . .....
.....
.....
. . .....
.....
. .
.
. .....
.....
.....
. . .....
...
...
.. a . .....
....
..........................................................................................................................................................................................
B F C
Figure 4
In figure 4, you can see that the height, h, of the triangle is given equivalently by h = c sin B and h = b sin C.
Hence c sin B = b sin C and
b c
= .
sin B sin C
The remaining part of the sine rule is proved similarly or by symmetry.
To prove the cosine rule we see, again looking at figure 4,
c2 = h2 + (a CF )2 = b2 sin2 C + (a b cos C)2

= b2 sin2 C + a2 + b2 cos2 C 2ab cos C .
However, cos2 C + sin2 C = 1, and hence c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C.

Once again, the other two results follow similarly or by symmetry.
Example 7. Solve the triangle ABC if a = 12, b = 8, c = 10.

Since all three sides but no angles are known, we must use a cosine formula.
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C tells us that
a 2 + b2 c 2
cos C =
2ab
144 + 64 100
=
2 ⇥ 12 ⇥ 8
108
= = 0.5625 .
192
Hence, using a calculator, C = .9734, (= 55.7711 ).

We could find the other angles in a similar way, but we now know one angle and so a simpler alternative
is to use the sine formula. Since
a c
= ,
sin A sin C
a sin C
sin A =
c
12 ⇥ .8268
= = .9922 .
10
Hence A = 1.4455, (= 82.8192 ).
To find the remaining angle we could use the cosine or the sine formula, but obviously the easiest way is
to remember that the angles of a triangle add to ⇡, so that B = ⇡ A C = ⇡ 1.4455 .9734 = .7227,
(= 41.4097 ). Notice that these results have been obtained retaining 10 digits throughout on a pocket
calculator. However, at each stage they have been stated to only four places. If you use the four place
answers (instead of the full 10 place ones) to perform your subsequent calculations, you will obtain
an answer which is certainly not accurate to four places. Try it and see!
–5–
Example 8. Solve the triangle ABC if b = 2 cm, c = 1 cm, C = 20 .
Given two sides and non-included angle, we must use the sine formula. In some situations, and this
is one of them, the given information does not produce a unique triangle (that is one solution only)
and so it is always advisable to draw a reasonably accurate diagram before proceeding further. It is
easily seen that in this example two solutions are possible.
A
A ............ ........
..... .......... ..... ...................
..... .......... ..... ..........
..... .
..... ................... ...
...... ..........
..........
..... .......... ..... ..........
.....
.....
..........
.......... ........
. ..........
..........
..... .......... ...
.... ..........
..... ..... ...
..... ... .................. ....
... ... ..................
..... ... .......... ..
. .. ..........
.....
..... .. 20 .........
............................................................................................. ...
.
.
... ..
.
. 20 ..........
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
B C B C
Figure 5 (a) Figure 5 (b)
b 2
sin B = sin C = sin 20 = .6840
c 1
Hence B = 43.1602 (= .7533), see figure 5(b), or B = 180 43.1602 = 136.8398 (= 2.3883), as
shown on figure 5(a). It follows that
A = 180 B C = 180 43.1602 20 = 116.8398 , (= 2.0392)
or 180 136.8398 20 = 23.1602 , (= .4042).
Finally we may find a from the cosine formula.
p p
a = b2 + c2 2bc cos A = 22 + 12 2 ⇥ 2 ⇥ 1 ⇥ cos 116.8398 = 2.60883 cm
p
or 22 + 12 2 ⇥ 2 ⇥ 1 ⇥ cos 23.1602 = 1.1499 cm.
5. The area of a triangle The area of a triangle is half that of a rectangle on the same base—that is
to say, it is one half of the length of its base times its height.
Hence, using figure 4 and remembering that h = b sin C,
1 1 1
Area of 4ABC = ⇥ base ⇥ height = ⇥ a ⇥ h = ab sin C .
2 2 2
In a similar way it can also be shown that

1 1
Area of 4ABC = bc sin A = ca sin B .
2 2
Although these formulae could be remembered and used it is usually easier to proceed from first principles
by calculating the height directly (see example below).
Example 9. Find the area of the triangle ABC if b = 1 cm, c = 2 cm, C = 20 .

This is the same triangle as in Example 8 but with the lengths of the given sides interchanged. But
this time figure 6 confirms the answer is unique.
A...
................... ..................
.................. ....
................... ... ..................
................................. ... ..........
...................
.............
... 20 ..........
.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
B C
Figure 6
b 1
sin B = sin C = sin 20 = .1710
c 2
–6–
Hence B = 9.8466 . It follows that
A = 180 B C = 180 9.8466 20 = 150.1534 .
This enables us to find a from the cosine formula:
p p
a = b2 + c2 2bc cos A = 12 + 22 2 ⇥ 1 ⇥ 2 ⇥ cos 150.1534 .
Using a calculator we deduce a = 2.9102 cm.
h
The height h is easily found from = sin 20 , and hence the area of the triangle is given by
1
1
Area of 4ABC = ⇥a⇥h
2
1
= ⇥ 2.9102 ⇥ 1 ⇥ sin 20
2
= .4977 cm2 .
***Do Exercise 3. Solve the right-angled triangle shown below in each of the following cases:
.
A
......
..... ..
..... ....
........
. ...
....
..... ...
..... ...
........
. ...
...
..... ...
...
c...
.
....
.
... ...
... b
...
..... ...
..
...... ...
...
.... ...
...
..... ....
..
...... ........ ..
...
.... . ...
.
.
.
......................................................................................................
B a C
(i) a = 1 m, B = ⇡/3; (ii) a = 2 m, B = 10 ; (iii) a = 3 m, b = 1 m.
***Do Exercise 4. Solve the triangle shown below in the following cases:
(i) c = 5.1 m, B = 47 , A = 70 ; (ii) a = 12.1 m, b = 17.2 m, c = 18.4 m; (iii) b = 7 m, c = 3 m, C = 10 .
A .......
..... ................
..... .........
..
..... .........
.........
..... .........
.... .........
c.
.
....
.
...
.
.
.. .........
.........
......... b
.. .........
..
.... .........
..
.... .........
.........
.... .........
..
....
.
a ........
........................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
B C
***Do Exercise 5. Find the area of each of the triangles in Exercise 4.
6. Trigonometric ratios for special angles up to ⇡/2 The angles 0 , 30 , 45 , 60 and 90 (i.e. 0,
⇡/6, ⇡/4, ⇡/3 and ⇡/2) occur frequently in trigonometric work and it is helpful to memorise the corresponding
values of sine, cosine and tangent for each of these angles. Alternatively, you should be able to sketch the
appropriate triangle and deduce the value of the ratios (see below), or use your calculator!
(a) Angle 0
...........
A
c ................................ ....
...............................
............................... ...
................................ ...
......................... ............................
.. .
...
................................ ... b
............................
✓ .
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
B a C
Figure 7
–7–
In this case the triangle looks like figure 7 as ✓ approaches 0. Clearly b approaches 0 and as this happens a
b a b
and c become equal. However sin ✓ = , cos ✓ = , tan ✓ = , and so we conclude that
c c a
sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1, tan 0 = 0.
(b) Angle ⇡/6 or ⇡/3 When ✓ = ⇡/3 the 4ABC forms half of an equilateralp triangle—see p figure 8.
Hence, if AB = 2 units, BC = 1 unit and Pythagoras’ theorem tells us that AC = 22 12 = 3 units.
....
A
.........
... .. .
.... .... ...
... ... ...
.. .... ..
...
... ... ...
.... ... ...
. .
.
.
..
.......
. ...........
⇡/6 .
..
.
.
.
...
...
. .............. .
... .. ...
.... .
.
.
.
...
... .
.
.
..
.
p ...
...
2 ...
.
... ....
.
.
3 ...
...
2
... .
.
.
...
. ..
.
...
... .
.
. ...
.
... .... ...
...
. .
.
. ...
... .
.
..... ..
. ...
... ...... .... ...
... .......
. .
. ...
..
. ... .
.
.
..
. ... .
. ...
.
...
.
⇡/3 ...
..
.
...
.............................................................................................. .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ...
...
B 1 C 1
Figure 8
It follows that p
⇡ 1 ⇡ 3 ⇡ p
cos = = .5, sin = = .8660, tan = 3 = 1.7321.
3 2 3 2 3
From the same triangle we can also read o↵ the results for an angle of ⇡/6:
p
⇡ 3 ⇡ 1 ⇡ 1
cos = = .8660, sin = = .5, tan = p = .5774.
6 2 6 2 6 3
p
(c) Angle ⇡/4 This time the picture is as in figure 9, with a = b = 1 and c = 2.
A
.....
..... ..
..... ..
..
...... ....
.
..... ....
.....
..... ...
..... ...
....
p .
...
.
.
.. .
...
.
.. ...
...
.
.
.
...
.
.2
. .
...
.
. ...
... 1
....
.
. ...
.
.. ...
..
....
. ...
..
......... ...
..
..... ... ...
.... ...
. .
...
.
. .
... ...
....
.
....
.
.
⇡/4 .
...
.
...
..
.......................................................................................................
B 1 C
Figure 9
It follows that:
⇡ 1 ⇡ 1 ⇡
cos = p = .7071, sin = p = .7071, tan = 1.
4 2 4 2 4
(d) Angle ⇡/2 This case is much the same as (a), but with the triangle the other way round, as shown in
figure 10. This time, however, it is the angle at A which approaches 0 so that a approaches zero length and
b and c eventually become equal. Thus
⇡ ⇡
cos = 0, sin = 1.
2 2
–8–
As ✓ becomes nearer and nearer to ⇡/2 you can also see that tan(⇡/2) gets larger and larger. We write
⇡
tan ✓ ! 1 as ✓ ! .
2
If you calculate tan(⇡/2), your calculator will show an error.
A
..
..
......
.......
.... ...
.. ..
... ....
... ...
.... ...
.. ..
... ...
... ....
.... ...
.. ...
... ...
... ...
c ....
...
....
..
b
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ...
..... ...
... ......... ...
... ... ..
✓ ......................................
B a C
Figure 10
7. Angles between ⇡/2 and ⇡ cos ✓, sin ✓ and tan ✓ have so far only been defined when ✓ is an acute
angle, although in using your calculator to evaluate some of your results you have used larger angles.
If ✓ lies between ⇡/2 and ⇡, figure 11 shows what we must do.
A.....
........
.....
... ........
... .....
.....
.....
... .....
... .....
.....
.....
... .....
... .....
.....
... .....
.....
... .....
.....
... .....
.....
... ...... ...........
... .......... ..........
... .. ........
↵ ✓ . ...
....... .... .... .... .... .... .... ....... .... .... ..................................................................................................
.... x
F B C
Figure 11
Choose BC to be along the positive x-axis of a coordinate system with B at the origin.
We define the three trigonometrical ratios cos ✓, sin ✓ and tan ✓ to have the same numerical values respectively
as those of cos ↵, sin ↵ and tan ↵ but, since BF is in the negative direction of the x-axis (shown in the figure
along the direction of BC), we put a minus sign in front of each of the ratios which involve this length.
Notice that other distances are still treated as positive. Thus:
BF FA FA
cos ✓ = = cos ↵ , sin ✓ = = + sin ↵ , tan ✓ = = tan ↵ .
BA BA BF
Since ↵ + ✓ = ⇡, it follows that ↵ = ⇡ ✓ and the above formulae can be written
cos ✓ = cos(⇡ ✓), sin ✓ = sin(⇡ ✓), tan ✓ = tan(⇡ ✓).
–9–
8. Angles between ⇡ and 2⇡ and > 2⇡ or < 0
.....................
......... ......
..... ............................
✓ ....
..... .....
...
... ....
..... ....
...
.... ... ...
F ..
. .. . Cx
....... .... .... .... .... ........... ....... .... ........................................................................................
..... B ... C F
................................................................................................................................................................... x
... ↵ B .
.... .. .... .
.. ..
... ...
...✓
...
......
↵
...... ....
...... .. ...
... ........ .
... ... ...... .....
....... ..... ............ ..
...
......... ..................... ...... ...
.. ......
.... ......
... .... ...... ..
.
.. .... ......
... .
... ...... ...
..
.. ......
... .... ...... ..
.... ......
... .... ...... ...
.... ......
... ..
..... ......
...... ..
..
... .... ...... ...
.... ......
.... ......
.. ....... ......
...... ..
.
... ...... ...... ..
.
.... .....
A A
Figure 12 Figure 13
To find the trigonometric ratios for these angles, we simply extend what we did in section 7. Let us again
assume that BC is along the positive x-axis of a coordinate system with B at the origin. Then the magnitudes
of the trigonometric ratios for the angles AB̂C shown in figures 12 and 13 are the same as for the acute
angles that AB makes with this x-axis, but an appropriate sign must also be attached. As in section 7, this
sign is calculated by looking at the signs attached to the lines BF and AF (note AB is always assumed to
have a positive sign). If BF is to the right, it is positive; if it is to the left, it is negative. If AF is up, it is
positive; if it is down, it is negative.
Thus in figure 12 BF is to the left and AF is down: hence cosines will be negative, sines negative and
tangents (negative over negative) positive whilst, in figure 13, BF is to the right and AF down: hence
cosines will be positive, sines negative and tangents negative.
Finally, if the angle is in excess of 2⇡ we have gone full circle (at least once!) and we simply knock o↵ as
many whole number multiples of 2⇡ (complete revolutions) as we need in order to obtain an angle between
0 and 2⇡ and find the appropriate trigonometric ratio for this. Thus, for example,
9⇡ ⇣ ⇡⌘ ⇡
sin = sin 2 ⇥ 2⇡ + = sin = 1 .
2 2 2
Likewise, if the angle is less than 0, we have to add as many whole number multiples of 2⇡ as is necessary
to put the angle into the range 0 to 2⇡. Thus
cos(✓ + 2n⇡) = cos ✓, sin(✓ + 2n⇡) = sin ✓, tan(✓ + 2n⇡) = tan ✓,
if n is an integer. In fact tan(✓ + n⇡) = tan ✓, but that you will see later!
Most people find it easiest to remember which signs are positive by drawing the following diagram (figure 14)
in which A stands for ‘All’, S stands for ‘Sine’, T stands for ‘Tangent’ and C stands for ‘Cosine’. All other
signs are negative.
⇡/2
......................................
.......... .......
....... ... ......
...... ... .....
........ ... .....
.
.... .
.
....
...
.... ..
. ...
.. .. ...
....
.
S .
.... A ...
...
... ... ...
... ... ..
..................................................................................................................
⇡ ... ... .. 0, 2⇡,...
... ... ...
... .
. ...
... ..
. ...
...
... T ....C ...
... ... ...
.... ... ...
..... .
. .
........
..... .....
......
....... .... ......
........... .... .................
......................
3⇡/2
Figure 14
– 10 –
Notice and remember the very useful results that:
cos( ✓) = cos ✓, sin( ✓) = sin ✓, tan( ✓) = tan ✓.
Example 10. Evaluate sin(2⇡/3).

2⇡/3 lies in the range from ⇡/2 to ⇡. Figure 14 therefore shows that sin(2⇡/3) is positive and so
sin(2⇡/3) = + sin(⇡ 2⇡/3)p = sin(⇡/3). Using the results obtained with figure 8 it follows that
sin(2⇡/3) = sin(⇡/3) = 3/2 = .8660. Check that your calculator gives the latter value for both
sin(2⇡/3) and sin(⇡/3).
Example 11. Evaluate cos 2.

2 is larger than ⇡/2 (= 1.5708) and smaller than ⇡ (= 3.1416). Hence it follows from figure 14 that
cos 2 is the negative of the cosine of ⇡ 2 (= 1.1416). Using your calculator verify that the values for
cos 2 and cos(⇡ 2) are both equal to .4161
Example 12. Evaluate cos(190 ).

190 (= 3.3161) is between ⇡ and 3⇡/2. Hence, looking at figure 14, its cosine is the negative of the
cosine of 3.3161 ⇡. Check the values given by your calculator for both cos(3.3161) and cos(3.3161
⇡). You’ll find that they are both the same, namely .9848.
Example 13. Evaluate tan 5.

5 is bigger than 3⇡/2 (= 4.7123) and smaller than 2⇡ (= 6.2831). Hence, from figure 14, tan 5 =
tan(2⇡ 5). Again, your calculator should give the same answer for both tan 5 and tan(2⇡ 5),
namely 3.3805.
It may be that you are more used to using degrees than radians—in that case you may prefer to check
the range in which 5 lies by converting it to degrees (286.4789 ) and noting that this lies between
270 and 360 .
Example 14. Evaluate sin(33⇡/4).

The angle is outside the range 0 to 2⇡ and so we have to subtract whole number
p multiples of 2⇡ to
bring it into range. 33⇡/4 = 4 ⇥ 2⇡ + 14 ⇡. Hence sin(33⇡/4) = sin(⇡/4) = 1/ 2.
Check that the answer (.7071) given by your calculator agrees whichever way you do the calculation—
that is to say, if your calculator allows you do this type of calculation directly!
Example 15. Evaluate tan( ⇡/4).

tan( ⇡/4) = tan(⇡/4) = 1.
Example 16. Evaluate sin( 4⇡).

4⇡ is equivalent to 0 for our purposes—two negative revolutions takes us back to where we started—
and so sin( 4⇡) = sin 0 = 0.
– 11 –
9. Graphs of trigonometric functions With a graph-plotting calculator you can very easily see what
the graphs of cos ✓, sin ✓ and tan ✓ look like for ✓ in the range ( 2⇡, 2⇡). If you don’t have such a calculator,
the previous sections give sufficient values of each function for you to be able to make a good plot. The three
graphs are:
...
.......
.........
....
...
.......... ..
.
......................
+1 .........
..... ...
... ... ....... .....
..... .
...
..
. .... .....
...
... . .... ... ....
... ...
.
.
.
. .. ....
.
... . ... ..
... ... .... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ..
... .
... .
.
... .
...
... ... .
... ... .... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...
. .. . .. .. .
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
✓
... .
... ... .... ...
... ..
..
2⇡ ...
...
...
3⇡/2 ..
..
... ⇡ .
.
....
⇡/2 ....
...
.
..
...
.
⇡/2 ⇡ 3⇡/2 2⇡
... ... .
. .... ..
... ... .... ... .
...
... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ..
... ..... .
.
...
. ....
.
... ... ... .
.....
..... ..... .... ..... ...
....
........ ........... ... .....
......... .............
....... .......
... 1 ...
...
...
Figure 15: Graph of cos ✓

.
.......
..........
...
....
...
...
.
........
...... ............
..
......
.. . ......
... .....
.......
....... ............
.....
+1
... .. ..... ...
.... ...
. ..
. ..... ...
... ...
..
... ... .... ...
.. .. .
. .
.... ...
...
...
.
...
...
.
.
.
. .. .
.. ...
...
... .... .
. . ...
..
. . .. ....
. ...
.. ... . ..
. ...
.. .... .
. .. .
...
. .... .
.
.... . ...
. .
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
.. .
. . .
. .
. .
. ✓
... ... ... .. .
... .. ... ... ..
2⇡ 3⇡/2 ...
... ⇡ ..
.
.
.
. ...
.. ... ⇡/2 ...
... .
.
.
.⇡/2
..
. ⇡ 3⇡/2 2⇡
... ... ..
... ... .... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...
... .. ... ...
... .
.... ...
. ... .
.
... ... . .... ..
... ... .... .... ...
..... ..... ... ..... ....
.....
......... .............. ...... ....
........
. ....................
..
....
1
...
.
Figure 16: Graph of sin ✓

.. ... .. ... ...
....... .. ... .. ...
... . ... . ......... ... . ... .
... . ... . .. ... . ... .
.... ... .... ... ... .... ... .... ...
.. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ..
... ... ........ ... ...
...
....
...
..
...
....
...
..
..
...
2 ...
....
...
..
...
....
...
..
.. .. ... .. ..
.... ... .... ... ... .... ... .... ...
... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ..
.. .. ... .. ..
.... ... .... ... ... .... ... .... ...
... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ..
.. .. ... .
..
.
..
.... ... .... ... . . .
. . ...
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
......
1 .
.
....
.
...
.
..
.
.
. .
...
.
.. ..
... ..
. ... ..
. .
. ... ..
. ... ...
... . ... . ..
. ..
. . ... ..
... . ... . .... .... . ...
... ..
. ... ..
. . ..
. ..
. ... ...
. . . . . ...
. . .
..
. . ..
. . . . . ..
. ...
... . ... . .... .... . ...
.. .. .. .. .. .. ...
. . . . ....
.
.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . ✓ .
.. .... .. ... .
... ... .. ... .... .. ... ... ...
2⇡ 3⇡/2 ... .
.
.
.
..⇡ ⇡/2.
.
.
. .
.
.
.. ..
. ...
⇡/2 .
.
.
.
⇡ .
.
.
.
.. 3⇡/2 .
.
.
2⇡ .
.
..
.
. . . .
... ... ... ... ...
. ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...
... ... ..
. ... .
. ..
. ... ..
. ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ........ ... ...
... ... ... ... 1 ... ... ... ... ...
... .... ... .... ... ... .... ... ....
.. .. ... .. ..
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ..
..
.
. ..
.
. .
. ..
.
. ..
.
.
... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...
... .... ... .... ........ ... .... ... ....
... ... ... ... 2 ... ... ... ... ...
.. .. ... .. ..
... .... ... .... ... ... .... ... ....
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
.
. .
. .
. .
. .
.
... . ... . .. ... . ... .
Figure 17: Graph of tan ✓
As we saw in previous sections, outside the range (0, 2⇡) each curve repeats itself every 2⇡, the extensions
joining on smoothly to the curves shown in each case. We say that these curves ‘have period 2⇡’. In fact,
the tangent curve repeats itself every ⇡—has period ⇡—a fact which means that we have to take particular
– 12 –
care if we are asked to find the angle in the range (0, 2⇡) which has a particular value for its tangent: there
are two possible answers! We shall discuss this in more detail later.
Notice that, if the cosine curve is displaced to the right by ⇡/2, the sine curve is obtained whereas if the sine
curve is displaced to the right by ⇡/2 then the negative of the cosine curve is derived. This means that
⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇣⇡ ⌘
sin + ✓ = cos ✓ , cos +✓ = sin ✓ ,
2 2
which are two useful results.

Notice also that the tangent curve becomes infinite (either in the positive or negative direction) at the points
✓ = 3⇡/2, ⇡/2 , ⇡/2 , 3⇡/2.
***Do Exercise 6. (i) Use your calculator to find the sine, cosine and tangent of each of the following:
(a) 140 , (b) 7, (c) 700 .
(ii) Use your calculator to find (a) cos( 20 ), (b) sin( 250 ), (c) tan( 450 ), (d) sin( 10).
(iii) Show by direct calculation that (a) cos2 120 + sin2 120 = 1, (b) cos2 410 sin2 410 = cos 820 , (c)
2 sin 1.5 cos 1.5 = sin( 3).
(iv) Given that ⇡/2  ↵  ⇡ and sin ↵ = 24/25, find cos ↵ and tan ↵ without using your calculator (check
your answers with the calculator).
10. Other trigonometric ratios There are three other ratios that you will meet. These are the recip-
rocals of (i.e. one over) the cosine, sine and tangent and are called respectively the secant, cosecant and
cotangent. In the standard notation:
1 1 1
sec ✓ ⌘ , cosec ✓ ⌘ , cot ✓ ⌘ .
cos ✓ sin ✓ tan ✓
Be very careful of your notation. cos 1 ✓ is used to mean the angle whose cosine is ✓ not 1/ cos ✓, and
similarly for sin 1 ✓ and tan 1 ✓. Thus, for example, sec ✓ = (cos ✓) 1 , not cos 1 ✓. cosn ✓ means (cos ✓)n
whenever n 6= 1 but not when n = 1. Awkward, isn’t it?
It is worth pointing out that the above difficulty with notation is the main reason why the angle whose cosine
is ✓ is often denoted by arc cos ✓, instead of cos 1 ✓.
Sketch for yourselves the graphs of the functions sec ✓, cosec ✓ and cot ✓, noticing in particular that, whilst
1  cos ✓  1 and 1  sin ✓  1 for all values of ✓, the functions sec ✓ and cosec ✓ are always either 1
or  1. Also notice that, unlike tan ✓, cot ✓ is infinite at 0 and ⇡ but finite at ⇡/2 and 3⇡/2.
Example 17. Evaluate sec 3.14, cosec 3.14 and tan 3.14 to 6 d.pl.
sec 3.14 = 1/ cos 3.14 = 1/ .999999 = 1.000001.
cosec 3.14 = 1/ sin 3.14 = 1/.001593 = 627.883190.
cot 3.14 = 1/ tan 3.14 = 1/ .001593 = 627.882394.
Notice how nearly numerically equal the values of sin 3.14 and tan 3.14 (and therefore of cosec 3.14
and cot 3.14) are for these values of ✓ so close to ⇡.
11. Two further identities You will remember that we proved in section 3 that cos2 ✓ + sin2 ✓ = 1 and
that tan ✓ = sin ✓/ cos ✓ for all values of ✓. If we divide the first equation by cos2 ✓ we find
cos2 ✓ sin2 ✓ 1
2
+ 2
= ,
cos ✓ cos ✓ cos2 ✓
– 13 –
and making use of the second equation then gives
1 + tan2 ✓ = sec2 ✓ .
In a similar way (dividing the first equation by sin2 ✓ instead of cos2 ✓), we find
cot2 ✓ + 1 = cosec2 ✓ .
These two formulae are useful and, if possible, should be remembered, although they do appear on the
Formula Sheet (and in the Data Book). The important point is to know that formulae exist connecting
tan2 ✓ to sec2 ✓ (and cot2 ✓ to cosec2 ✓).
12. Trigonometric ratios for sums and di↵erences of angles It is often necessary to be able to ex-
press cos 2✓ in terms of cos ✓, a formula which is a special case of that which gives cos(A + B) in terms of
the cosines and sines of A and B alone.
From figure 18 we can easily show that
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B .
In the figure, the perpendicular, AF , from A onto BC has F as its foot and the extension of BC is of length
e. In addition, the angle AĈF is of size A + B since it is an exterior angle of the triangle ABC.
.......
A
..........
............ ..
....... .... ..
.
...
......... ......... ..
...... ....
....... .........
.........
....... ...............
. A ...
.. .
... ...
..... ...... .
...
... ...
.. .....
....... .....
.......
. .. ...
y .......
.......
....
...
......
..
b ... h
....... .....
.. .. . . ....... ... ...... ...
..
...
...... ..
..... ...
.. .....
......
............... ............ ...
x ..
.......
......
.
..
..... ...........
... .
.....
.
.....
. .. ...
.... ...
.....
..
........ ..
. ...
...... ...
. ...
......... ... . ...... ...
...
.....
.......
..
B
...
.
.. ....
. ...
.
.
A+B .
...
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
B a C e F
. .
....................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................
l .
Figure 18
In triangle ACF ,
e l a
cos(A + B) = = .
b b
However, from triangle ABF ,
l = (x + y) cos B ,
where x = a cos B and y = b cos A. It follows that
(x + y) cos B a (a cos B + b cos A) cos B a

cos(A + B) = =
b b
a(cos2 B 1) a
= + cos A cos B = sin2 B + cos A cos B
b b
and, since the sine rule tells us that
sin B sin A
= ,
b a
a
we can replace sin B by sin A and conclude that
b
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
– 14 –
as required.
If in this formula we replace A by (⇡/2) A, we obtain a corresponding formula for sin(A B) and if in the
two formulae we now have we replace B by B, we obtain two more formulae for cos(A B) and sin(A + B).
From your point of view, the proofs are relatively unimportant. What matters is that you know the following
formulae are on the Formula Sheet (and in the Data Book) and you are able to use them.
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
cos(A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
sin(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B .
Notice the somewhat unexpected arrangement of the signs in the above equations.
The corresponding formulae for tan(A ± B) are less important since they can be obtained, if needed, from
those for cos(A ± B) and sin(A ± B) by division. For example
sin(A + B)
tan(A + B) = ,
cos(A + B)
and the expressions for sin(A + B) and cos(A + B) can then be used.
These formulae for sums and di↵erences of angles are very useful in determining a number of the formulae
quoted earlier. For example, using the formula for cos(A B), we obtain
cos(⇡ ✓) = cos ⇡ cos ✓ + sin ⇡ sin ✓

= 1 ⇥ cos ✓ + 0 ⇥ sin ✓ = cos ✓ .
13. Double angle formulae These are the formulae mentioned at the beginning of the previous note.
If we put both A and B equal to ✓ in the formulae for cos(A + B) and sin(A + B), we obtain
cos 2✓ = cos2 ✓ sin2 ✓ , sin 2✓ = 2 sin ✓ cos ✓ .
These results are highly important and must be committed to memory. The former may be written (using
sin2 ✓ + cos2 ✓ = 1) in the alternative forms:
cos 2✓ = cos2 ✓ sin2 ✓ = 2 cos2 ✓ 1=1 2 sin2 ✓ .
These alternative identities are also very important and you must either learn them or be able to derive
them quickly.
Example 18. Prove that sin(C D) + sin(C + D) = 2 sin C cos D.

sin(C D) = sin C cos D cos C sin D and
sin(C + D) = sin C cos D + cos C sin D .
By adding these two equations we obtain the required result.
– 15 –
14. Sum and di↵erence formulae If in Example 18 we put C = 12 (A + B) and D = 1
2 (A B), we
obtain
1 1
sin A + sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A B) .
2 2
This is one of a set of four formulae which are useful in some integration problems in calculus, but not worth
remembering—just know where to find them (on the Formula Sheet and in the Data Book) or how to deduce
them if you need them! The other three are:
1 1
sin A sin B = 2 cos(A + B) sin (A B) ,
2 2
1 1
cos A + cos B = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A B) ,
2 2
1 1
cos A cos B = 2 sin (A + B) sin (A B) ,
2 2
Notice the negative sign in the last of these.
Example 19. Express the following as products: (a) sin 6✓ + sin 4✓, (b) cos 18✓ cos 2✓.
1 1
(a) sin 6✓ + sin 4✓ = 2 sin (6✓ + 4✓) cos (6✓ 4✓) = 2 sin 5✓ cos ✓ .
2 2
1 1
(b) cos 18✓ cos 2✓ = 2 sin (18✓ + 2✓) sin (18✓ 2✓) = 2 sin 10✓ sin 8✓ .
2 2
Example 20. Express cos 7✓ cos 3✓ as a sum or di↵erence of two cosines.
1 1
Here we use the formula cos A + cos B = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A B) .
2 2
We put 7✓ = 12 (A + B) and 3✓ = 12 (A B) so that, after multiplying both equations by 2, we obtain
A + B = 14✓ and A B = 6✓. Adding these two equations and dividing by two we see that A = 10✓.
It follows that B = 4✓. Thus
1
cos 7✓ cos 3✓ = (cos 10✓ + cos 4✓) .
2
***Do Exercise 7. Prove the following identities: (i) (sin ✓ + cos ✓)2 = 1 + sin 2✓,
tan A + tan B 2 tan ✓ tan ✓ + cot ✓
(ii) tan(A + B) = , (iii) tan 2✓ = , (iv) = cosec ✓.
1 tan A tan B 1 tan2 ✓ sec ✓
***Do Exercise 8. If sin ↵ = 5/13, where ↵ is acute, find tan ↵, cot ↵ and cosec ↵ (without calculating
↵).
***Do Exercise 9. If tan ✓ = a/b, where ✓ is acute, find expressions for sin ✓ and sec2 ✓ in terms of a
and b.
***Do Exercise 10. By writing 3✓ = 2✓ + ✓, and then using the identities for sums of angles and double
angles, show that (i) sin 3✓ = 3 sin ✓ 4 sin3 ✓, (ii) cos 3✓ = 4 cos3 ✓ 3 cos ✓.
***Do Exercise 11. Using the formulae for sums and di↵erences of angles show that✓ ◆
⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇣⇡ ⌘ 3⇡
(i) sin + ✓ = cos ✓, (ii) cos + ✓ = sin ✓, (iii) sin (⇡ ✓) = sin ✓, (iv) cos + ✓ = sin ✓.
2 2 2
– 16 –
***Do Exercise 12. Express as products of sines and/or cosines:
(i) sin 4✓ + sin ✓, (ii) sin 8✓ sin 6✓, (iii) cos 12✓ + cos 10✓, (iv) cos ✓ cos 2✓, (v) sin (⇡/3) + sin (⇡/4).
***Do Exercise 13. Express as sums or di↵erences of trigonometric functions:

(i) 2 sin 6✓ cos 2✓, (ii) 2 cos 5✓ cos 3✓, (iii) 2 cos 4✓ sin ✓, (iv) 2 sin 7✓ sin 5✓.
15. Simple trigonometric equations It is important to realise that, since sin ✓ and cos ✓ repeat them-
selves every 2⇡, even a simple equation like
1
cos ✓ =
2
is satisfied by an infinite number of values of ✓. By referring back to figure 15, or using your graphics
calculator, you will see that not only is 13 ⇡ a solution, but so are 2⇡ + 13 ⇡, 4⇡ + 13 ⇡, 2⇡ + 13 ⇡ and so on.
In fact it’s worse than this—even between ✓ = 0 and ✓ = 2⇡ there are two di↵erent solutions, as you can
again see by looking at the graph of cos ✓ in figure 15 (or on your graphics calculator) or by using the ‘SATC’
diagram in figure 14. Either method shows you that 2⇡ 13 ⇡ = 53 ⇡ is also a solution. We can therefore write
the general solution of this equation as
1 5
✓= ⇡ + 2n⇡ , or ✓= ⇡ + 2n⇡ ,
3 3
where n is any whole number (positive, negative or zero).

It makes things simpler, to define a unique inverse to each of the trigonometric functions and then calculate
all other solutions to equations like the one above from it. Pocket calculators have the same problem. They
cannot come up with several di↵erent inverses at the same time and, instead, have to choose one and leave
you to calculate the rest.
Calculators use the following convention, and you should do the same: cos 1 x is defined to be that solution
of cos ✓ = x which lies in the range 0  ✓  ⇡, sin 1 x is that solution of sin ✓ = x which lies in the range
1 1
2 ⇡  ✓  2 ⇡ and tan
1
x is that solution of tan ✓ = x which lies in the range 12 ⇡  ✓  12 ⇡. Notice the
ranges are not the same for each function: this is necessary in order to ensure that each possible value is
covered once and once only as can be seen from figures 15-17.
Example 21. Find the general solution of cos ✓ = .3.

1
Your calculator will tell you that cos ( .3) is 1.8755. This is the solution of the equation which lies
in the range [0, ⇡]—in fact between 12 ⇡ and ⇡. The graph then shows you that 2⇡ 1.8755 = 4.4077
is also a solution, giving you a second answer between 0 and 2⇡. The general solution is then
✓ = 1.8755 + 2n⇡ , or ✓ = 4.4077 + 2n⇡
for any integer n (positive, negative or zero).

p
Example 22. Find the general solution of sin ✓ = 12 2.
p
sin 1 ( 12 2) = 14 ⇡ = .7854 since this is the appropriate value lying in the range [ 12 ⇡, 12 ⇡]. Your
calculator will give you the same answer. As you can see from the graph, the two solutions lying
between 0 and 2⇡ are ✓ = ⇡ + 14 ⇡ and 2⇡ 14 ⇡, i.e. ✓ = 54 ⇡ and ✓ = 74 ⇡. The general solution is then
5⇡ 7⇡
✓= + 2n⇡ , or ✓= + 2n⇡
4 4
for integer n.
– 17 –
Example 23. Find the solution of tan ✓ = 1.6 which lies between ⇡ and 2⇡.
Your calculator gives you tan 1 1.6 = 1.0122. This is the value which lies in [ 12 ⇡, 12 ⇡]. The tangent
function (see the graph) repeats itself every ⇡. The general solution of the equation is tan 1 ✓ =
1.0122 + n⇡ and the solution we require, obtained by taking n = 1, is thus 4.1538.
Some trigonometric equations can readily be solved using the double angle formulae (section 13) and simple
algebra.
Example 24. Find the solutions to the equation 6 cos 2✓ + 5 cos ✓ + 4 = 0 which lie in the range
0  ✓  2⇡.
The double angle formulae tell us that cos 2✓ = 2 cos2 ✓ 1 and hence the given equation can be
written
6(2 cos2 ✓ 1) + 5 cos ✓ + 4 = 0
or
12 cos2 ✓ + 5 cos ✓ 2 = 0,
which is a quadratic equation in cos ✓. This equation factorises to give
(3 cos ✓ + 2)(4 cos ✓ 1) = 0
and hence either 3 cos ✓ + 2 = 0 or 4 cos ✓ 1 = 0. It follows that cos ✓ = 2/3 or cos ✓ = 1/4 (results
which could also have been found from the quadratic equation using the formula).
According to the calculator, these solutions give
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 1 1
✓ = cos = 2.3005 or ✓ = cos = 1.3181 ,
3 4
and from figure 14, or figure 15, it is clear that each of the above solutions leads to a corresponding
second solution between 0 and 2⇡. Hence there are four solutions between 0 and 2⇡:
✓ = 2.3005 , ✓ = 2⇡ 2.3005 = 3.9827 , ✓ = 1.3181 , ✓ = 2⇡ 1.3181 = 4.9651 .
16. Slightly more difficult trigonometric equations Equations of the form sin A ± sin B = 0 or
cos A ± cos B = 0 can be solved by using the appropriate sum or di↵erence formula.
Example 25. Find the roots of the equation sin 7✓ = sin ✓ for 0  ✓  12 ⇡.
Here we use the formula for the di↵erence of two sines:
1 1
sin 7✓ sin ✓ = 2 cos (7✓ + ✓) sin (7✓ ✓) = 2 cos 4✓ sin 3✓ .
2 2
Hence, equating this to zero, we see that either cos 4✓ = 0 or sin 3✓ = 0.

It follows from the first of these equations (look at the graphs!) that 4✓ = 12 ⇡ + n⇡ and from the
second that 3✓ = n⇡. Hence ✓ = 18 ⇡ + 14 n⇡ or 13 n⇡ and, picking out the solutions which are in the
required range, we see (n = 0, 1 in the first equation) that ✓ = 18 ⇡ or 38 ⇡ or (n = 0, 1 in the second
equation) ✓ = 0 or 13 ⇡. Thus there are four solutions in the required range.
Finally, equations of the form a cos ✓ ± b sin ✓ = 0 can be solved by expressing the left-hand side in one of
the forms A sin(✓ ± ↵) or A cos(✓ ± ↵) for suitably chosen A and ↵. This is an extremely important form for
the Engineer since it is expressed in terms of ‘phase’ (↵) and ‘amplitude’ (A).
– 18 –
Example 26. Solve the equation 3 sin ✓ + 4 cos ✓ = 3 for 0  ✓  2⇡.
First notice that
A sin(✓ + ↵) = A cos ↵ sin ✓ + A sin ↵ cos ✓ .
Hence, if this is to be identically equal to the left-hand side of the given equation,
A cos ↵ = 3 and A sin ↵ = 4 .
Squaring and adding, we see that
A2 (sin2 ↵ + cos2 ↵) = 32 + 42
so that A = 5. It follows that cos ↵ = 35 and sin ↵ = 45 , so that, by calculator, ↵ = .9273. Notice
carefully that the signs of cos ↵ and sin ↵ force the solution for ↵ to lie in a single quadrant, and
hence there is only one solution to this pair of equations in [0, 2⇡]. If we tried to use just one of
the equations instead of both, we would get two solutions, one wrong since it would not satisfy the
second equation!
Our equation now simplifies to
5 sin(✓ + .9273) = 3
or
sin(✓ + .9273) = 3/5 .
Once more using our calculator and looking at the sine graph, we find that ✓ + .9273 = .6435 or
⇡ (✓ + .9273) = .6435. That is to say ✓ = .2838 or ✓ = +1.5708, with general solutions ✓ =
.2838 + 2n⇡ or ✓ = 1.5708 + 2n⇡.
Finally, choice of n = 1 in the first equation or n = 0 in the second gives the required solutions:
✓ = 5.9994 or 1.5708—i.e. ⇡/2.
***Do Exercise 14. Find the values of ✓ in the range 0  ✓  2⇡ which satisfy the following equations:
(i) sin ✓ = .87, (ii) tan ✓ = 1.39, (iii) cos ✓ = .22
***Do Exercise 15. Find all values of ✓ which satisfy the following equations:
(i) sin 2✓ = .81, (ii) cos 3✓ = .49, (iii) tan 12 ✓ = .63
***Do Exercise 16. Find all values of ✓ in the range 0  ✓  180 which satisfy the following equations:
(i) sin 2✓ = sin 60 , (ii) cos 3✓ = cos 120 , (iii) tan2 ✓ = 13 .
***Do Exercise 17. Find all solutions of the following equations which lie in the range 0  ✓  ⇡:
(i) 2 sin2 ✓ + sin ✓ 1 = 0, (ii) 16 tan2 ✓ 24 tan ✓ + 9 = 0, (iii) sin 2✓ = sin ✓.
***Do Exercise 18. Find all solutions of the following equations which lie in the range 0  ✓  2⇡:
(i) cos ✓ = cos 4✓, (ii) sin 3✓ + sin ✓ = 0, (iii) 7 sin ✓ 8 cos ✓ = 9, (iv) 5 cos ✓ + 12 sin ✓ = 4.
– 19 –
Specimen Test 2
⇡
1. Express radians in degrees
6
2. In the triangle ABC find AB (correct to 4 decimal places)

.
.......
...... ....
......
C
...... ....
..........
. ...
.
...... ...
....
....... ...
..
8
.
..........
..... ...
...
......... ...
........
. ...
........
. ...
........
. ...
....
..... ...
....
..... ...
....
..... ...
....
....
.........
..
43 ...
..
....................................................................................................................................................
A B
3. If sin ✓ = 0.3 find (i) cosec ✓, (ii) cos ✓
4. In the triangle ABC find AC (correct to 4 decimal places)
C
.........
..... .........
...... .....
...... .....
........
. .....
. .....
...... .....
....... .....
...
.
.....
.... .
.... .....
.....
.....
8
..... .....
.... .....
........ .....
.......
. .....
.....
...
...... .....
...
...........
. 35 40 .....
.....
...
........................................................................................................................................................................................
.
A B
5. In the triangle P QR find
Q
............
... .............
... ..........
... ..........
... ..........
...
...
..........
..........
..........
..........
12
... ..........
... ..........
6 ...
...
...
..........
..........
..........
... ..........
..........
... ..........
... ..........
... ..........
... ..........
...
....................................................................................................................................................................................................
P 10 R
6. Sketch the graph of sin x for 2⇡ < x < 2⇡
7. Express sin(⇡ + ✓) in terms of sin ✓
8. Find all values of ↵ which satisfy cos ↵ = 0.5
9. Express cos 4✓ + cos 2✓ as a product of trigonometric functions
– 20 –
Worked solutions to Exercises
Note carefully that, whilst alternative answers have been given in degrees and radians, these have been
calculated independently. Owing to rounding errors, the last decimal place(s) may not agree if you try
to convert directly from an answer given in degrees to the corresponding answer in radians or vice versa.
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
⇡ 180 ⇡ 180 3⇡ 180 3⇡
1. (i) = = = 45 , (ii) = = 270 ,
4 ⇡ 4 4 2 ⇡ 2
✓ ◆
7⇡ 180 7⇡
(iii) = = 420 .
3 ⇡ 3
⇡ ⇡ ⇡
2. (i) 18 = 18 = = .3142, (ii) 35 = 35 = .6109,
180 10 180
⇡ ⇡
(iii) 350 = 350 = 6.1087, (iv) 420 = 420 = 7.3304.
180 180
a 1 1
3. (i) c = = = = 2 m,
cos B cos(⇡/3) .5
b = a tan B = tan(⇡/3) = 1.7321 m,
✓ ◆
1 1 1 1
A=⇡ ⇡+B =⇡ ⇡ ⇡ = ⇡.
2 2 3 6
a 2 2
(ii) c = = = = 2.0309 m,
cos B cos(10 ) .9848
b = a tan B = 2 tan(10 ) = .3527 m,
A = 180 (90 + B) = 180 90 10 = 80 .
p p
(iii) c = a2 + b2 = 10 m = 3.1623 m,
b 1
tan B = = . Hence, since B < 12 ⇡, B = tan 1 .3333 = .3218 (= 18.4349 ).
a✓ 3 ◆
1 1
A=⇡ ⇡ + B = ⇡ .3218 = 1.2490, (= 71.5651 ).
2 2
4. (i) Firstly, A + B + C = 180 . Hence, C = 180 47 70 = 63 . Now we can use the sine rule to give
a b c
us a and b: = = implies that
sin A sin B sin C
c sin A 5.1 ⇥ .9397 c sin B 5.1 ⇥ .7314
a= = = 5.3787 m, b = = = 4.1862 m.
sin C .8910 sin C .8910
(ii) Here we must use the cosine formula: a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A tells us that
b2 + c 2 a 2 17.22 + 18.42 12.12
cos A = = = .7710
2bc 2 ⇥ 17.2 ⇥ 18.4
and so A = 39.5594 , (= .6904).
In the same way, the angle cos B is given by
c 2 + a 2 b2 18.42 + 12.12 17.22
cos B = = = .4247
2ca 2 ⇥ 18.4 ⇥ 12.1
and so B = 64.8655 , (= 1.1321).
Finally, C = 180 A B = 180 39.5594 64.8655 = 75.5751 , (= 1.3190).
(iii) Given two sides and non-included angle, we must use the sine formula—and the answer is not unique
(draw a diagram to confirm this)!
b 7
sin B = sin C = sin 10 = .4052
c 3
– 21 –
Hence B = 23.9023 , (= .4172) or B = 180 23.9023 = 156.0977 , (= 2.7244). It follows that
A = 180 B C = 180 23.9023 10 = 146.0977 , (= 2.5499) or 180 156.0977 10 = 13.9023 ,
(= .2426).
Finally we may find a from the cosine formula.
p p p
a = b2 + c2 2bc cos A = 72 + 32 2 ⇥ 7 ⇥ 3 ⇥ cos 146.0977 = 92.8596 = 9.6364 m
p p
or 72 + 32 2 ⇥ 7 ⇥ 3 ⇥ cos 13.9023 = 17.2303 = 4.1509 m.
1 1
5. The area in each case is given by, for example 2 ⇥ base ⇥ height = 2 ⇥ a ⇥ b sin C = 12 ab sin C. Thus the
answers are
1
(i) 2 ⇥ 5.3787 ⇥ 4.1862 ⇥ sin 63 = 10.0311 m2 ,
1
(ii) 2 ⇥ 12.1 ⇥ 17.2 ⇥ sin 75.5751 = 100.7795 m2 ,
1 1
(iii) 2 ⇥ 9.6364 ⇥ 7 ⇥ sin 10 = 5.8567 m2 or 2 ⇥ 4.1509 ⇥ 7 ⇥ sin 10 = 2.5228 m2 .
6. (i) (a) .6428, .7660, .8391, (b) .6570, .7539, .8714, (c) .3420, .9397, .3640.
(ii) (a) .9397, (b) .9397, (c) 1, (d) .5440.
(iii) (a) cos2 120 + sin2 120 = .25 + .75 = 1,
(b) cos2 410 sin2 410 = .4132 .5868 = .1736 = cos 820
(c) 2 ⇥ .9975 ⇥ .0707 = .1411 = sin( 3).
2 sin 1.5 cos 1.5 =
p p
(iv) cos2 ↵ + sin2 ↵ = 1. Hence cos ↵ = ± 1 sin2 ↵ = ± 1 (24/25)2 = ±7/25. However, ↵ is obtuse
and so lies between 90 and 180 . It follows that cos ↵ is negative and so cos ↵ = 7/25.
sin ↵
tan ↵ = = 24/7. The sign is correct for an obtuse angle.
cos ↵
7. (i) (sin ✓ + cos ✓)2 = (sin2 ✓ + cos2 ✓) + 2 sin ✓ cos ✓ = 1 + 2 sin ✓ cos ✓ = 1 + sin 2✓ .
(ii)
sin(A + B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B
tan(A + B) = =
cos(A + B) cos A cos B sin A sin B
On dividing top and bottom of the right hand side by cos A cos B we obtain
tan A + tan B
tan(A + B) = .
1 tan A tan B
(iii) Putting A = B = ✓ in part (ii), the result follows immediately.

(iv)
tan ✓ + cot ✓ (sin ✓/ cos ✓) + (cos ✓/ sin ✓)
=
sec ✓ (1/ cos ✓)
cos ✓ sin ✓ (sin ✓/ cos ✓) + (cos ✓/ sin ✓)
=
cos ✓ sin ✓(1/ cos ✓)
sin2 ✓ + cos2 ✓
=
sin ✓
1
= = cosec ✓ .
sin ✓
8. Given that sin ↵ = 5/13, where ↵ is acute, the lengths of the side opposite ↵ and p
the hypotenuse
p are 5 and
13 respectively. Using Pyhthagoras’ theorem the length of the remaining side is 132 52 = 144 = 12.
Hence tan ↵ = 5/12, cot ↵ = 1/ tan ↵ = 12/5 and cosec ↵ = a/ sin ↵ = 13/5.
– 22 –
9. Since tan ✓ = a/b and ✓ is acute, a and b are respectively
p the side opposite to and the side
p by ✓ in a
right-angled triangle whose hypotenuse is of length a2 + b2 . It follows that sin ✓ = a/ a2 + b2 . In
addition 1 + tan2 ✓ = sec2 ✓ and hence sec2 ✓ = (a/b)2 + 1.
10. (i)
sin 3✓ = sin(2✓ + ✓)
= sin 2✓ cos ✓ + cos 2✓ sin ✓, using the formula for sin(A + B)
2 2
= 2 sin ✓ cos ✓ + (1 2 sin ✓) sin ✓, using the formulae for sin 2✓ and cos 2✓
2 2
= 2 sin ✓(1 sin ✓) + (1 2 sin ✓) sin ✓
3
= 3 sin ✓ 4 sin ✓ .
(ii)
cos 3✓ = cos(2✓ + ✓)
= cos 2✓ cos ✓ sin 2✓ sin ✓, using the formula for cos(A + B)
2 2
= (2 cos ✓ 1) cos ✓ 2 sin ✓ cos ✓, using the formulae for sin 2✓ and cos 2✓
2 2
= (2 cos ✓ 1) cos ✓ 2(1 cos ✓) cos ✓
3
= 4 cos ✓ 3 cos ✓ .
⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇡ ⇡
11. (i) sin + ✓ = sin cos ✓ + cos sin ✓ = 1 ⇥ cos ✓ + 0 ⇥ sin ✓ = cos ✓ .
2 2 2
⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇡ ⇡
(ii) cos + ✓ = cos cos ✓ sin sin ✓ = 0 ⇥ cos ✓ 1 ⇥ sin ✓ = sin ✓ .
2 2 2
(iii) sin (⇡ ✓) = sin ⇡ cos ✓ cos ⇡ sin ✓ = 0 ⇥ cos ✓ ( 1) ⇥ sin ✓ = sin ✓ .
✓ ◆
3⇡ 3⇡ 3⇡
(iv) cos + ✓ = cos cos ✓ sin sin ✓ = 0 ⇥ cos ✓ ( 1) ⇥ sin ✓ = sin ✓ .
2 2 2
12. (i) sin 4✓ + sin ✓ = 2 sin 52 ✓ cos 32 ✓.

(ii) sin 8✓ sin 6✓ = 2 cos 7✓ sin ✓.
(iii) cos 12✓ + cos 10✓ = 2 cos 11✓ cos ✓.
(iv) cos ✓ cos 2✓ = 2 sin 32 ✓ sin( 1
2 ✓) = 2 sin 32 ✓ sin 12 ✓.
(v) sin 13 ⇡ + sin 14 ⇡ = 2 sin 24
7 1
⇡ cos 24 ⇡.
13. (i) 2 sin 6✓ cos 2✓ = sin 8✓ + sin 4✓.

(ii) 2 cos 5✓ cos 3✓ = cos 8✓ + cos 2✓.
(iii) 2 cos 4✓ sin ✓ = sin 5✓ sin 3✓.
(iv) 2 sin 7✓ sin 5✓ = cos 12✓ + cos 2✓.
14. (i) ✓ = 1.0552 , 2.0864 (= ⇡ 1.0552), (= 60.4586 , 119.5414 ).

(ii) ✓ = .9472 , 4.0887 (= ⇡ + .9472), (= 54.2678 , 234.2678 ).
(iii) ✓ = 1.3490 , 4.9342 (= 2⇡ 1.3490, (= 77.2910 , 282.7090 ).
15. (i) 2✓ = .9442 + 2n⇡ , 4.0858 + 2n⇡.

Hence ✓ = .4721 + n⇡ , 2.0429 + n⇡, (= 27.0480 + 180n , 117.0480 + 180n ).
– 23 –
(ii) 3✓ = 2.0829 + 2n⇡ , 4.2003 + 2n⇡.
Hence ✓ = .6943 + 23 n⇡ , 1.4001 + 23 n⇡, (= 39.7802 + 120n , 80.2198 + 120n ).
1
(iii) 2✓ = .5622 + n⇡.
Hence ✓ = 1.1244 + 2n⇡, (= 64.4219 + 360n ).
16. (i) sin 2✓ sin 60 = 2 cos(✓ + 30 ) sin(✓ 30 ) = 0.

It follows that ✓ +30 = 90 +180n so that ✓ = 60 +180n , or ✓ 30 = 180n so that ✓ = 30 +180n .
Hence the values of ✓ in the required range are
✓ = 30 , 60 , (= .5236 , 1.0472).
(ii) cos 3✓ cos 120 = 2 sin( 32 ✓ + 60 ) sin( 32 ✓ 60 ).
3
It follows that 2 ✓ +60 = 180n so that ✓ = 40 +120n , or 32 ✓ 60 = 180n , so that ✓ = 40 +120n .
✓ = 40 , 160 , 80 , (= .6981 , 2.7925 , 1.3963 ).
(iii) tan ✓ = ± p13 .
✓ = 30 , 150 , (= 16 ⇡ , 5
6 ⇡).
1
17. (i) The equation factorises to give (2 sin ✓ 1)(sin ✓ + 1) = 0, so that either sin ✓ = 2 or sin ✓ = 1.
Hence the only solutions in the required range are
✓ = 16 ⇡ , 5
6 ⇡, (= 30 , 150 ).
(ii) The equation factorises to give (4 tan ✓ 3)2 = 0, so that tan ✓ = 34 .
Hence there is just one solution in the range, namely ✓ = .6435, (= 36.8699 ).
(iii) Here, sin 2✓ sin ✓ = sin ✓(2 cos ✓ 1) = 0, and so either sin ✓ = 0 or cos ✓ = 12 .
1
Hence the solutions in the required range are ✓ = 0 , ⇡ , 3 ⇡, (= 0 , 180 , 60 ).
18. (i) cos ✓ cos 4✓ = 2 sin 52 ✓ sin 32 ✓ = 0.

5
Thus 2✓ = n⇡ so that ✓ = 25 n⇡, or 32 ✓ = n⇡ so that ✓ = 23 n⇡.
It follows that the solutions in the required range are
2 4 6 8 2 4
✓ = 0, 5⇡ , 5⇡ , 5⇡ , 5⇡ , 3⇡ , 3⇡ , 2⇡, (= 0 , 72 , 144 , 216 , 288 , 120 , 240 , 360 ).
(ii) sin 3✓ + sin ✓ = 2 sin 2✓ cos ✓ = 0.
It follows that 2✓ = n⇡ so that ✓ = 12 n⇡, or ✓ = 12 (2n + 1)⇡.
Hence the solutions in the required range are ✓ = 0 , 12 ⇡ , ⇡ , 32 ⇡ , 2⇡, (= 0 , 90 , 180 , 270 , 360 ).
p p p p
(iii) Dividing by 72 + 82 = 113 and writing cos ↵ = 7/ 113, sin ↵ = 8/ 113, so that ↵ = .8520, we find
9
sin(✓ ↵) = p .
113
Hence ✓ ↵ = 1.0097 + 2n⇡ or ✓ ↵ = 2.1319 + 2n⇡.
It follows that ✓ = 1.8617 + 2n⇡ or ✓ = 2.9839 + 2n⇡. The values in the required range are thus
✓ = 1.8617 , 2.9839, (= 106.6648 , 170.9668 ).
p
(iv) Dividing by 52 + 122 = 13, and writing sin ↵ = 5/13, cos ↵ = 12/13, so that ↵ = .3948, the equation
becomes
sin(✓ + ↵) = 4/13 .
Hence ✓ + ↵ = .3128 + 2n⇡ or ✓ + ↵ = 2.8288 + 2n⇡ and ✓ = .0820 + 2n⇡ or ✓ = 2.4340 + 2n⇡. It
follows that the values in the required range are ✓ = 6.2012 , 2.4340, (= 355.3003 , 139.4599 ).
– 24 –
Useful results
(a) Commit the following to memory. (Some of the results can easily be worked out from
graphs, the Formula Sheet, calculators etc. but it is often necessary to have the results at
your fingertips.)
⇡
1. To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by
180
180
To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by .
⇡
2. Some useful values:
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡
30 = , 45 = , 60 = , 90 = , 180 = ⇡ , 360 = 2⇡ .
6 4 3 2
3. In the right-angled triangle shown sine, cosine and tangent are defined as follows:
side opposite b adjacent side a side opposite b

sin ✓ = ⌘ , cos ✓ = ⌘ , tan ✓ = ⌘ .
hypotenuse c hypotenuse c adjacent side a
....
...... ..
...... ....
..
........ ...
...
...... ...
...... ...
.
......... ...
........
. ...
c
.......
. ........ ...
...
b
...
...... ...
..
.....
. ...
.
.. .
. ... ...
.........
.
.
....
... ... ...............
.....
✓ .. .
. ..
..................................................................................................................
a
4.
cos2 ✓ + sin2 ✓ = 1 .
5. ⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇣⇡ ⌘
cos ✓ = sin ✓ , sin ✓ = cos ✓ .
2 2
6.
cos( ✓) = cos ✓ , sin( ✓) = sin ✓ , tan( ✓) = tan ✓ .
7.
sin ✓
tan ✓ = .
cos ✓
8. The area of a general triangle ABC is given by
1 1
Area of 4ABC = ⇥ base ⇥ height = ab sin C
2 2
or, of course, by either of the other two similar expressions.
9. The values of sine, cosine and tangents of certain important angles between 0 and ⇡/2 are:
✓ 0 ⇡/6 ⇡/4 ⇡/3 ⇡/2

p p
sin ✓ 0 1/2 1/ 2 3/2 1
p p
cos ✓ 1 3/2 1/ 2 1/2 0
p p
tan ✓ 0 1/ 3 1 3 1
– 25 –
10. The sine and cosine functions have period 2⇡, the tangent function has period ⇡:
cos(✓ + 2n⇡) = cos(✓) , sin(✓ + 2n⇡) = sin ✓ , tan(✓ + n⇡) = tan ✓ ,
if n is an integer.
11. The other three trigonometric ratios are defined as follows:
1 1 1
sec ✓ ⌘ , cosec ✓ ⌘ , cot ✓ ⌘ .
cos ✓ sin ✓ tan ✓
12.
cos 2✓ = 2 cos2 ✓ 1, sin 2✓ = 2 sin ✓ cos ✓ .
13. The diagram to help you remember the signs of the trigonometric functions of ✓ for all real values
of ✓ is:
⇡/2
.............
........... ... .................
....... ... ......
..... .....
..... ... ...
.... ... ...
.. ...
....
. S .
.
....A ...
...
... ... .
.........................................................................................
⇡ ...
...
...
...
..
...
0, 2⇡,...
... .
. ...
... . .
...
.... T C .
.
....
....
...
.
..
.....
...... ... ....
....... .. ......
........................................
3⇡/2
(b) The following appear on the Formula Sheet but it is very useful to know them!
1. The ‘sine’ and ‘cosine’ formulae for a general triangle ABC are
a b c
= = ,
sin A sin B sin C
a 2 = b2 + c 2 2bc cos A ,
with similar results giving b in terms of c, a, cos B and c2 in terms of a, b, cos C. 2
2. The graphs of the three elementary trigonometric functions between 2⇡ and 2⇡ are:
..
.........
.......
....
.......... +1 ...............
...... .. ...... .........
.....
..... ..... .... ......... .....
... .
. .....
... .
.... .
.
. ... ....
.
... .. ... ..
... ... .... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...
... .. ... ... ...
... .... . ... ..
.
.. ..
. .
..
...
.
..
.
. ✓
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
... ... ...
.... ⇡ ..
2⇡ 3⇡/2 ...
...
...
⇡ ...
.
... ⇡/2 .
.
..
⇡/2 ...
..
... ..
3⇡/2
..... 2⇡
... ... . .... ...
... ... .... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...
..... ... ... ..... ...
..... .... ..... .....
...... .......... .
. ........ ....... ....
...........
1 ....... ........
...
...
Graph of cos ✓
– 26 –
...
.......
.........
...
........
.......................
..... ..... ... .....
+1
......
....... ............
.....
.....
. .. ... ..... ...
....
...
... .
. ..... ...
.
..
...
...
... .... .... ...
...
.. ... .
. .
.. ...
.... ... .. ....
. ...
.. ... .. ... ...
...
.
.
. .... .
.
.
...
.
.
.
. .
.. .
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
✓
... ... .
....... ..
2⇡ 3⇡/2 ...
...
...
⇡ ..
.
. ..
.. ...
⇡/2 ...
...
...
⇡/2 ...... ⇡ 3⇡/2 2⇡
... .. ... .
..
.. ... ...
... ... ...
...
... ... .... ...
...
..... .... ...
....
.....
.....
...... ..
...... .
.
.....
..
....... ....... ...
..
................ .......
....
1 .......
...
Graph of sin ✓
.. . .. . ... .. . .. .
... .. ... .. ....... ... .. ... ..
... .. ... .. ......... ... .. ... ..
.... . .... . .... .... . .... .
.. .. .. .. ........ .. .. .. ..
... .
... ..
... .
... ..
.. 2
...
... .
... ..
... .
... ..
.... .. .... .. ... .... .. .... ..
.. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ..
... . ... . ... ... . ... .
.... ... .... ... ... .... ... .... ...
.
. . .
. . .
. .
. . .
. ...
.... .. .. .. .... .. .. ..
.
..
. ..
. .
.
.
.
.. ..
.
..
1 .
..
.
.. .
.
.
.
.. ..
. .
.
.
.
.. ...
. . . . . . . . ...
... .. ... .. .... .... .. ...
..
. ..
. ... ..
. . ..
. ..
. ... ...
... . .
.. . .. ...
. . .
.. ...
.. .. .. .. .... ..... .. ..
... ... ...
.. .
.
. .
. .
.
. .
. .. .
.
.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
. ... ✓.
.
. .. . ... . .. . ..
2⇡ 3⇡/2 ...
... .
.
..
⇡
...
. ⇡/2
..
.
. .
.
.... ....
. ...
.
⇡/2 ..
.
.
⇡ ..
.
.
.... 3⇡/2 ...
.
2⇡ .
...
...
.
... .. ... ... .. ... .. ...
... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ........
. ... ...
...
...
....
..
...
...
....
..
1 ....
..
.
...
..
.
...
..
.
...
..
.
...
... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... .... ... .... ... ... .... ... ....
.. .. ... .. ..
... .... ... .... ... ... .... ... ....
... ... ... ... ........ ... ... ... ...
... ....
..
... ....
.. 2 .
.... ... ....
..
... ....
..
.. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ...
.. .. ... .. ..
... .. ... .. .. ... .. ... ..
Graph of tan ✓
3.
1 + tan2 ✓ = sec2 ✓ .
4.
1 + cot2 ✓ = cosec2 ✓ .
5.
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B ,
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B .
cos(A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B ,
sin(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B .
(c) Also on the Formula Sheet are:

1.
1 1
sin A + sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A B) ,
2 2
1 1
sin A sin B = 2 cos (A + B) sin (A B) ,
2 2
1 1
cos A + cos B = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A B) ,
2 2
1 1
cos A cos B = 2 sin (A + B) sin (A B) ,
2 2
Solutions to the specimen test are on the website.
– 27 –
Self-paced Course
MODULE 14 VECTORS I
Module Topics
1. Introductory remarks on scalars and vectors and the notation used for describing vectors
2. Addition and subtraction of vectors
3. Cartesian components of a vector
4. Scalar product of two vectors and applications
5. Vector product of two vectors and applications
A: Work Scheme based on JAMES (FIFTH EDITION)
1. This is the first of two modules on vectors. Turn to J. p.232 and read the Introduction section 4.1.
2. Study section 4.2.1 on Cartesian coordinates and direction cosines. The notations (x, y, z) and (x1 , x2 , x3 )
are both commonly used. The axes are right-handed, so that if the y- and z- axes in Figure 4.1(a) lie in
the plane of the paper then the x- axis points out of the paper. Study Example 4.1.
3. Study section 4.2.2 on scalars and vectors. In these modules, and in J., vectors will be printed in bold
face, e.g. a. In your written work, however, you should use the equivalent underlined notation a. It is
important that your own written work distinguishes between the vector a and its magnitude a.
Although J. introduces antiparallel to describe vectors which are parallel but point in opposite directions
(i.e. have opposite senses) this terminology is not used by most authors.
4. Study section 4.2.3 on addition of vectors. The parallelogram rule and the triangle law are equivalent
ways of defining addition. You can remember either but do look carefully at the directions of the vectors a
and b in Figures 4.8 and 4.9. The commutative law (a) and associative law (b) on the bottom of p.238
and top of p.239 show that vectors can be added in any order.
Figure 4.13 shows how to subtract vectors. Given a and b the vector b is easily drawn. The quantity
a b is then found from adding (by the parallelogram rule or the triangle law) the vectors a and b.
Study Example 4.4. Then study Example 4.5, drawing first the quadrilateral with the vertices in the stated
order O, A, C and B. Study Example 4.6, noting that the units of length are chosen so that 1 unit represents
1 N. Hence, the length OB equals the magnitude of F0 , = 1. Study Example 4.7.
5. Study section 4.2.5 on Cartesian components - the manipulation of vectors in component form is very
important. Study Example 4.10, noting that in part (d) the unit vector ĉ is calculated by dividing c by its
magnitude - this calculation is necessary in many situations. Study Example 4.11.
Work through Example 4.12. The theory involved in this example is relatively straightforward but you
will need to do the algebra carefully to obtain the correct answers! Study Example 4.13, noting that in
calculating F2 you use the result that F2 = magnitude ⇥ (unit vector in direction of F2 ).
–1–
***Do Exercises 11, 12, 19 on p.252, and 9 on p.243***
6. Turn to p.253 and study section 4.2.8 on scalar product. On p.254 the scalar product is defined ge-
ometrically and in component form. Both formulae are useful and must be known. The basic properties
of scalar product are listed as (a) to (f) on pp.254 to 256 and should be studied carefully. Property (f) is
particularly important. Study Examples 4.17, 4.18, 4.19 and 4.20, and then move on to study Example
4.22.
7. Study the paragraph on the component of a vector in the direction of another vector, below the
horizontal line on p.259, and work through Example 4.23.
***Do Exercises 27, 28(a),(c), 31, 32 on p.260***
8. Study the introduction to vector products on p.261, stopping before the first application. This is the
second commonly used product of vectors. Compare the similarities and di↵erences between the definition
4.5 and the geometric definition of scalar product on p.254.
9. Study all the applications of vector products discussed on pp.261 to 263. The results 4.6 and 4.7 must
be known - the order of the vectors on the right-hand sides of these equations is important. Note that the
directions of the vector moment M and the angular velocity ! are both along the axes of rotation of these
quantities.
10. Study carefully the properties (a) to (f) of vector products on pp.263-265. The Cartesian form 4.9 is
again much used. You should be able to follow its derivation, but it is the result which is important. Don’t
worry if you do not know about determinants - this alternative method of calculating vector products will
make sense after you have studied the modules on Matrices.
Study Example 4.24, noting that in this and the following Examples you can evaluate the vector products
using the procedure shown in Figure 4.39. Study Examples 4.25, 4.26, 4.28, 4.29.
***Do Exercises 41, 51, 52 on p.271***
B: Work Scheme based on STROUD (SIXTH EDITION)

Work through Programme 6, Vectors. The notation used by S. for vectors is non-standard. Instead of
!
denoting a vector by AB or a as in S., it is much more common to use AB or a or a (bold type).
The programme in S. provides a good introduction to vectors, their representation with respect to cartesian
axes and to the definition and calculation of scalar and vector products. However, there is material in the
syllabus for Module 14 that is missing (mainly on the applications to moments, angular velocity and areas)
so you should go through a Work Scheme based on J. to discover the required extra information.
–2–
Specimen Test 14
! ! !
1. ABCD is a plane quadrilateral in which AB = a, BC = b and CD = c and the midpoints of the sides
are E, F , G, H, as shown
D G
......................................................................... .
...... ....................................
...... ...................................
..... ............
H .
............ ...
... .
..... C
.......
......
.
. . ...
.
✓ .
.....
... .........
.
.. . ..
.
......
.. .....
........... .....
A .....
....... .....
.......
....... .
........
. .
.......
....... .......
.....
.......
....... .
.......
.....
..... F
. ........
....... .
........
...
....... .....
E .......
.......
.......
.....
.....
....... ..........
.........
! ! !
(i) Express the following vectors in terms of a, b and c: (a) AC, (b) AD, (c) EG.
(ii) Write down |b + c| in terms of b, c and cos ✓
2. Suppose that, relative to a set of rectangular cartesian axes, P is a point with coordinates (1, 1, 4),
A is a point with coordinates (0, 3, 1) and the origin O has coordinates (0, 0, 0).
Write down in terms of i, j and k
!
(i) the position vector r of the point P , (ii) the vector P A.
3. If a = 3i 4j + 5k and b = i + 3j k find
(i) |a|, (ii) â, (iii) a 2b, (iv) the z-component of b.
4. Given that b = i + 3j k and c = 3i 2j k find

(i) b . c, (ii) the angle between b and c.
5. A body moves from a point A = (0, 1, 0) to a point B = (1, 2, 2) (measured in metres) whilst being
subjected to a force F of magnitude 6 N in the direction of the vector i + 2j + k.
(i) Determine the vector force F, (ii) calculate the work done by the force.
6. Given that a = 2i + k and b = 2i + 4j + 3k find

(i) a ⇥ b, (ii) a unit vector perpendicular to a and b.
7. A force defined by the vector 5i + 2k acts through the point (2, 6, 1). Calculate the (vector) moment of
this force about the point (1, 1, 1) (the units being metres and newtons).
8. A body is rotating with angular velocity 4 rads/s in a positive sense about an axis from the point (1, 0, 0)
to the point (2, 3, 2) (in metres). Calculate
(i) the angular velocity vector ! , (ii) the velocity of the point in the body at (2, 1, 1).
–3–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 3 DIFFERENTIATION I
Module Topics
1. Basic rules of di↵erentiation

2. Di↵erentiation of standard functions
3. Newton-Raphson procedure for finding roots
4. Partial di↵erentiation
The previous two modules were self-contained but this module and most of the remaining ones are written
around a book. The main text is Modern Engineering Mathematics by James, which was chosen by a
team of both mathematicians and engineers as the best for most Part 1 students. As mentioned in Module 0,
some of you will find Engineering Mathematics by Stroud to be easier to work through. The latter is a
programmed learning text which is found particularly useful by those with a less mathematical background.
Although it covers a little less of the syllabus than James it contains sufficient mathematics for your needs.
Work schemes based on the above books are included in each module. You need to obtain a copy of one of
the books, since it is essential to have access to it when working through the module. There are a few copies
of each in the short loan section of the library if you are working through the module on site (and you have
left your heavy copy at home!), and in the Workshop cupboard.
The material in this module will be mostly revision, but the work on partial derivatives is likely to be new
to most of you. Calculus is extremely useful in many branches of engineering and so it is important that you
are very proficient at di↵erentiation and integration. Do work through the module, therefore, and attempt
the Exercises and Specimen Test, the solutions to which start on p.5. Note that the solutions are written in
an expanded form which includes the intermediate variables. The better you are at di↵erentiation the more
likely it is you will omit many of these intermediate steps.
1. Read the introduction to chapter 8 on p.548. Note that the major aim of the mathematics units
this year is to develop your understanding of a number of useful mathematical methods. Symbolic algebra
packages are of great assistance in solving complicated problems but they will not form part of your first
year mathematics course.
2. Read section 8.2.1 on rates of change. Remind yourself of the definition of a derivative in section 8.2.2
and then look through Example 8.1. Note, however, that deriving results from first principles is much less
important than being able to use the standard results.
Read section 8.2.3 and work through Example 8.2 disregarding part (d).
3. Study section 8.2.4. Roughly speaking a function is di↵erentiable provided there are no sharp changes
in the value of the function or its derivative.
–1–
4. Read section 8.2.5 and then look through section 8.2.7. The latter shows some of the many applications
of calculus in modelling engineering problems. In the mathematics this year we concentrate on the methods,
the applications you will see in your engineering units.
***Do Exercise 1(c) on p.556***
5. Read the introduction to section 8.3 on p.565 and then study section 8.3.1. Rules 1-7 on p.566-567
are extremely important and must be remembered. The verifications of the four rules, on pp.567-568, are
not required.
6. Read section 8.3.2 and, of course, you must be absolutely sure of equation 8.9. Study Example 8.9. If
you need further practice study Example 8.10.
7. Study the introduction to section 8.3.3 and Examples 8.11 and 8.12.
8. Study section 8.3.4 on di↵erentiating rational functions and then work through all three parts of Example
8.14.
9. The chain rule, introduced in section 8.3.6, is very important and must be studied carefully; its verification
is not required. Memorize rule 5. Study Examples 8.15 and 8.16. Intermediate steps can often be omitted
when you are familiar with the process, but you should always leave in sufficient working to enable you to
get the correct answer!
10. Understand and memorize rule 6 in section 8.3.7. This rule applies to inverse functions (to be discussed
dy dx
in detail in module 7) and can be rewritten = 1.
dx dy
***Do Exercises 26(a),(e), 27(d), 32(a),(e), 33(b),(d) on p.583 and 25(e),(f ) on p.576**
11. The basic rules of di↵erentiation have been illustrated so far in this module using polynomial functions. In
the next few sections the derivatives of trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions are considered.
Functions will be considered in more detail in module 7 but before studying section 8.3.9 you may wish to
look at section 2.6.3 on circular functions.
Study the first part of section 8.3.9. The derivatives of sin x and cos x are derived from first principles, and
the corresponding results for tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x are then found using the rule for di↵erentiating
a quotient. Stop at equation 8.18, since the inverse trigonometric functions are not investigated in this
module. The derivatives for tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x can be found on the Formula sheet, but it is often
useful to have them at your fingertips and lecturers of other units on your course might expect you to know
them. The derivatives for sin x and cos x are so fundamental that they must be memorised, with the minus
sign in the correct place.
If you are in a department which uses the Data Book you must get familiar with what results are stated in
the Book, where the results appear and the notation which is used. In a number of places the notation in
James (and these modules) and the Data Book are di↵erent.
Study Examples 8.17(a)-(e).
12. Study section 8.3.10 on p.588 and then study Example 8.18, part (a) only.
13. Turn back to p.152 in chapter 2 and look briefly at the introduction to section 2.7 on exponential and
logarithmic functions, and then read sections 2.7.1 (omitting Examples 2.55 and 2.56) and 2.7.2.
Moving on to section 8.3.12 on p.590 the important results for the derivatives of ex and ln x are stated
by equations 8.22 and 8.23 and these should be known (they do not appear on the Formula sheet). Study
Example 8.19.
–2–
***Do Exercises 34(c),(f ) on p.590 and 38(b),(e), 39(b),(c) on p.595***
14. Higher derivatives are mentioned for the first time on p.601. Study section 8.4 up to and including
Example 8.27.
***Do Exercises 60(a), 62 on p.605***
15. A very useful iterative method for solving equations of the form f (x) = 0 is the Newton-Raphson
procedure, and many of you will have met this technique previously.
Turn to p.728 and study section 9.4.8. It is easily shown from Figure 9.7 that the formula (9.17), which
appears on the Formula sheet (and which appears in the Data Book in a simpler form as Newton’s Method),
should lead to a more accurate root of f (x) = 0. The comments below (9.17) concern the order of
convergence of the process, and when the method fails, and can be omitted.
Work through Examples 9.17 and 9.18. Note that any equation g(x) = C, where C is a constant, must
be expressed in the form g(x) C = 0, before applying the Newton-Raphson formula to the function
g(x) C (= f (x)).
When you are told an approximate root of f (x) = 0 the use of the Newton-Raphson method is straightfor-
ward. If no initial approximation is prescribed then you must consider the signs of f (x) for di↵erent values
of x to ascertain a starting value for the iteration.
***Do Example A: Given that the equation x3 = 7 has the approximate root x = 2 use the Newton-
Raphson procedure to obtain three further approximations (giving answers correct to 4 decimal places).
***Do Exercise 26 on p.731***
16. Up to now all the work in this module has involved a function depending on 1 variable, say f (x).
In practice, most engineering problems involve quantities which depend on 2 or more variables, e.g. the
temperature in a machine generally depends on time t and the 3 spatial coordinates x, y and z, i.e. f =
f (x, y, z, t). For these more complicated functions di↵erentiation is more involved and it is necessary to
define partial derivatives. At this stage only the basic definition is introduced, with some simple examples.
Further details will be considered in module 19 later in the year.
Study the introductory comments to section 9.6 on p.737, and then study section 9.6.2 before Example
9.22. Get familiar with the ‘curly dee’ notation, and use it, since it is important in your working to
distinguish between ordinary and partial derivatives. It should be emphasised that the partial derivative of
a function is the derivative with respect to a given variable with all the other independent variables kept
@f
constant. That is, for the function f (x, y) the derivative is di↵erentiation with respect to x, with y
@x
constant.
17. Study Examples 9.24 and 9.25. Note that part (b) of Example 9.25 concerns partial di↵erentiation of
a composite function f (u), where u = u(x, y). In these situations the chain rule can be used so, for example,
@f df @u
= .
@x du @x
Note the use of ordinary and partial derivatives in the above. The function f depends on the single variable
u, and hence di↵erentiation of f with respect to u gives an ordinary derivative. On the other hand, u depends
on 2 variables x and y and hence di↵erentiation of u with respect to x leads to a partial derivative (with the
other variable y kept constant).
–3–
Work first through Programme F.11 on Di↵erentiation, starting on p.359 in the Foundations part of S..
Then turn to Programme 7 on p.619 of S. Frame 1 contains a list of derivatives. You should memorise
results 1, 2, 5, 7 and 8 which do not appear on the Formula sheet, but other lecturers will probably expect
you to know many of the remaining ones in the list. Frame 2 should be omitted, hyperbolic functions are
considered later in the course. You can also omit questions 6, 9, 12, 16 and 18 in frame 3. Study frames
5-16, leaving out question 10 in frame 10 and question 5 in frame 13.
Finally, work through frames 1-14 of Programme 10 on Partial Di↵erentiation beginning on p.687 of S.
Specimen Test 3
df
1. (i) Write down the definition of at the point x.
dx
(ii) Find the derivative of f (x) = 2x2 from first principles.
2. Di↵erentiate the following functions with respect to x:

1 2
(i) 6x 4 , (ii) , (iii) (x2 + x + 1)3 , (iv) 5 + cos(x4 ), (v) e 2x
sin(2x),
x3
x
(vi) p , (vii) ln(2 + sin x), (viii) sin2 (x3 + 1).
x2 + 1
3. An approximate solution of the equation x2 = 5 is x = 2. Use the Newton-Raphson procedure to

obtain the next two approximations.
@f @f
4. Find and when f (x, y) is
@x @y
(i) x2 y 2 + xy x2 + y 2 5x, (ii) ln(xy) .
–4–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 4 INTEGRATION I
Module Topics
1. Definition of integral
2. Standard integrals
3. Use of simple substitutions
4. Integration by parts
5. Numerical integration
1. This module covers basic material on integration and will be mainly revision for you. Read the introduc-
tory sentence to section 8.7 on p.622. Then study section 8.7.1 on defining an integral as a limit, up to
and including Example 8.37. You should note that areas above the x-axis are positive whereas those below
the axis are negative.
2. Study section 8.7.4 on definite and indefinite integrals, and then study section 8.7.5 on the fun-
damental theorem of calculus. Some simple integrals can be determined from first principles, using the
definition of the integral as a limit. From these results and corresponding ones for simple derivatives it
follows that di↵erentiation and integration are inverse processes, as stated in the key result at the bottom
of p.633 and proved more mathematically in theorem 8.1 on p.634.
3. Read the introduction to section 8.8, and then study section 8.8.1.
The fundamental theorem of calculus allows the results for derivatives on the formula sheet (and in the Data
d
Book) to be re-interpreted as results for integrals. For example, you know (sin x) = cos x and this leads
Z dx
to the equivalent result cos x dx = sin x + c , the only extra feature being the constant of integration
which appears for all indefinite integrals.
Rules 1 and 2 on p.636 are very important, but you should note that rule 3 is not usually remembered in
that form and rule 4 is not normally used at all, although it is a neat result. Work through parts (a), (b)
and (d) of Example 8.42. If you need further practice study Example 8.43.
4. Example 8.42(c) uses the linear composite rule which, as I have said above, is not usually remembered.
The normal way to evaluate integrals of this type is to use a simple substitution so that the original integral
can be expressed
Z in a standard form. For this example introduce u = 5x + 2. Then the original integral
p
becomes u dx. However, it is only possible to integrate a function of u with respect to u and hence a
du
further change to the integral is required. Since u = 5x + 2 it follows immediately that = 5, which
dx
du
can be arranged to give du = 5 dx or dx = . This rather casual approach to the quantities du and
5
–1–
Z
p du
dx can be justified, if necessary. The original integral can therefore be written u , with solution
! 5
3
1 u2 2 3 2 3
+c= u2 + c = (5x + 2) 2 + c , as obtained in J.
5 3/2 15 15
Similar methods can be used to extend other standard results listed on the formula sheet (and in the Data
Book). To integrate the function cos(4x), for instance, put u = 4x, which implies du = 4 dx. It then follows
that Z Z ✓ ◆
du 1 1
cos(4x) dx = cos u = sin u + c = sin(4x) + c.
4 4 4
Inverse functions will be studied in detail in module 7, but for the present let us assume that if y = tan x
then reversing the operation gives x = tan 1 y, i.e. x is the angle whose tangent is y. It will be shown
d 1
in module 7, if you have not met the result before, that (tan 1 x) = 2
, as stated on the formula
dx 1 + xZ
1
sheet (and in the Data Book), with the obvious corresponding integral result dx = tan 1 x + c.
1 + x2
Simple substitutions can be used to deal with slight variations of the integrand. For example, to integrate
1
the function you need to put u = 2x so that the denominator becomes 1 + u2 , in which case the
1 + 4x2
integrand reduces to the standard form. From the stated substitution du = 2 dx, so the calculation proceeds
as follows: Z Z
dx (du/2) 1 1
= = tan 1 u + c = tan 1 (2x) + c.
1 + 4x2 1 + u2 2 2
1
An example which looks very similar has the integrand . For this case first note that 4 + x2 =
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 4 + x2
x2 ⇣ x ⌘2 x
4 1+ = 4 1+ . This time introduce u = , so that the denominator equals 4(1 + u2 ). The
4 2 2
dx
present substitution leads to du = and hence
2
Z Z ⇣x⌘
dx 2du 1 1 1 1
= = tan u+c= tan + c.
4 + x2 4(1 + u2 ) 2 2 2
[In the above three cases you should check the answers by di↵erentiating the final expressions, using the
chain rule if necessary, to make sure you obtain the original functions.]
5. When you are using a substitution to evaluate a definite integral, i.e. an integral with prescribed limits,
then you must always
Z remember to change the limits to the values appropriate to the new variable. For
1
example, consider (2x + 1)3 dx . Many of you will write down the answer immediately for this simple
0
du
integral but if you use the substitution u = 2x + 1, then = 2. The original limits are x = 0 and x = 1
dx
and in the new variable these become u = 1 and u = 3 respectively. Hence, the calculation proceeds as
below  4
Z 1 Z 3
3 3 du u 1 80
(2x + 1) dx = u = = (34 14 ) = = 10.
0 1 2 8 8 8
6. Study Example 8.55 part (a) on p.655. As shown in this Example the identities on the formula sheet
(and in the Data Book) connecting products and sums of trigonometric functions are very useful in evaluating
some integrals.
–2–
N.B. In some versions of the Data Book there are errors on p.3-8. Correct results are
2 sin A sin B = cos(A B) cos(A + B)

1 1
sin A + sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A B)
2 2
Z
Two simple integrals which occur frequently in applications and fall into this category are cos2 x dx
Z
and sin2 x dx . To evaluate these integrals you use the double angle formulae cos 2x = 2 cos2 x 1
or cos 2x = 1 2 sin2 x to write cos2 x or sin2 x as an expression involving cos 2x, which can be easily
integrated.
The latter procedure can be repeated twice if you want to integrate cos4 x , for instance. You can write
1
cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x) and hence cos4 x = (cos2 x)2 = 14 (1 + cos 2x)2 = 14 (1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x) . The
2
quantity cos2 2x can be replaced, using the double angle formula with x replaced by 2x, by 12 (1 + cos 4x)
and the original function has then been written in terms of simple functions which can be integrated using
minor extensions of the listed standard integrals.
7. Study the general comments at the top of p.644, section 8.8.2.
***Do Exercises 104(a),(b),(c),(d),(f ) on p.647, Exercises 119(b), 120(a) and 120(b) on p.658
and Exercises 105(c), 106(b) on p.647***
***Do Exercise A: Find the indefinite integral of cos4 x ***
8. Study section 8.8.4 on integration by parts and then work through all three parts of Example 8.50.
Integrals of the type considered in part (c), where you have to integrate by parts twice to obtain an integral
similar to the starting one, are important and most of you will meet them later in your studies in calculating
Fourier coefficients.
***Do Exercises 110(a),(b),(c),(d (harder)), 111(a) on p.651***

Z
***Do Exercise B: (harder) Use integration by parts (twice) to evaluate e2x cos x dx
9. The next topic to be briefly considered is numerical integration. Read the introduction to section
8.10 on p.679.
Study section 8.10.1 on the trapezium rule. The area under the graph is divided into a number of strips.
The area of each strip is approximated by the area of a trapezium, as shown in Figure 8.71. The area of
1
this trapezium is (fr + fr+1 )h, and hence the formula (8.47) can be obtained. The latter appears on the
2
Formula sheet and in the Data Book.
Work through Example 8.69. Efficient ways of calculating the answer are explored in this solution, but in
this module you will only be expected to use straightforward methods of evaluation and, in fact, the number
of strips to be used in any Example will normally be prescribed.
10. Study section 8.10.2 on Simpson’s rule. You should look through the derivation of formula (8.49)
on p.685, which uses the extrapolation formula second from the top of p.683. It is more usual to derive
Simpson’s rule using the method mentioned briefly in the middle of p.685, joining three points using a
parabola and not the straight lines used in deriving the trapezium rule. Once again the derivation is not
very important, but you must be able to use formula (8.49), which is stated on the Formula sheet and in
the Data Book.
–3–
Work through Example 8.71, which illustrates a more practical use of Simpson’s rule.
***Do Exercise C: Using the trapezium rule evaluate again the integral in Exercise 142 (with h = 0.1
in the latter).

This module covers some of Programme 15 in S. Turn to p.824 and read frame 1. Move on to the next
frame and results 1-4, 6-8 and 13 in the table. Note that inverse functions will be studied in module 7, and
for the present it is only necessary to know that if y = tan x then reversing the operation gives x = tan 1 y,
with tan 1 being an inverse function. Try examples (a) (d), (f ), (j) in frame 4.
Study frames 6-10, omitting questions 4, 9 and 10 in frame 9.
Move forward to frame 21 on integration by parts, and work through frames 21-30.
Next consider the integration of some trigonometric functions. Work through frames 44, 46(iv), 47, 49-53
remembering that the formulae written in frame 50 can be found on the formula sheet (and in the Data
Book, noting that the fourth identity in frame 50 is wrongly stated in some versions of the Data Book).
Finally turn to p.987 of S. and work through frames 16–34 in programme 21. This covers Simpson’s rule
for numerically evaluating integrals. For the trapezium rule you need to study section 9 in the above scheme
based on J. (Copies of James are available in the library.)
Specimen Test 4
1. Determine the following indefinite integrals:

Z Z Z Z
1 1
(i) dx (ii) dx (iii) e2x+1 dx (iv) sin(1 + 4x) dx
x2 x+4
Z Z
1
(v) cos(2x) cos(4x) dx (vi) dx
9 + x2
2. Evaluate
Z 1 Z ⇡
(i) (x2 + 1)2 dx (ii) sin2 x dx
0 0
Z 2
3. Evaluate x ln x dx
1
Z 2
1
4. Estimate the value of dx using Simpson’s rule, after completing the table below,
1 x
x 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00

1
x
–4–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 6 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS I
Module Topics
1. Classification of di↵erential equations

2. First order separable ordinary di↵erential equations
3. Second order linear homogeneous ordinary di↵erential equations with constant coefficients
1. Read section 10.1, the Introduction, on p.790.
2. Read quickly through section 10.2 on engineering examples. Four particular examples are discussed to
illustrate the importance of di↵erential equations in solving engineering problems. You are not expected to
study these examples - they simply indicate the wide variety of engineering situations in which di↵erential
equations can be used. In this module, and two further modules on di↵erential equations which you will
study in the next semester, attention is concentrated on the mathematical methods used to solve di↵er-
ential equations. The applications will come in your engineering units throughout your degree course at
Southampton.
3. Study the first paragraph of section 10.3 on the classification of di↵erential equations, and recall what
you read in section 10.1 on defining ordinary di↵erential equations (ODEs) and partial di↵erential
equations (PDEs). Note that in the mathematics units this year you will only be asked to solve ODEs,
because the solution of PDEs is much more difficult! Look carefully at Example 10.1.
4. Independent and dependent variables are defined next. Study section 10.3.1 and the various equations
considered in Example 10.1.
5. Study the short section 10.3.2 and Example 10.2.
6. The important distinction between linear and nonlinear equations is discussed in section 10.3.3. Study
the latter and Example 10.3.
7. Study section 10.3.4. Most people use inhomogeneous instead of the word nonhomogeneous intro-
duced by J. Note also that on the last sentence in the top paragraph on p.798 there is a typo: the word
‘independent’ should be replaced by ‘dependent’. Study Examples 10.4 and 10.5.
***Do Exercises 2(a),(b),(f ) on p.799***
8. After classifying a di↵erential equation the most important stage is to obtain the solution. Read the
introduction to section 10.4 on p.799.
9. Study section 10.4.1 and Examples 10.6 and 10.7, and then study the related section 10.4.2 including
Example 10.8.
–1–
10. Study section 10.4.3 including Examples 10.9, 10.10 and 10.11. Note that the use of boundary
conditions and initial conditions in J. is not standard. Boundary condition is normally used when the
independent variable denotes distance (not time). When conditions are applied at two di↵erent boundaries
then the problem is usually called a two-point boundary-value problem. The phrase initial conditions
is normally used when time t is an independent variable and conditions are applied at the beginning of the
process, which is often t = 0. If all the conditions were applied some time after the start of the process,
when t = 10 s say, then it would not normally be given the special name initial-value problem as suggested
in J.
11. Read section 10.4.4.
***Do Exercises 3(a),(e), 4(a),(b) on p.805***
12. Read the introductory paragraph in section 10.5.
13. Study the beginning of section 10.5.3 on pp.810-811, noting that it is usual to go directly from
equation (10.13) to equation (10.15). Work through Example 10.13.
***Do Exercises 11(b), 13(a), 14(a),(d), 12(b) on pp.812-813***
14. You will study more first order ODEs later this year, but to complete this module some simple second
order ODEs will be considered. Read the three lines introducing section 10.8 on p.840, and then turn to
p.852.
15. Study section 10.9.1. Equations of the type investigated in this section occur very frequently in
engineering applications. One important example, for instance, is the equation governing simple harmonic
motion. You should understand the theory on p.853 but in practice you would usually go straight from the
given ODE (10.37) to the corresponding equation (10.38), solve the latter to find m1 and m2 and then
write down the appropriate solution for x as in the summary at the top of p.854. These results do not
appear on the Formula Sheet.
Study Examples 10.34, 10.35 and 10.36.
***Do Exercises 55(a), 57(b),(d), 59(a), 56(a), 59(b) on p.857***
16. Almost all the ODEs in J. use x and t as the dependent and independent variables respectively. In
practice, you must be able to solve equations involving di↵erent variables. Note also that the Data Book
uses y and x as the dependent and independent variables.

Although most of the mathematics in this module can be found in S., not all the terminology is discussed. You
are advised, therefore, to work first through items 1-11 of the Work Scheme based on J. After completing
the latter turn to S. and work through Programme 24, First-Order Di↵erential Equations, frames 1-21
omitting Example 5 in frame 17.
Finally, work through S. Programme 25, Second-Order Di↵erential Equations, frames 1-16.
–2–
Specimen Test 6
1. Classify the following di↵erential equations as ordinary/partial, linear/nonlinear, homogeneous/ inho-

mogeneous and also state the equation’s order and the dependent and independent variables:
dx 1 @2y @2y d2 y dy
(i) + x = 1, (ii) = 0, (iii) x + x2 + y = 0.
dt t @x2 @t2 dx2 dx
2. State how many arbitrary constants you expect to find in the general solution of the following di↵erential
d2 x
equation, and then find the general solution: = t + e2t .
dt2
dx
3. (i) Determine the general solution of the equation xt = 1.
dt
dx t+1
(ii) Find the solution of the di↵erential equation = given that x(0) = 1 .
dt x+1
4. Find the general solution of the following equations:

d2 x dx d2 y dy
(i) 4 + 13 x = 0, (ii) 2 + y = 0.
dt2 dt dx2 dx
d2 x dx dx
5. Find the solution of the di↵erential equation +3 +2 x = 0 given that x(0) = 1, (0) = 1.
dt2 dt dt
–3–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 5 COMPLEX NUMBERS I
Module Topics
1. Graphical representation of complex numbers

2. Algebra of complex numbers
3. Polar form of a complex number
4. Euler’s formula and exponential form of a complex number
A: Work Scheme based on JAMES (FITFTH EDITION)
1. Read section 3.1, the Introduction, on p.186 and in particular the section on quadratic equations.
2. Study the beginning of section 3.2. Although an unknown complex number z is usually written z = x+jy,
most people would write a particular complex number as 3 2j, for instance, and not the form 3 j2 as
adopted in J. However, with the normal rules for multiplication of numbers (2)(j) = (j)(2) and so the
representations 3 2j and 3 j2 are identical.
p p p p
Having defined j = 1 it follows that 16 = 16( 1) = ±4 = ±4j = ±j4. Using a similar
1p
p
method it is easy to show that for any positive number b then b = ±j b.
3. Study section 3.2.1 on the Argand diagram and Example 3.1.

4. Study cases (i) and (ii) in section 3.2.2 and Examples 3.2 and 3.3. Addition and subtraction of complex
numbers is straightforward. There is no need to remember the general formulae since it is easy to perform
the calculations as necessary.
5. It is easily seen from case (iii) in section 3.2.2

p that to multiply complex numbers the normal rules for
multiplying out brackets are used. Since j = 1 it follows that j 2 = 1 and this must be used when
simplifying expressions. Study Example 3.4.
Note that
j2 = 1, j 3 = j(j 2 ) = j( 1) = j, j 4 = j 2 j 2 = ( 1)( 1) = 1,
and using these results all higher powers of j must equal ±1 or ±j.
6. Division of complex numbers is more complicated. Study case (iv) on p.190 and Examples 3.5 and 3.6.
Study section 3.2.3 on complex conjugate. Note that from the definition of the complex conjugate it can
be shown that
(z1 + z2 )⇤ = z1⇤ + z2⇤ , (z1 z2 )⇤ = z1⇤ z2⇤ .
***Do Exercises 6(a),(b),(d),(f ),(g), 8(a),(b), 10(a),(b),(c), 12, 17 on p.196***
–1–
7. Study section 3.2.4 on modulus and argument. For later work it is important to emphasise that adding
any multiple of 2⇡ to arg z leaves the complex number z unaltered. However, the principal value of arg z
lies in the range ⇡ < arg z  +⇡. Work through Example 3.10 and then study section 3.2.6 up to and
including Example 3.11.
***Do Exercises 24(a),(c),(e),(g),(i) on p.204***
8. Study the short section on multiplication in polar form at the bottom of p.198 and the top of p.199.
Study Example 3.12.
9. Study the notes on multiplying by j beginning at the bottom of p.199 and on division in polar form on
p.200. Study Example 3.13.
10. Before working through Example 3.14 it is important to emphasise that by taking z1 = z2 = z in
equations 3.5a and 3.5b it follows that
|z 2 | = |z|2 and arg(z 2 ) = 2 arg z.
Extending the argument it follows that
|z n | = |z|n and arg(z n ) = n arg z,
although some adjustment (adding or subtracting integral multiples of 2 ⇡ ) may be necessary to bring the
answer for the argument into the range between ⇡ and +⇡. Study Example 3.14.
11. Study section 3.2.7 on Euler’s formula. The formula 3.9 is very important and J. justifies it by
multiplying out and using trigonometric identities. Other authors justify equation 3.9 by considering the
series expansions for ex , cos x and sin x. Those of you who know these expansions might like to use them to
derive equation 3.9. Work through Examples 3.15 and 3.16.
12. Note that Euler’s formula and the properties of exponentials can also be used to derive results 3.4 and
3.6 as follows. If z1 = r1 ej✓1 and z2 = r2 ej✓2 then
z1 z2 = r1 ej✓1 r2 ej✓2 = r1 r2 ej(✓1 +✓2 ) = r1 r2 {cos(✓1 + ✓2 ) + j sin(✓1 + ✓2 )} ,
and
z1 r1 ej✓1 r1 r1
= j✓
= ej(✓1 ✓2 )
= {cos(✓1 ✓2 ) + j sin(✓1 ✓2 )} .
z2 r2 e 2 r2 r2
***Do Exercises 26 and 27 on p.204***
13. To complete the module turn briefly to p.250 and study section 4.2.6 on representing complex numbers
as vectors. Vectors may be new to some of you but they will be studied in detail later in the year. Work
through Example 4.15.
–2–
Work through Programme 1, Complex Numbers, Part 2, leaving out only section 60. Note the following
notations. Given the complex number z = x + jy, then its conjugate z = x jy is usually written z ⇤
(or z ). In writing a complex number in polar form S. chooses arg z to lie in the range 0 < arg z  2⇡ (in
radians). J. and most other authors use the range ⇡ < arg z  ⇡, and in this unit you should use the
latter range if asked for the principal value of arg z. (Clearly adding any integral multiple of 2⇡ on to arg z
leaves z unaltered).
Study Programme 2, Complex Numbers, Part 2, sections 1-26 omitting sections 11 and 12. Note that the
comment above on the range of arg z applies when finding the angle in the proper form (i.e. the principal
value of arg z).
–3–
Specimen Test 5
1. If z = 2 + j and w = 3 + j, evaluate the following:

(i) Re (z), (ii) Im (w), (iii) w⇤ , (iv) jz 2w, (v) z/w.
2. Illustrate on the diagram the sum z1 + z2 and the di↵erence z1 z2 of two complex numbers z1 and z2 .
y
• z2
z1•
p
3. (i) If z = 3 j
(a) find |z| and the principal argument of z,
(b) write down all possible values of arg z,
(c) plot z on an Argand diagram indicating its modulus and the principal value of its argument.
p
(ii) Write z = 3 j in exponential form and hence write the following in exponential form, giving the
principal value of the argument in each case:
(a) z 6 , (b) z 2
.
4. (i) Express the following quantities in terms of |z1 | and |z2 |:
z1
(a) |z1 z2 | , (b) , (c) |z1n |.
z2
(2 + j)11
(ii) Use the results in (i) to find the modulus of .
( 1 2j)9
5. (i) Complete the following statement of Euler’s formula ej↵ = cos ↵+
j↵
(ii) Write down the corresponding expression for e , and hence express cos ↵ and sin ↵ in terms of complex
exponentials.
–4–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 16 MATRICES I
Module Topics
1. Terminology
2. Addition, subtraction and multiplication of matrices
3. Determinants
1. This module is the first of three on Matrices. Most of you will have met matrices at school/college,
but a number of you will not have studied them at Advanced level and hence this module assumes no prior
knowledge of the topic.
Turn to p.299 of J. and read section 5.1. Matrices are an extremely important tool in solving large systems
of simultaneous linear equations, and the latter arise in the solution of many engineering problems. Matrices
also form the basis of many computer graphical packages, and occur in a variety of other situations.
Next read section 5.2 on pp.300 to the top of p.302 only. Planes are considered in Module 15, but if you
haven’t met them just accept that equations (5.1) represent four planes.
2. Study section 5.2.1. This section contains many definitions which must be known, so read it through
more than once. Perhaps it should be emphasised that a unit matrix must be a square matrix, and then
satisfy additional properties. Note that J. uses square brackets to represent a matrix, [1 2 3] for instance. It
is more usual to use curved brackets, (1 2 3) , and curved brackets will be used here in the worked solutions,
tests etc. Either notation will be accepted in your answers.
3. Having introduced the basic definitions you must now consider how to manipulate matrices. Study section
5.2.2 which defines equality, addition, multiplication by a scalar, properties of the transpose and
the laws of addition. Note, in particular, that only matrices of the same order, i.e. with the same number
of rows and the same number of columns, can be added or said to be equal.
Study Example 5.1. A is a 3 ⇥ 3 matrix and B is a 3 ⇥ 2 matrix. These are di↵erent so cannot be added
together (see part (a)). Similar reasons apply in parts (f ) and (i). Part (c) involves subtraction of
matrices. Subtraction is defined in an analogous way to addition in that the two matrices must be of the
same order (m ⇥ n say), and then elements in the resulting matrix, which will also be m ⇥ n, are found
by subtracting the corresponding elements in the individual matrices. Another way of obtaining the same
answer is to write C A = C + ( A) = C + (( 1)A), and then use the results for multiplication by a
scalar and for addition of matrices.
4. Study section 5.2.4 on matrix multiplication. The changes of axes discussed on p.301-302 motivate
the definition of matrix multiplication. The formal definition of multiplication is stated in the box on p.313,
but it is probably easier to understand the definition from the diagram that follows it. The important
points to emphasise are that the product AB exists only for matrices of certain orders (where the number
of columns in A equals the number of rows in B) and, if the latter holds, then the element in the ith row
and jth column of C (= AB) is formed from the ith row of A and jth column of B by adding together the
–1–
products of the corresponding elements in the row and column (see the diagram at the bottom of p.313).
If you have studied vectors, then you are essentially taking the scalar product of the ith row of A and the
jth column of B, and hence this row and column must have the same length (i.e. have the same number of
elements).
Study carefully Examples 5.4 and 5.5. You should fill in the intermediate steps needed to get the final
answers. If you encounter problems look again at part (a) of Example 5.4 and consider carefully which rows
and columns are being multiplied together to give the individual elements in the product matrix.
All the matrix products asked for in Examples 5.4 and 5.5 exist. This is not always the case, of course. In
Example 5.4, for instance, A is 2 ⇥ 3 and b is 2 ⇥ 1, so you cannot calculate either Ab or bA.
Read through the comments in the middle of p.316.
5. Study the properties of multiplication, (a)-(f ), at the beginning of Section 5.2.6 on pp.318 and 319. The
fact that AB 6= BA, in almost all situations, is extremely important. Thus the order in which matrices are
written in a product is crucial, and you must remember to retain the original order during any multiplicative
operations, see properties (b), (c) and (d). Properties (e) and (f ) must also be known.
Study Example 5.6. Standard software packages are available, but are not used in this Mathematics course.
Our aims this year are that you understand the underlying mathematical techniques, and can work out
simple examples. Note that in part (b) the equation BX = c has been solved by spotting a matrix A such
that AB = I. Premultiplication of the original equation by A then removes B from the left-hand side,
allowing X to be determined. This procedure will be investigated in more detail in Module 17.
Work through Examples 5.7 and 5.8.
***Do Exercises 12, 13(a),(b) on p.317***
6. Turn to p.329 and the important topic of determinants, which are defined only for square matrices.
Study the theory at the beginning of section 5.3. The determinant of a 2 ⇥ 2 matrix and a 3 ⇥ 3 matrix are
defined by expressions (5.7) and (5.8) respectively. You should observe that in the result (5.8) the elements
in the 2 ⇥ 2 determinant multiplying the element a11 are the elements that remain in the original matrix
B when the row and column that go through the element a11 are omitted. In a similar way the next two
determinants are found in turn by omitting from B the row and column that pass through the element a12 ,
and then a13 .
Study Example 5.14.
***Do Exercises 35(a),(b) on p.341***
7. Study the theory in the bottom half of p.330. The general expression for evaluating the determinant of
a n ⇥ n matrix A is equation (5.9), and you must be able to evaluate the minor and cofactor associated
with any element of a matrix. Note that J. defines the minor and cofactor of any element in a determinant,
but it is much more usual to associate them with an element in a matrix.
The final result for evaluating the determinant of A, stated at the bottom of p.330, and the equivalent result
in terms of columns, can be summarised as follows. You can calculate the determinant of any square matrix
using any row or column. Choose a row (or column) of A, then |A| is determined by summing together the
products of each element in that row (or column) with its corresponding cofactor. A 3 ⇥ 3 matrix has three
rows and three columns and hence there are six ways of evaluating the determinant, in each case using just
one of the rows or columns. Clearly, choosing the row or column in A with most zeros gives the least work.
Study carefully Example 5.15 on p.331. To find M11 , the minor associated with the element a11 (which
lies in the first row and first column of A), J. crosses out the first column and first row and then calculates
the determinant of the resulting 2 ⇥ 2 matrix, which equals 2. Then, using the definition of cofactors, it
follows that A11 = ( 1)1+1 M11 = ( 1)2 M11 = M11 = 2. In a similar way, J. shows that M12 = 2, from
–2–
which A12 = ( 1)1+2 M12 = ( 1)3 M12 = M12 = 2. The cofactor A13 is found in a similar way and the
value of the determinant is then easily calculated by evaluating a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 .
***Do Exercise A: Evaluate the determinant of the matrix given in Exercise 35(c) on p.341 by
expanding using the third row.
8. Determinants have a number of properties which can often shorten your calculations. Study the properties
(a) to (g) discussed on pp.331-333, but the proofs need not be remembered. Properties (f ) and (g) will
be used in later situations. On the other hand, property (d) is not normally listed, and the others ((a), (b),
(c), (e)) are sometimes helpful to simplify calculations but are not essential in order to obtain answers.
Work through Examples 5.16 and 5.17. Both Examples illustrate some of the properties of determinants.
Note that the answer to part (c) of Example 5.17 is consistent with the result |AB| = |A| |B|, i.e. 0 = 0(2).
Read the paragraph just below Example 5.17, and work through Example 5.18. Then read the first para-
graph only underneath the last Example, just below the horizontal line.
9. Move to p.337 and study the two lines right at the bottom of the page, including expression (5.12)
on p.338 which defines the adjoint matrix. As you will see in Module 17 the adjoint matrix appears in a
well-known formula for calculating the inverse of a matrix.
Move on to p.339, and work through Example 5.21.
***Do Exercise 45(b) on p.342 and Exercise 39 on p.341***

Most of the material in this Module is in S. The initial work on matrices starts in Programme 5 on p.556.
Read frames 1-23.
Next turn to Programme 4 on determinants starting on p.522. Work through frames 1-7 on second order
determinants, or determinants of 2 ⇥ 2 matrices. Then study frames 17-27 on third order determinants,
which starts on p.529, and frames 59-66 on properties of determinants, beginning on p.546.
Return to the Programme on matrices and start at p.566. Work through frames 24-27, on cofactors and
the adjoint matrix.
You will now have covered almost all of the material in this module. However, S. does not state some of the
properties of matrix multiplication and, if you wish to fill in this gap, you should turn to J. and section 5
of the Work Scheme above and study pp.315 and 316.
–3–
Specimen Test 16
1. If 0 1
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 3 1
1 2 1 2 1 0 2
A= , B= , C= , D = @2 1A ,
3 1 4 3 2 1 1
0 1
write down the order (in the form m ⇥ n) of each of the above matrices.
State which of the following exist and express as a single matrix those which do:
(i) 2C B, (ii) AT DT , (iii) AD, (iv) ABT , (v) DC.
2. State the condition for a matrix A to be symmetric.
3. For general matrices express each of the following in equivalent terms

e.g. (ABT )T = (BT )T AT = BAT
(i) (AT )T , (ii) (AT B)T .
4. Assuming the products between the matrices P, Q, R exist, are the following relations always satisfied?
(i) (P + Q)R = PR + QR, (ii) PQ = QP.
5. In the determinant
5 2 7
6 11 4
3 8 1
evaluate
(i) the minor of the element in the first row and third column,
(ii) the cofactor of the element in the second row and second column.
6. Evaluate directly the determinant in question 5 by expanding in terms of elements of the third column.
0 1
1 2 1
7. If A=@ 3 0 1A determine adj A.
2 1 1
–4–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 13 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS III
Module Topics
1. Linear operators
2. Linear inhomogeneous second order ordinary di↵erential equations with constant coefficients
3. Free and forced oscillations
1. Linear and nonlinear di↵erential equations were defined at the beginning of Module 6. A di↵erential
equation is linear when the dependent variable, or variables, and their derivatives do not occur as products,
raised to powers or in nonlinear functions. There is a more formal way of defining linearity based on
operators.
Read the introduction to section 10.8 on p.840 and then study section 10.8.1 including Examples 10.23-
10.26. Di↵erential operators provide a neat way of writing the general results on di↵erential equations
that are used in this Module. You should recall that it was pointed out in Module 6 that it is more usual to
refer to equations of the type discussed on p.842 as inhomogeneous (not nonhomogeneous).
2. Linear di↵erential operators are used in section 10.8.2. Study the introductory paragraph and work
through Example 10.27. Study the middle of p.843 and Examples 10.28 and 10.29. The stated linearity
principle is extremely useful in determining general solutions to di↵erential equations and was used in
Module 6, for instance, in obtaining the general solutions to homogeneous second order linear ordinary
di↵erential equations with constant coefficients.
Study the paragraph on p.844 above Example 10.30 and then Example 10.30 itself. The further idea
needed is discussed in the two paragraphs below the horizontal line on p.845. Linearly independent
functions are ones that are essentially di↵erent. Linearly dependent functions are not completely distinct
since one function can be obtained by taking a linear combination of some or all of the others. For example,
sin t and cos t are linearly independent functions, but 1, t and 2 + 3t are dependent since the final function
is a linear combination of the first two (2 + 3t = 2(1) + 3(t)). Look at Exampl 10.31.
Continue studying p.847 in J, and complete section 10.8.2 by working through Examples 10.32 and 10.33.
The detailed results on pp.847 and 848 for the General solution of a linear homogeneous equation
and the General solution of a linear nonhomogeneous (or inhomogeneous) equation, and the
definitions of particular integral and complementary function on p.848, are all extremely important.
***Do Exercises 46(a), 49(c) on pp.850 and 851***
3. The crucial part of this Module concerns linear inhomogeneous equations with constant coefficients. Turn
to p.858, therefore, and study the introduction to section 10.9.3. The determination of particular integrals
is not so difficult as suggested in J. and, as you will see below, there are straightforward methods available
for the common forms of f (t).
Study Examples 10.40-10.42. The crucial point to emphasise is that in solving inhomogeneous equations
of the form L[x(t)] = f (t) the method is split into two parts - finding the complementary function, when
–1–
the right-hand-side is zero (i.e. L[x(t)] = 0), and finding the particular integral, any solution however
simple of the full equation (L[x(t)] = f (t)). Examples 10.40-10.42 contain the three most common types
of f (t), i.e. polynomial, trigonometric and exponential. In each case it is not too difficult to spot likely trial
functions for the particular integral, and the calculation of the particular integral is known as the method
of undetermined coefficients, for obvious reasons. A summary of the commonly occurring trial functions
is found in the table at the top of p.861.
For linear ordinary di↵erential equations with constant coefficients, solutions of the homogeneous equation
L[x(t)] = 0 can be found using the method previously discussed in Module 6. Recall that the di↵erential
equation is replaced by an auxiliary equation in m, and from the solutions for m the general solution for
x(t) can be written down. Examples 10.34-10.36 on pp.854 and 855 illustrate the three di↵erent types of
solution for m (2 distinct real roots, 2 distinct complex roots and 2 equal real roots), with the corresponding
solutions of the ordinary di↵erential equations.
Before solving Exercises one further point needs clarification. In all of the Examples 10.40-10.42 J. cal-
culates the particular integrals before finding the complementary functions. For reasons which will become
apparent below, it is better to calculate the complementary function first and you are recommended to follow
the latter procedure.
***Do Exercises 62(b), 63(a),(b) on p.864***
4. If the function f (t) appearing in the equation L[x(t)] = f (t) is the sum of two terms of di↵erent type, e.g.
t + sin t, then the trial particular integral is the sum of the trial functions corresponding to each term in the
sum. Thus, when f (t) = t + sin t, the trial function for the particular integral is At + B + C sin t + D cos t,
since At + B and C sin t + D cos t are the trial functions for t and sin t respectively. Study the last
paragraph on p.860 and its continuation on p.861, including Example 10.43.
***Do Exercise 63(h) on p.864***
5. One further difficulty can arise when calculating particular integrals. Study the lower part of p.862 and
the upper part of p.863, including Examples 10.44 and 10.45. As shown in these Examples the chosen
trial function for the particular integral has had to be changed, because the expected form appears in the
complementary function. With f (t) = et the usual trial function is x = Aet . However, this appears in the
complementary function so the next try is x = Atet . Clearly this also occurs in the complementary function,
dx d2 x
so you must again multiply by t to get x = At2 et . After calculating and and substituting into
dt dt2
the original ordinary di↵erential equation, it is shown in J. that the constant A can be determined.
***Do Exercise 63(j) on p.864***
6. The unknown constants which still appear in the general solution can be found from given boundary or
initial conditions. These must be applied to the general solution, not to the complementary function only.
***Do Exercise 21(a) on p.895***
7. There are a large number of engineering applications of linear second order ordinary di↵erential equations
with constant coefficients. To complete the module we will consider briefly some of these, but obviously
most applications will arise in your engineering units. Turn to p.865 and read section 10.10.1. Then study
section 10.10.2 on the free oscillations of damped elastic systems. Equations of the type (10.49) occur
frequently in practice. For interpretative reasons and to make the algebra simpler it is helpful to write the
basic equation as (10.50). You should remember how to calculate the parameters ! and ⇣ and how to
establish whether a system is over-damped, under-damped or critically-damped.
8. Read section 10.10.3 on the forced oscillations of elastic systems. The governing inhomogeneous
equation can be written as (10.52), or more simply as (10.53). The trial particular integral for (10.53) is
–2–
dx d2 x
x = A cos ⌦t+B sin ⌦t. After calculating and , substituting into 10.53 and equating the coefficients
dt dt2
of cos ⌦t and sin ⌦t, the coefficients A and B can be determined. The particular integral then has the
form (10.54a). Since cos(⌦t ) = cos ⌦t cos + sin ⌦t sin , it is possible to compare again the coefficients
of cos ⌦t and sin ⌦t and deduce that the particular integral has the alternative expression (10.54b).
It is important to compare and contrast the original forcing term on the right-hand-side of Equation (10.53)
with the steady-state solution (10.54b). The solution has the same frequency as the forcing term, its
amplitude is multiplied by the factor A(⌦) and it is out-of-phase with the forcing term because in
(10.54b) is usually non-zero. The phenomenon of resonance obviously occurs if A takes a large value.
The mathematics underlying section 10.10.3 is exactly the same as that in section 10.10.4 on oscillations
in electrical circuits.
***Do Exercises 66(b), 68(d) on p.877 and 878***

Linear operators are not mentioned in S. For this small, and less important, topic you should work through
sections 1 and 2 of the above work scheme based on J..
The main part of the Module is covered in Programme 25 of S, starting on p.1101. Work through frames
23-49.
For the final small topic in the Module you should return to the work scheme based on J, and go through
sections 7 and 8.
–3–
Specimen Test 13
1. Write down the di↵erential operator L that allows the following di↵erential equation to be expressed
as L[x(t)] = 0:
d2 x dx
+3 + 4x = 0 .
dt2 dt
d2 x dx
2. Consider the di↵erential equation 2
+5 + 6x = f (t) .
dt dt
3t 2t
(i) Show that the complementary function is x = Ae + Be .
(ii) Find a particular integral of the di↵erential equation when

2t
(a) f (t) = cos t, (b) f (t) = e , (c) f (t) = 1 6t.
(iii) Using the above results, where appropriate, write down the general solution of the equation
d2 x dx 2t
+5 + 6x = e ,
dt2 dt
1 dx
and hence derive the solution which satisfies the conditions x = and = 0 when t = 0.
4 dt
3. (i) Find the damping parameter and natural frequency of the system governed by the equation
d2 x dx
2
+ 6↵ + 16x = 0 ,
dt dt
given that ↵ is a positive constant.
(ii) For what values of ↵ is the above equation (a) underdamped, (b) critically damped?
(iii) State (without solving the di↵erential equation) which parts of the general solution describe the transient
motion and steady state solution respectively.
–4–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 17 MATRICES II
Module Topics
1. Inverse of matrix using cofactors

2. Sets of linear equations
3. Solution of sets of linear equations using elimination method
4. Inverse of matrix using elimination method
1. You have discovered in Module 16 how to determine the adjoint matrix. The latter provides a direct
method for calculating the inverse of a matrix.
Turn to p.342 and study section 5.4, up to the start of Example 5.22. The inverse of a matrix is defined
near the start of this section. There are two cases to consider depending on whether |A| = 0 (A is singular)
6 0 (A is non-singular). When A is non-singular the inverse A 1 exists, and can be calculated
or |A| =
using the shaded formula on p.343. This is often called the direct method of calculating the inverse, or
the cofactor method.
Study Example 5.22. In the solution to part (a), the matrix adj A is calculated by first obtaining the minors.
For a 2 ⇥ 2 matrix omitting a row and column will leave the minor as the determinant of a single element,
which is the element itself. Hence, for A one obtains M11 = |3| = 3 and A11 = ( 1)1+1 M11 = 3. The
other cofactors can be found using a similar argument. The value of the determinant is clearly 1(3) 2(2) =
3 4 = 1, as stated in the solution. The inverse A 1 can then be easily caclulated using the general
formula.
1 1
2. Study the theory on p.344, and work through Example 5.23. The inverses A and B are found by
the method used in Example 5.22.

✓ ◆
1 2
***Do Exercise A: Use the direct method to find the inverse of the matrix .
2 1
3. An extremely important use of matrices is in the solution of sets (or systems) of linear equations.
These occur most frequently in the numerical solution of problems. In these situations the number of
equations can be huge and solutions are obtained only with the use of computers. It is important, however,
that you understand the principles underlying these numerical methods and in this module the theory is
presented and applied by hand to small systems.
Study section 5.5, which starts on p.348, up to the beginning of Example 5.25. The simultaneous linear
equations (5.17) are a system of n equations in n unknowns, so that if the system is written in the matrix
form AX = b then A is a n ⇥ n square matrix. There are four di↵erent cases to consider depending on
whether, or not, |A| = 0 or b = 0. The types of solution to expect for these four cases, (a)-(d), are stated
on pp.348 and 349.
–1–
4. Work through all five parts of Example 5.25. The purpose of this Example is to give you practice in
classifying systems of equations. The determination of the solutions, where they exist, will be looked at in
more detail in the following sections.
1
Study Example 5.26. The details of calculating A are omitted, but you should be able to determine the
inverse and find the unique solution X.
Work through Examples 5.27 and 5.28. You will need to fill in the details in calculating the determinant
in Example 5.27. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors, which appear in Example 5.28, are investigated in Module
18.
5. Read more of section 5.5 on pp.352 and 353, up to the beginning of Example 5.29. Cramer’s rule on
p.353 is a neat way of writing the solution. However, it should be emphasised that it is an inefficient way
of calculating the solution since determinants of large matrices are very time-consuming to evaluate.
6. Having discussed the types of solution that arise it is now important to discover the appropriate methods
for finding these solutions. Elimination methods are commonly used and these are discussed in section
5.5.2 starting on p.357. Study this section, stopping three lines above expression 5.24 in the middle of
p.359. Note that the row operations apply to elements in A and b, but leave the elements in X un-
changed. The elementary row operations introduced on p.358 can be used to convert a matrix A into
upper-triangular form. The general procedure for solving a system of equations in upper-triangular form
is stated on pp.358-359 but it is easier to understand by looking at Example 5.31, which is discussed below.
Study Example 5.31. The system is written in matrix form and then the elementary row operations are used
to convert the equations to upper triangular form. The reduced system of equations can then be written
4 10
x + 2y + 3z = 10, y+ z= , z = 1.
3 3
With back-substitution you must work back through these reduced equations starting with the last.
Clearly the third equation gives z = 1, and this can then be substituted into the next-to-end equation to
give y = 103
4 10
3z = 3
4 6
3 (1) = 3 = 2. Substituting for y and z into the first equation then enables x to
be easily calculated. (At the end of the calculation you should always substitute your final answer into the
original equations to make sure that your solution is correct. If the equations are not satisfied then try to
find the error).
The above procedure can be written as separate algorithms for special matrices, but the basic method is
unchanged. Hence, omit the sections on the tridiagonal, or Thomas, algorithm and Gaussian elimination
and move on to p.365. Work through Examples 5.33 and 5.34.
***Do Exercise 73 on p.370 using the standard elimination method (that is, the method of
p.357-359)***
7. As mentioned earlier the cofactor method is not efficient when calculating the inverses of large matrices,
since it takes a long time to evaluate large determinants.
Fortunately there are better methods of calculating inverses and one of these methods involves the elimination
method. This procedure is not discussed in J. so is given below. Suppose you require the inverse of the
n ⇥ n square matrix A. Then you form a new matrix (A I), in which the n ⇥ n unit matrix I is added to
A as extra columns with the new matrix now n ⇥ 2n. The basic method is to use row operations to reduce
A to the unit matrix I. By simultaneously carrying out the same row operations on I the latter changes to
A 1 . Hence the matrix (A I) becomes (I A 1 ).
–2–
The elimination method discussed in section 6 reduces a matrix to upper triangular form. During this
process the elements below the leading diagonal in a column are made zero. To reduce A to the unit matrix
it is also necessary to make the elements above the leading diagonal zero. Start with the first column, and
then consider columns 2, 3... in turn. We illustrate the method with the example below.
0 1
1 2 3
Example: If A = @ 1 1 1 A use the elimination method to determine A 1 .
0 1 1
0 1
1 2 3 1 0 0
Start with the matrix (A I) : @ 1 1 1 0 1 0A
0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1
1 2 3 1 0 0
Add row 1 to row 2 : @0 3 4 1 1 0A
0 1 1 0 0 1
Now move to the second column, where we need zeros both above and below the element 3.
0 1
1 2 3 1 0 0
Divide row 2 by 3 : @0 1 4 1 1
0A
3 3 3
0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1
1 0 1/3 1/3 2/3 0
Subtract 2 ⇥ row 2 from row 1 : @0 1 4/3 1/3 1/3 0 A
0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1
1 0 1/3 1/3 2/3 0
Subtract row 2 from row 3 : @0 1 4/3 1/3 1/3 0 A
0 0 7/3 1/3 1/3 1
0 1
1 0 1/3 1/3 2/3 0
Multiply row 3 by 3 @ 0 1 4/3 1/3 0 A
7 : 1/3
0 0 1 1/7 1/7 3/7
The first and second columns are now correct, so we must move on to the third column.
0 1
1 0 0 2/7 5/7 1/7
Subtract 13 ⇥ row 3 from row 1 : @ 0 1 4/3 1/3 1/3 0 A
0 0 1 1/7 1/7 3/7
0 1
1 0 0 2/7 5/7 1/7
Subtract 43 ⇥ row 3 from row 2 : @ 0 1 0 1/7 1/7 4/7 A
0 0 1 1/7 1/7 3/7
1
The matrix A has been changed to I, and the theory says that the right-hand side I has become A .
Hence, it has been shown that
0 1
2/7 5/7 1/7
A 1 = @ 1/7 1/7 4/7 A
1/7 1/7 3/7
The evaluation of A 1 by the above method appears lengthy but for large matrices it can be shown that it
is more efficient than determining the inverse using the cofactor method.
–3–
***Exercise B: Using the elimination method determine the inverse of the matrices
0 1
✓ ◆ 1 2 1
1 2 @ 0
(i) (ii) 1 2A
2 1
1 4 1
8. To complete the module it is instructive to read the section on ill-conditioning which starts on p.368.
Look through Example 5.36 which shows that difficulties arise when solving the system AX = b when |A|
is very small. Read the remainder of this section, up to the beginning of Exercises 5.5.3.

S. covers part, but not all, of this Module. The calculation of the inverse of a matrix using cofactors can be
found in Programme 5 of S. Start at p.569 and work through frames 28-34.
Before reading the section on solving sets of linear equations, it would be helpful for you to work through
sections 3 and 4 of the scheme based on J. This states the general cases that can arise.
Then return to p.572 of S. and study frames 35-46. The latter shows how to solve systems of n equations
in n unknowns, AX = b, using either the matrix inverse or the elimination method. Note, however, that S.
only considers the straightforward situations when the determinant of A is non-zero so that its inverse A 1
exists.
The calculation of the inverse of a matrix using the elimination method is not in S. so to complete the
module work through section 7 of A: Work Scheme based on J.
–4–
Specimen Test 17
1. (i) State a formal expression, involving cofactors, for the inverse of a square matrix A.
✓ ◆
1 3
(ii) Hence find the inverse of
2 4
2. (i) State a condition on the matrix A for the set of n inhomogeneous equations in n unknowns AX = b to
have a unique solution.
(ii) State a condition on the matrix A for the set of n homogeneous equations in n unknowns AX = 0 to
have a non-trivial solution.
3. Find the value of ↵ which is necessary for the set of equations
↵x + y z=0
2x + 3y + 3z = 0
4x + 5y + z = 0
to have a non-trivial solution. (You are not asked to solve the equations).
4. Use the elimination method to solve the set of equations
x + 2y + z = 10
2x + y + z = 6
10x y + 3z = 2
5. Use the elimination method to find the inverse of the matrix

0 1
1 1 1
@2 0 2A
2 2 1
–5–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 9 INTEGRATION II
Module Topics
1. Use of substitution - further examples

2. Applications of integration (volumes of revolution, centroids, centres of gravity, mean values, arclength
and surface area)
1. This module covers a relatively small portion of J. but requires you to evaluate a large number of integrals.
Go to p.651, study section 8.8.6 and work carefully through Example 8.51. In part (a) the integrand is
a product in which one term of the product (2x) is the derivative of an expression (x2 + 3) which appears
in the other term, whereas in part (b) the integrand is a quotient in which the numerator (x + 1) is a
simple multiple of the derivative of the denominator (x2 + 2x + 1). Both parts of this example involve types
of integral which occur frequently in practice, and you must be able to recognise them. Both types are
solved with appropriate substitutions but, with practice, some of you may be able to write down the answers
immediately.
***Do Exercise A: Find the following indefinite integrals

Z
R 2 R R cosh x
(a) x (1 + x3 )4 dx, (b) cos x sin3 x dx, (c) x cos(x2 ) dx, (d) dx,
sinh x
Z Z Z
2x cos x sin x ln x
(e) dx, (f) dx, (g) dx.
1 + x2 sin x + cos x x
2. The use of more complicated substitutions starts with section 8.8.12 on p.658. Read thepfirst short
paragraph and then work through Example 8.58. Note that after using the substitution t = 1 x the
2t
integrand becomes . This is a quotient of polynomials of equal powers and will be considered in more
2+t
detail in module 10. However, for the moment it is sufficient to observe that J. rearranges the expression
into one which can be easily integrated. One way of carrying out the simplification is as follows:
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
2t t (2 + t) 2 2+t 2 2 2
= 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 1 = +2 1 .
2+t 2+t 2+t 2+t 2+t 2+t 2+t
3. Next work through Example 8.59. Here the substitution x = sin ✓ reduces the integral to one which has
been considered in module 4.
A list of further substitutions is given in Figure 8.59 on p.661, with some of the possible functions for
which these substitutions are often appropriate. The choice of substitution is usually made so that either
the formula cos2 ✓ + sin2 ✓ = 1 or cosh2 ✓ sinh2 ✓ = 1 , or a closely related one, can be used to simplify
–1–
the integrand, making sure that if a square root appears in the integrand that you end up with taking the
root of a positive number. Note carefully the appearance of the constant a, both in the general forms of the
functions and in the substitutions. The constant is of course 1 in the simplest situation.
The integrals which produce the inverse functions in the list on the Formula Sheet and in the Data Book
can be derived in this way. Two are derived below and then you are asked to obtain the remaining ones.
Z
1 dx
Consider the integral p dx. Here the substitution x = sin ✓ can be used, giving = cos ✓ and
1 x 2 d✓
hence dx = cos ✓ d✓. The integral can now be exaluated:
Z Z Z Z Z
1 1 1 cos ✓
p dx = p cos ✓ d✓ = p cos ✓ d✓ = d✓ = d✓ = ✓ + c = sin 1 x + c.
1 x2 1 sin2 ✓ cos2 ✓ cos ✓
Z
1
In an analogous way the integral p dx can be determined from first principles with the substitution
1 + x2
dx
x = sinh u. Di↵erentiation leads to = cosh u and hence dx = cosh u du. The integral is now found as
du
follows:
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1 cosh u
p dx = p cosh u du = p cosh u du = du
1 + x2 2
1 + sinh u
2
cosh u cosh u
Z
= du = u + c = sinh 1 x + c.
***Do Exercise B: Find the following indefinite integrals from first principles with the given substitution
Z Z
1 1
(a) p dx with x = cosh u, (b) dx with x = tan ✓.
x 2 1 1 + x2
4. Study Example 8.60. Here again the integral derived for u cannot be obtained immediately. The
integrand is the quotient of quadratic polynomials and has to be manipulated into an acceptable form. One
way to proceed, very similar to the manipulation in section 2 above, is
✓ 2 ◆ ✓ 2 ◆ ✓ ◆
2u2 (u + 4) 4 u +4 4 4 8
=2 =2 =2 1 =2 ,
u2 + 4 u2 + 4 u2 + 4 u2 + 4 u2 + 4 u2 + 4
which can then be easily integrated.
***Do Exercises 112(h) on p.652, Exercise 122(b) on p.665 and Exercises 115(d),(b) on p.653***
5. The module is completed with some applications of integration in calculating quantities of engineering
importance. First study section 8.9.1 on p.666 on finding volumes of revolution. The formula 8.36 is
derived from rotating about the x-axis a thin strip initially parallel to the y-axis.
6. Again from using thin strips the general expressions for the centroid of a plane area and the centre of
gravity of a solid of revolution are derived in sections 8.9.2 and 8.9.3. Study both these sections.
7. Next study sections 8.9.4 and 8.9.5 on finding the mean values of continuously varying quantities.
Note that integration is necessary in these situations - it is not correct simply to average the first and last
values.
8. Finally the integral formulae to calculate arclength and surface area are obtained in section 8.9.6.
Study the derivation of equations 8.45 and 8.46.
–2–
9. Work through Example 8.62. To evaluate the integral for the area in part (a) you could use the
substitution u = x 2, if you wish. The same substitution could also be used to evaluate the integral for x.
Work through Example 8.64.
Next work through Example
Z 1 p 8.65. The substitution u = 4x + 1 could be introduced in this Example to
evaluate the integral (4x + 1) dx.
0
Finally work through Example 8.66. The integral here is much harder to calculate and uses the substitution
t = sinh u. After this change it is still necessary to use the hyperbolic equivalents of the trigonometric double
angle formulae in order to get the answer.
***Do Exercises 131, 132, 135 on p.678-679***

The programmes in S. on integration contain most of this module. Study first frames 11-20 in Programme
15, which begin on p.829. This covers section 1. of the scheme based on J.
S. only covers a little on evaluating integrals using substitution and, therefore, you should work through
sections 2-4 of a scheme based on J.
On the other hand, the applications of integrals is well-covered in S. Turn to Programme 18 on p.901 and
work through frames 1-18 and then frames 23-30. Next move on to Programme 19 on p.921 and work
through frames 1-25 and 31-34. (It is sometimes necessary to be able to deal with equations in parametric
form and so it is suggested that you also look through Programme 18 frames 19-22 and finally Programme
19 frames 26-30 and 35-38.)
–3–
Specimen Test 9
1. Find the following indefinte integrals

Z Z
x
(a) dx, (b) cos4 x sin x dx.
1 + x2
Z 1
x2
2. Evaluate dx.
0 (1 + x3 )2
Z 1
x3
3. Use the substitution u2 = 1 + x2 to evaluate p dx.
0 x2 + 1
1
4. Find the volume generated when the plane figure bounded by the curve y = x2 + , the x-axis and the
x
lines x = 1 and x = 2 is rotated about the x-axis through one complete revolution.
5. An area A is enclosed between the curve y = sin x, the x-axis and the lines x = 0 and x = ⇡.
(i) Find the magnitude of A.
(ii) Calculate the coordinates of the centroid of A.
–4–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 18 MATRICES III
Module Topics
1. Rank
2. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
1. Sets of n simultaneous linear equations in n unknowns (in the form AX = b, with b either zero or
non-zero) were considered in Module 17. When |A| = 6 0 it proved easy to obtain solutions. However, when
|A| = 0 it was much harder to assess the position, and to help clarify the situation it is necessary to define
the rank of a matrix.
Turn to p.378 and study section 5.6 including Example 5.37 on p.379. As indicated at the top of p.378
the first step in simplifying the system (5.30) is to consider the first column and make zero all elements
below a11 . Thus, you evaluate (row 3 – row 1), (row 4 – row 1) and (row 6 – row 1). You then proceed in a
similar way for the second and subsequent columns. J. states on p.379 that for a non-singular matrix the
elimination method leads to an upper triangular matrix, with non-zero diagonal elements. For a singular
matrix, however, such a reduction is not possible and the best you can do is to simplify to a matrix in
echelon form, similar to that shown in the middle of p.379.
The number of non-zero rows in the echelon form of a matrix A is the rank of the matrix. The rank
of A gives the number of essentially di↵erent rows in the matrix (i.e. rows which cannot be written as
linear combinations of some or all of the other rows). Understanding this point is extremely important in
determining the types of solution that are possible for general sets of equations of the form AX = b.
As stated at the middle of p.380, immediately after Example 5.37, the mathematical definition of rank
involves non-zero determinants of submatrices. For a large matrix such calculations can be difficult to carry
out and the reduction to echelon form is usually a better way of calculating the rank of a matrix.
2. Continue studying section 5.6, on the consistency or otherwise of a set of equations, from the second
paragraph of p.380 to just before Example 5.38. The final result is the shaded paragraph on p.382.
Work through Example 5.38. Note that in using the elimination method J. also adopts partial pivoting,
which is discussed
p at the bottom of p.366. Supppose that you do not work with exact numbers such as
2/3, 2⇡, or 7, but with finite precision numerical approximations such as 1.775844987. Then, when dealing
with a particular column of a non-singular matrix it is found to be more accurate to rearrange the equations
(or rows) first to ensure that the element with the largest magnitude lies on the main diagonal. Then divide
that equation (or row) by the value of the element to make the element 1 (i.e. make the pivot unity).
Then proceed with the standard elimination method for that column. Move on to the next column and
again first rearrange the rows as above, if necessary. Partial pivoting can also be used, in an analogous way,
when reducing singular matrices to echelon form. J. uses partial pivoting in both reductions in Example
5.38, although it is not necessary to do so to obtain the stated answers (because there is no numerical
approximation involved in this calculation).
–1–
3. Study the remainder of section 5.6, starting below the horizontal line on p.383. This work looks at
simple cases of m equations in n unknowns and shows how to decide whether a solution exists and, if it
does, how to determine it. note that a set of equations is underspecified if there are more variables than
equations, and overspecified if there are more equations than variables.
***Do Exercises 88, 90(a),(b) on p.388***
4. The second half of this module is on the calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Turn to p.389
and study the introduction to section 5.7.
Next study section 5.7.1, noting that in this module the characteristic equation will usually be written in
the form |A I| = 0 . Work through Examples 5.40 and 5.41, and read the sentence below the horizontal
line on p.391.
5. Study section 5.7.2 on eigenvalues and eigenvectors, and then work through Example 5.42.
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
j 1
Study Example 5.43, noting that the eigenvectors should be written A and B respectively,
1 j
where A and B are constants.
Study Example 5.44. In obtaining the eigenvector e1 the components of the vector satisfy the 3 equations
stated in the middle of p.394. By choosing e130= 11 it then follows from these equations that e12 = 3 1
1
and e11 = 1 . Hence the solution is e1 = 1 @ 3 A, where 1 is a constant. Similar analyses hold when
1
determining the other eigenvectors.
6. Read the comments after the horizontal line on p.395 on normalising the eigenvectors.
7. Before finishing the module two further points are briefly mentioned. When A is symmetric, a situation
which occurs in many applications, then the eigenvalues are real and the eigenvectors corresponding to
di↵erent eigenvalues are perpendicular as stated in section 5.7.7 on p.406.
It should also be observed that in all the cases considered in this module the roots of the characteristic
equation are real and distinct. Clearly this is not always the case, and when the roots are equal the
calculation of the eigenvectors is slightly less straightforward. Time is not available to investigate equal (or
repeated) roots in this module.
***Do Exercise A: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrices

0 1 0 1
✓ ◆ 1 0 0 3 1 1
5 1
(i) (ii) @ 0 3 0 A (iii) @ 1 5 1A
0 4
0 2 4 1 1 3

The first part of this module, on calculating the rank of a matrix and finding solutions to systems of m
equations in n unknowns, is not in S. so you must work through sections 1–3 of A: Work Scheme based
on J.
Next turn to p.578 of S. and work through frames 47–54 on eigenvalues and eigenvectors. S. mentions
in the text that an eigenvector can always be multiplied by a constant but he then assumes it to be unity
–2–
in writing down his solutions. You are expected to include the non-zero constant in your answers (see the
worked solutions in the module).
Specimen Test 18
0 1
1 1 1 1
B 2 3 3 3C
1. Find the rank of the matrix @ A.
1 1 0 0
2 3 2 2
2. Solve, where possible, the following matrix equations:

0 1
✓ ◆ x ✓ ◆
2 1 1 @ A 3
(i) y =
4 2 2 5
z
0 1 0 1
2 1 ✓ ◆ 3
@1 x
(ii) 1A = @1A
y
3 4 2
0 1
3 0 1
3. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix @0 3 1 A.
1 1 2
–3–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 15 VECTORS II
Module Topics
1. Triple scalar product and triple vector product

2. Di↵erentiation and integration of vectors
3. Vector equation of a line
4. Vector equation of a plane
1. Study section 4.2.12 on the triple scalar product starting on p.272. You should note that the general
result for the volume of the parallelepiped should state
volume of parallelepiped = |(a ⇥ b) . c| .
The additional modulus sign is necessary because in the proof in J. the unit vector k is perpendicular to a
and b but could point up or down. Hence, the angle between k and c could lie between 0 and ⇡/2 (with
k . c > 0) or between ⇡/2 and ⇡ (with k . c < 0). The value of (a ⇥ b) . c can therefore be a positive number,
or a negative number, but the volume of the parallelpiped is always positive, of course.
2. Study the information at the bottom of p.275 and top of p.276 on the triple vector product. The
result 4.13 appears on the formula sheet and in the Data Book so need not be remembered. Equation 4.14
can be obtained from 4.13 on noting that a ⇥ (b ⇥ c) = (b ⇥ c) ⇥ a , found by changing the order of
vectors in a vector product, and then using 4.13 with appropriate changes of letters.
Study Example 4.34.
***Do Exercises 57, 58, 59 on p.278***
3. Turn to p.734 and read the first paragraph in section 9.5. Study section 9.5.1 and remember the rules
(a), (b), (c) and (d) on p.734.
Study Example 9.20. For the vector r = sin t i + cos t j considered in part (a) of this example, rule (b)
implies
di dj
ṙ = cos t i + sin t sin t j + cos t .
dt dt
di dj
Since i and j are constant vectors, with constant magnitude and direction, = 0 and = 0 and hence it
dt dt
is only necessary to di↵erentiate the components of r, as stated in the solution in J. and in the expressions
for velocity and acceleration given on p.734.
–1–
4. Study the formula near the bottom of p.735 for the integration of the component form of a vector and
work through Example 9.21. When a vector equation is integrated note that the constant of integration
must also be a vector, so both c and a which appear in Example 9.21 are constant vectors.
***Do Exercises 32, 34(hard), 35 on pp.736-737***
***Do Exercise A. A particle moving in space has acceleration cos t i + sin t j . Find the equation of
its path if at time t = 0 the particle is at the point ( 1, 0, 0) and travelling with velocity j + k .
5. To conclude this module you must consider the vector equations of lines and planes. Study section 4.3.1
on p.279 including Examples 4.37, 4.38 and 4.39. (In the solution to Example 4.39, you are expected to
follow the vector approach.)
6. Continue with section 4.3.1. Study Example 4.42 on finding the shortest distance between two skew
!
lines. After equating the two expressions for P2 P1 on p.284, you could equate corresponding components on
both sides of the equation, obtaining three equations in the quantities t1 , s2 and d. These equations could
then be solved to find d. The method used in J. is more subtle and uses the fact that n is perpendicular
to both lines. Hence, by taking the scalar product with n, or any multiple of n, many of the terms drop
out and d is determined more quickly. After finding d, J. again takes two scalar products in turn to find
equations for t1 and s2 but it is more straightforward to substitute the value for d into the original equation
and then find two equations for t1 and s2 by equating the corresponding components.
7. Study section 4.3.3 on the vector equation of a plane. Equation 4.19 states that the vector equation
of a plane is r . n = a . n, where the right-hand side is a constant scalar. This equation is often written
r . n = C , where C is a scalar. Figure 4.52 shows that the perpendicular distance from O to the plane is
OA, which equals the component of r in the normal direction, and from the previous module you should
!
then recall that OA = OP . n̂ = r . n̂ . This proves the interpretation of p given just below Equation 4.19.
Study Examples 4.44, 4.46 and 4.47.
8. Study Example 4.48. An easier way to get the answer is to use the method discussed above in section 7.
It is clear that the point Q, say, with coordinates (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 13/2) lies on the plane x + 2y + 2z = 13,
(any point on the plane can be used). The perpendicular distance from P to the plane can then be written
! !
P Q . n̂ , the component of P Q in the normal direction. Hence, the perpendicular distance, p, is found by
✓ ◆
5 (1, 2, 2) 2+6+5
p= 2, 3, .p = = 3.
2 12+ 22 + 32 3
***Do Exercises 66, 68, 72 on p.286, 73, 79 on p.290***

The material in this Module is not covered in S.
–2–
Specimen Test 15
1. (i) Evaluate j . (k ⇥ j) .
(ii) Given that a = i + j, b = 2k and c = j, evaluate a . (b ⇥ c).
2. (i) Write down the vector equation of the line L passing through the two points with position vectors
a = i + k and b = i + j + k .
(ii) Find the point where line L cuts the yz-plane.
(iii) Find the point of intersection of L and the line r = (3 + s) i + ( 4 + s) j + (3 s) k .
3. Obtain the equation of the plane which has normal vector 6i + 2j 3k and which passes through the
point (2, 1, 0).
Write the equation in the form r . n̂ = p, where n̂ is a unit vector, and deduce the perpendicular distance
from the origin to the plane.
4. Find the vector equation of the plane which passes through the points (1, 0, 1), ( 3, 1, 12) and (2, 1, 4).
5. The position vector of a particle at time t is given by r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k .

Find the velocity ṙ and the acceleration r̈ of the particle, and evaluate ṙ . r̈.
6. Given that the acceleration of a particle at time t is
r̈ = sin 2t i cos t j + t2 k
and that, at time t = 0, its velocity is 2j and its position vector is k, find its velocity and position as
functions of t.
7. Di↵erentiate r ⇥ ṙ = t2 i and hence determine r ⇥ r̈ .
–3–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 11 INTEGRATION IV
Module Topics
1. Double integration
2. Polar coordinates
3. Triple integration
A: Work Scheme (if you use any edition of JAMES)
You have all integrated functions of a single variable, y = f (x) say. In the real world, however, most physical
quantities depend on more than one variable and therefore it is important in many branches of engineering
to be able to integrate these more general functions. The so-called multiple integrals are not covered in
J. and so you should study the sections below.
1. Recall that in Module 3 we defined the definite integral of a function of one variable, f (x), by the limit
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim lim f (xi ) xi ,
a xi !0 n!1
i=1
where a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ... < xn = b, xi = xi xi 1 and xi 1  xi  xi . This integral represents the
area between the curve y = f (x) and the x-axis and between x = a and x = b, as shown in Figure 11.1.
.. y
.........
.......
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
... .....................................
... y = f (x) ......... .....
.......
... ........ ..
... .
..........
.
..
...
... ........
. .
...
..... ...
... .. ...............
. .
...
...
...... ...
... .. ........................................
. .
.......... . ...
... ..
. . ...
... ..
. ..........
. ...
... ..
. ..........
. ...
... ..
. ...........
. ...
... ..
. ..........
. ...
... ..
. ........
. ...
... ..
. .........
. ...
.. . ....... .
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. .
. .
. .
0 a
..
... x i b
.
x
...
...
...
Figure 11.1
2. Let us now define a double integral. Consider a region R in the xy-plane bounded by a closed curve,
and subdivide this into a large number (N ) of small regions S1 , S2 ,... SN by means of a grid of lines
parallel to the two axes at distances x, y apart respectively. Then, except near the boundary of S,
Si = x y (see Figure 11.2).
–1–
.
.........................
......... ........................
..
.......
..........
z .
...
... .............................................................................................................................
....
.
..
. .
... ... ...
.... ... ...
.. ... ...
... ..
. .
....
........................... ..
... ... ................... ....... ...
... ... ........... ...
........ ....
...
... ..
.. ....... ....................................... ...
... .. .......... .. .. ...
.....
...
...
z = f (x, y) ...
.
... .....
.....
.
... ..
... ..
.
... ..
... ..
. ..
..
.....
...
...
..
... ... ...... .. . .. . ..... .. ...
... ..... .
. .. .
.... ... ..... ... ........... .... .
....
. . . .. .
... ... .... ...... ................................... ... ............... .... .....
... ... ... ................ . . ............
. . ... ....
... ...................................... .. ....
... ... .. .. .............
... .................................................................................................................................................................................
... ... . .. ...
... ... ... ... .. ... ...
... ... ... .. ... ...
... .
. ..
. .
. ...
... ..
. .
. ... .. ... ...
... ..
. . .. .
. ..
. ...
... ..
. ..
. .
.
. ...
... .. . ... .. ... ...
... y ....................
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.. .
. .
.
..
. ...
... ......... .. .
.
. . .. .. . .. ...
... ....
. .
. .
. . . ...
... .......... .
.
. . .
. . .... ..
. ..... ...
... .......
. .
. .
.
.
. ........
.
. .......
. .
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . . .
...
...
y ........
. .....
.
.
. . .
. . . ............ ....................................................................................................
. . S = x y
... .....
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. i
.. ... ........ .. ...
... ....... . ....... ................................
... ....... .......... ...... .... .................
... ..
......... ..
......... ...................................................................... ..............
...
... .......
.......
.
...
.......
.......
..... ..
.......
.......
..... R .
... ....... ...... ......

...... ...... ......
... ............ .........
........ .
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....
0 x x
Figure 11.2
Let (xi , yi ) be a point inside the ith element of area Si and let fi = f (xi , yi ), so that fi is the height
of the surface above (xi , yi ). Then fi Si is approximately equal to the volume of a thin vertical tube of
rectangular cross-section constructed on Si as base, the upper boundary being where this tube intersects
the surface.
Let f1 , f2 , ..., fN be the values taken by the function f at arbitrary points inside the elements of area S1 ,
S2 , ..., SN respectively. Let
N
X
VN = f1 S1 + f2 S2 + ... + fN SN ⌘ f i Si .
i=1
If VN tends to a limit as x ! 0, y ! 0 and so N ! 1, the limit is known as the double integral of

f over the region R and its value is equal to the volume of the vertical cylinder constructed on R as its
base, the upper boundary being where this cylinder cuts the surface f . The double integral is denoted by
ZZ
f (x, y) dx dy .
R
ZZ ZZ
In the special case when f (x, y) = 1 for all x and y, f (x, y) dx dy is written simply as dxdy
R R
and two useful interpretations are:
(a) it is the volume of the cylinder of uniform height 1 based on the region R
or
(b) it is the area of the region R.
3. To evaluate a double integral you simply have to perform two successive single integrations. The
difficult problem is getting the limits right. The first step is to draw the region R in the xy-plane over which
the double integral is to be evaluated. This is easy when the region is rectangular, as illustrated in the
following example.
Z y=1 Z x=2
Example 1 Evaluate (1 + x + y) dx dy.
y=0 x=1
The region of integration in this example is rectangular, since all limits are constants and hence independent
of x and y.
–2–
When a double integral is written in the form displayed in Example 1, with dx as the inner infinitesimal
and dy as the outer, then the function f (x, y) = 1 + x + y is first integrated with respect to x and the
resulting quantity then integrated with respect to y.
Although
Z 1Z 2 the limits in Example 1 are written in their fullest form, you will often encounter integrals written
(1 + x + y) dx dy, where you can assume from the order of the infinitesimals and integrals which limits
0 1
apply to which variables. The situation Z
is completely clear if you
◆ introduce an extra set of brackets. For
1 ✓Z 2
instance, the integral could be written (1 + x + y) dx dy.
0 1
The region of integration for Example 1 is easy to find, but in general you proceed as follows. Draw on a
diagram the lines defined by the four limits appearing explicitly in the integral, i.e. x = 1, x = 2, y = 0 and
y = 1 in the current example. For the inner integral y is constant and x varies between 1 and 2. Similarly,
for the second integral y has outer limits y = 0 and y = 1. The region of integration is then the shaded
area in Figure 11.3, with the thin strip showing the part of the region along which the first integral is taken.
.. y
........
........
....
...
... .. ..
1 .. ..
.....................................................................................................................................................
. . .
..
.... .... ......... ......... ......... ......... ....
... ..........................................................................
... ..........................................................................
... .. ..... ..... ..... ..... ..
... ........ ......... ......... ......... ........
... ... ....... ....... ....... ....... ...
... .. ... ... ... ... ..
... ...... ........ ......... ........ ......
. . .
... .... ........ ........ ........ ......... ....
. ...... ..... ..... .... .. .
...........................................................................................................................................................................
. .
.. .. .. .
0 ...
....
1 ...
....
2 ...
....
x
. . .
Figure 11.3
Let us now evaluate the double integral. First, consider the inner integral which, as stated above, is an
integration with respect to x along a strip with y kept fixed. The calculation of this inner integral
proceeds as follows:
Z 2  x=2 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
x2 22 1 5
(1 + x + y) dx = x + + xy = 2+ + 2y 1+ +y = + y.
1 2 x=1 2 2 2
Note that in evaluating the above integral y remained constant. The full calculation of the double integral
then gives
Z 1 ✓Z 2 ◆ Z 1 ✓ ◆  1 ✓ ◆
5 5y y 2 5 1
(1 + x + y) dx dy = +y dy = + = + (0) = 3.
0 1 0 2 2 2 0 2 2
Integrals of the type appearing in Example 1 can have a number of interpretations. The one mentioned
earlier is the calculation of volumes and for this situation you can think of the above answer, 3, as the
volume of a solid body with its base on the xy-plane (i.e. z = 0), with height z = f (x, y) = 1 + x + y and
its sides being the planes x = 1, x = 2, y = 0 and y = 1.
Retaining the volume interpretation, the volume in Example 1 was calculated above by dividing it into thin
slices parallel to the x-axis (i.e. parallel to the xz-plane). The volume of one of these slices was calculated
through the first integral, over the variable x, and then the second integral is equivalent to adding together
the volumes of all the thin slices to give the total volume of the solid.
It is not difficult to see that the total volume could also have been divided into slices parallel to the y-axis
(or yz-plane). In this case the first integral would give the volume of the thin slice parallel to the y-axis,
with the second integral providing the sum of the volumes of these slices. Hence, a given double integral can
also be evaluated, at least in principle, by changing the order of integration. During this process the
limits will normally need to be changed too.
–3–
When the first integral in Example 1 is with respect to y, the picture for the region of integration becomes
that shown in Figure 11.4.
..
.......
y
..........
...
....
..
..
........
1 ..
...................................................................
... ....... ............ ........ ....... ...
... .. .. ... ..
... .. ...
... ....... ............. ............ ......... .......
. . . .
... .... ......... ............. ......... ......... ....
... ....... ......... ... ...... ....... ....
... ... ........ ... ......... ....... ..........
... ......... ............ ...... ....... ...
... ..... ....... ... .......... ....... ......
... ... ........ ........... ........ ........ ...
.. . .. .. . .. .. . .
..............................................................................................................................................................................................
.
0 ....
.. 1 2 x
...
Figure 11.4
The function being integrated (i.e. the height of the solid if it is a volume being calculated) is unaltered. So
the double integral can also be expressed
Z 2 ✓Z 1 ◆
(1 + x + y) dy dx.
1 0
Note the order of dx and dy, and the limits of integration, have been changed. The limits are normally
determined from the figure. For this new double integral x is fixed in the inner integral and from the figure
y varies along the thin strip between 0 and 1. The calculation of the integral now proceeds as follows:
Z 2 ✓Z 1 ◆ Z 2  y=1 Z 2 ⇢✓ ◆
y2 1
(1 + x + y) dy dx = y + xy + dx = 1+x+ 0 dx
1 0 1 2 y=0 1 2
Z 2 ✓ ◆  2 ✓ ◆
3 3x x2 3 1
= + x dx = + = (3 + 2) + = 3.
1 2 2 2 1 2 2
The final answer, obviously, must be the same as the value calculated earlier, but the details of the interme-
diate steps are usually very di↵erent.
Changing the order of integration can be very useful in practice, since it is often easier to perform the
calculation one way than the other. As you will see later, in some cases it is only possible to evaluate the
integral one way.
***Do Exercise A Evaluate directly

Z 2Z 1 Z ⇡/2Z ⇡/4
(i) (y + ex ) dx dy, (ii) sin(2x y) dx dy.
0 0 0 0
***Do Exercise B Evaluate Exercise A(i) after changing the order of integration.
4. As seen in Section 3 the evaluation of double integrals is relatively straightforward when the region of
integration, R, is rectangular. Consider now the more usual situation in which R is non-rectangular.
Suppose R is bounded by the two curves y = g1 (x) and y = g2 (x) which intersect where x = x1 and
x = x2 .
–4–
.
.......
..........
y
...
....
..
... ...........
............ ........
... .............
... ............ .... . B
................. ..... ...
...
... 2 ...
...........
.
.....y = g (x)
....
.... ....
.
.....
......
...
.
..
........... ... ... ............
... .......... ..
... .......... .... ............... .
...
... ..............................
.......
...
.. .
.......... ..
..
R A ..
..
. . .
... . ..............................................................................
. .
...
...
.
.
.
..
1 y = g (x) ..
..
... .
... .
. ..
... . ..
... .. .
... .
. ..
... . ..
... .. .
... .
. ..
... .. . .
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
0 ....
... 1 x 2
.
x x
Figure 11.5
For a given value of x, the variable y can take all values between g1 (x) and g2 (x). The region R is therefore
that for which )
g1 (x)  y  g2 (x)
(1)
x1  x  x2
Consider now the double integral ZZ
f (x, y) dx dy ,
R
which can represent, for instance, the volume under the surface z = f (x, y) above the region R.
With the region described by equation (1), the integral can be written with the integration with respect to
y being carried out first, followed by integration with respect to x, as:
Z x=x2 (Z y=g2 (x) )
I= f (x, y) dy dx . (2)
x=x1 y=g1 (x)
In other words, for a fixed x in the range x1  x  x2 we evaluate the area AP QB in Figure 11.6:
Z y=g2 (x)
AreaAP QB = f (x, y) dy ,
y=g1 (x)
which is clearly a function of x only. Multiply this by dx to give the contribution to the volume from the
thin slice AP QBA0 P 0 Q0 B 0 , and then integrate with respect to x to add the contributions from the various
slices, so giving the total volume.
.
........
..........
z
.. 0
...
.. Q Q
..............................................
... ...................... .. .......... ........................
.............. ........... ....
...
... ...........
......... ..
.... .... ..
......
...
................
.........
....
............... .......................
.............. z = f (x, y)
... .......... ...... .. ... ............. ..................
... . .. .
. .........
. .......... ...........
. . ......... ....
... ....
......... ..
...
...... ..
.
.... . .
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.
.
. ... ... ............ ...
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... ... ........ ...... ...... ... ........................ ...
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........ .... ....... .. . .... . .
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...
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.
. ...
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.
. .
.
. ...
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... ... ... .......................................... ..
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P ...
... P
...
... 0 ..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
...
...
... ... ... ... .. .. 0 ...
...
...
...
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...
...
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... . .. . ....
B
....
.
... .... .... .......
.
......
B .
..... .
.
...
...
. ............ ..... .. ...
...
...
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...
...
...
...
... .... .... .... ...........
... .
.
.. .
....
.
.... ....
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... . .. ..
... .........
............ y = g2 (x)
... ... ... ...
.
. ....
..... ....
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..
..... .....
... ... ... .... .... .... .... .....
........ . ......
... ... . .
. ... .
. .
.... ... .. .....
.. .
... .... .... ... ....
.
................
...
.......
... ............
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... ... ... ... ....... ............... ............
................. .......... ....... .......................
...
...
y .
..............
..... ..... ......
....... .... ............
.
. .....
. .. ....... .
... .
...................
.... ...
. ..... ....... .
.....
................................
... ..........
....... .
.......
....... ...............
..
.. ......
.............................
...................... .......
.......
...... ..............
y = g1 (x)
... ....... ....... ...... ................................. ......
....... ....... ....... 0
...
... .......
........
..
......
..... ....
.
......
A
..... ....
.
......
A .......
....
......
............
... ....... ....... ....... ....... .......
... ....... ....... ....... ....... .......
... ........... ............ ...
......... .
........... ..
. ........
. .
... ....... ....... ......
......
......
......
......
......
...... ...... ....... ....... .......
... ....... ....... ....... ....... .......
... ............ ....... ...... ...... ......
............ ........... ...
. .
. ...... ..
.... .
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
0 x1 x x+ x x2 x
Figure 11.6
–5–
As in Section 3 the order of integration can be changed, but much more care is now needed to obtain the
correct limits of integration. Consider again the region R in Figure 11.5. This region can equally well be
specified by the inequalities )
h1 (y)  x  h2 (y)
y1  y  y 2
where the equations y = g1 (x) and y = g2 (x) have been solved for x to give x = h2 (y) and x = h1 (y)
respectively, see Figure 11.7. The actual curves are, of course, the same as before. The slices are now taken
parallel to the xz-plane and the picture of the region of integration, the xy-plane, becomes
....
...... y
.........
....
..
y .
2 ........ .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ......................................
.. ...
.... ..........
...........................................
...
... x = h (y) 1 .
..........
.................................................
..........
......
.
... ..... .
......
.
.
... ........
........ .......
...
...
R ........
........ ..........
........
....... .............
y ...... .... .... .... .... .... .... ...............................................................
1 ....
...
x = h (y) 2
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.. .
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
... .
0 ...
...
x
...
...
Figure 11.7
It follows that the double integral may be rewritten

Z y=y2 Z x=h2 (y)
I= f (x, y) dx dy,
y=y1 x=h1 (y)
in which the integration with respect to x is performed first, keeping y constant and then, after filling in the
limits in x, carrying out the integration with respect to y.
The procedures for calculating a double integral in a non-rectangular region are illustrated in the following
Examples.
Example 2 The volume of a solid body of triangular cross-section with height z = xy 2 and bounded by
the planes z = 0, x = 0, y = 0 and y = 1 x is given by
Z x=1 Z y=1 x
V = xy 2 dy dx .
x=0 y=0
Sketch the region in which the body intersects the xy-plane and evaluate the integral. Check the result by
reversing the order of integration.
Draw the lines x = 0, x = 1, y = 0 and y = 1 x as in Figure 11.8, noting that for the purposes of finding
this region the integrand xy 2 is irrelevant.
–6–
.....
....
.......
y
..... ........ ..
...
..... ..
..... .. ...
.......
..... 1
.. .....
...
...
... ....... ...
... ..............
......... .......
y=1 x ...
...
.... . ...
.
... ....... ...
... .
.... ..... ...
... ......... ..
........... ...
... ....... ...... ..... ...
...... ...
. . ...
... .....
. ..........
. ...
... ........
... .......
.
..
...
.
....
... .
... .......
. ..........
.
x=1 ...
...
........... ....... ......... ...........
. ...
.. .
.....
. .
...... ... ... ......... ...
... .
.....
. ....... ... ... ....... ....... ...
.. ... ........ ....
... ......... . .
...... .
. .
..... ...
. . ..
.
... ....... ....
.
.......... ... ... .
.. .......
... ... ... ... ....... .
............................................................ .................. .......................................................................
.
. .. .
... .... ..
... ... ...... .
0 ...
....
1 ....
x
... ........
.....
..
Figure 11.8
To evaluate V we first look at the inner integral. Keeping x constant, we see:

Z y=1 x  3 y=1 x
y 1
xy 2 dy = x = x(1 x)3 .
y=0 3 y=0 3
Hence it follows that

Z x=1 Z 1 Z 1
1 1 1
V = x(1 x)3 dx = x(1 3x + 3x2 x3 ) dx = (x 3x2 + 3x3 x4 ) dx
x=0 3 3 0 3 0
 1 ✓ ◆
1 1 2 3 1 5 1 1 3 1 1
= x x + x4
3
x = 1+ (0) = .
3 2 4 5 0 3 2 4 5 60
In order to reverse the order of integration you first have to find the appropriate limits. Simply reversing
everything and writing V as
Z y=1 x Z x=1
xy 2 dx dy
y=0 x=0
clearly gives a nonsensical result.

The correct approach is to realise that you need now to integrate with respect to x first and that this means
keeping y fixed. This time, follow the line y = constant on Figure 11.9 from left to right and read o↵ the
limits in x for this y, noticing that the straight line y = 1 x is the same as the line x = 1 y. This
procedure gives 0  x  1 y. Now move the line from the bottom of the triangle to the top and notice
that in the process it scans the whole triangle when y runs from 0 to 1.
.....
..
.......
y
..... .........
..... ..
..... ..
.......
..... 1
.... .........
... ..........
... ....... ....... x=1 y
....... ....
... ......
..... .........
... ........ ...
... ....... .........
........... ..... .........
.. ......... .
.......
..................................................................
............................................................
... ........ .... ......
.......... .... ..... .........
..... ..... ..... .......
... ......... .
..
...... ..... .....
.. .
..... ..... .........
... ......... ..... .....
... ....... .
.. ..
.. ..........
.. ..... ..... ..... ..... .
...............................................................................................................................................................................
..... .
0 ....
...
1 .....
.....
.....
x
.. .
Figure 11.9
The reversed order integral can thus be written

Z y=1 Z x=1 y
V = xy 2 dx dy
y=0 x=0
–7–
and this evaluates as
Z y=1  x=1 y Z 1 Z 1
1 1 2 1 2
V = y 2 x2 dy = y (1 y)2 dy = y (1 2y + y 2 ) dy
y=0 2 x=0 0 2 0 2
Z 1  1 ✓ ◆
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= (y 2 2y 3 + y 4 ) dy = y3 y4 + y5 = + (0) = .
2 0 2 3 2 5 0 2 3 2 5 60
Example 3 Evaluate the integral

Z y=1 Z x=y 2
V = (x + y) dx dy,
y= 1 x=0
and check the result by changing the order of integration.
The integral represents the volume under the surface z = x + y which lies above the region of the xy-plane
bounded by the lines y = 1, y = 1, x = 0 and x = y 2 , (the region shaded in Figure 11.10).
..
........ y
........
..................................................................................
1 ... .......
... ....... .....
.....
. . .
..... .......
..... .......
.. .... ..... ..... ....... 2
...... x=y ...
...... ..
..................
.. ....
.... ......... ...........
. .. ......
....................................
.................
.... .........
... ........
.. .....
...........
........
...... .
................................................................................................................................................................................
.... .
0 ......
.........
1 x
.... ...
... .....
... .............
. . ....
...... .
.. .................
... ....... ......
.
.. .... ..... ..........
........ ..... ........
...
.
..... ..............
... ......... ...... .. ...
... ....... .. ... ..... .......
..........................................................................................................
1 ...
...
...
..
Figure 11.10
The inner integral may be evaluated as follows:
Z x=y2  x=y 2
1 2 1
(x + y) dx = x + xy = y4 + y3 ,
x=0 2 x=0 2
and hence Z y=1 ✓ ◆  5 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1
1 4 3 y y4 1 1 1 1 1
V = y +y dy = + = + + = .
y= 1 2 10 4 1 10 4 10 4 5
To change the order of integration draw lines parallel to the y-axis. The resulting strip splits into two parts
and the y-integration must now also take place in two parts.
..
....... y
.........
.
.........................................................................................
1 ... ........ .. ..
..... ... ... ..... .......
...
... ........ ..... .. .. ..... .......
.. ..... ..........................
....... ... ..... .........
.
.
.. .
.......
.... ......... .......
.. .... p .....
........ .....
....
y=
... .........
... .........
x
. ...
...........
........
.... .
................................................................................................................................................................................
...... .
0 ...... 1 x
..........
.. ....
... ...... p
y= ... ...... .......
...... ...... x
... ......... .........
... ....... .......
.......... ..... ......
..... ....................
.. ..... . ..
... ......... ......... .... ..... ..................
... ....... . .........
..... .. ....... . .
...............................................................................................
1 ...
..
...
.
Figure 11.11
–8–
It is apparent from Figure 11.11 that the double integral can also be expressed
Z x=1 (Z y= px Z y=1 )
V = (x + y) dy + p
(x + y) dy dx,
x=0 y= 1 y= x
where pthe two parts correspond to the p

upper and lower areas: the lower area extends from y = 1 to
y= x and the upper area from y = x to y = 1. The two inner integrals can be evaluated to give
p  p ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
Z y= x y= x
1 1 1 3 1
(x + y) dy = xy + y 2 = x 3/2
+ x x+ = x3/2 + x ,
y= 1 2 y= 1 2 2 2 2
Z y=1  y=1 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 1 1 1 1
p
(x + y) dy = xy + y 2 = x+ x3/2 + x = x3/2 + x + .
y= x 2 p
y= x 2 2 2 2
Hence, adding these results it follows that
Z x=1 ⇣ ⌘  1
4 5/2 4 1
V = 2x3/2 + 2x dx = x + x2 = +1= .
x=0 5 0 5 5
In any given example, the shape of the boundary and the functions in the integrand will determine which
order of integration is the simpler one to use. In some cases the functions in the integrand may mean that
integration one way round is not possible.
Z Z p
x=1 y= x
***Do Exercise C Evaluate the double integral (x2 + y 2 ) dy dx .
x=0 y=x
***Do Exercise D Let I denote the double integral

ZZ
x
dx dy ,
y
where is the inside of the triangle bounded by the lines x = 1, y = 2 and y = x. Express I in two
3 1
di↵erent ways, and evaluate each expression in turn to show that I = ln 2.
4 2
Z 1 Z 1
3
***Do Exercise E Evaluate p
ey dy dx .
0 x
5. When the region of integration is made up of arcs of circles and straight lines through the origin it is
usually more convenient to use polar coordinates.
With a polar representation each point in the plane is identified by its distance from the origin r (by
definition r > 0) and from the angle that this position vector makes with the polar axis (usually coincident
with the x-axis). The conversion formulae are
x = r cos ✓, y = r sin ✓.
To evaluate a double integral in polar coordinates you must

1. Express the region of integration in polar coordinates.
2. Express the integrand as a function of r and ✓.
3. Write the area element in r and ✓.
–9–
An element of area in polar coordinates is obtained by considering the region bounded by arcs of radii r
and r + r centred on O and by radial lines making angles ✓ and ✓ + ✓ with the x-axis.
..
....... y
.........
..
... ....
.... ............
.. ..... .. .....
... ...... .. ......
... ........ .... .... .... .....
. .
... ....... .. .. .. ..
..... .. .. .. .. .....
... ...... .. .. .. .. .. ...
... ..... ..... .. .. .. .. .. ..
... ..
...... ........... .... .... .... ...............
... .... ... .. .. .........
..... ... .. ..........
...
... r ✓ .....
.....
..... ......
.........
...
... .... .
...
.
.......
. .
... ....
. ..r
.........
... .
........... . ...
.. ....
... .... ..... ............
..... .. .....
... ✓ ..... ........
... ..... .......
... .
......
. .......
... ..
.... ............
. .
... .......
... ..... ....... ....
... ..................... ...
✓ ...................... .. .
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
0 x
Figure 11.12
The shaded region is approximately a rectangle if r and ✓ are small enough and its area is therefore
approximately S = (r ✓) r. Hence, in the limit as the area becomes smaller, the expression dS = dx dy
used in earlier sections is replaced by dS = r dr d✓, and the double integral of a function g(r, ✓) over a
region R bounded by a closed curve lying in the plane can therefore be written
ZZ
g(r, ✓) r dr d✓ .
R
The method is illustrated in the following Example.
Example 4 Evaluate
ZZ
y2
I= dx dy ,
R x2
where R is the part of the annulus a2  x2 + y 2  b2 lying in the first quadrant and below the line y = x.
The curves x2 + y 2 = a2 and x2 + y 2 = b2 are arcs of circles of radii a and b respectively centred at the
origin. Hence the region of integration is that shown in Figure 11.13.
...
....... y
.........
....
... ........
... ..... ........
... ..... .....
... ..
......
. ...
...
... ...... ...
... ...
...... ........ ...
.... ..... ...
... ... . ...
... ......
. ...
.... ...
... ..
..... . ...
.... ... ...
... .
...
.
. .... ...
... ...
. . ...
...
...y=x
... ...
.
.
.....
.
R
...
....
...
...
...
... ..
....
. . ...
... ..
..... ...
... ...
... ....... . ...
... ..
..... ... ...
...
..... ...
... ..
. .
... .... .... ...
... ...
. ... ...
... ...
.... .
...
. ...
.. ... ...
... ........ ...
⇡/4 ... .......
...
... ...
. ...
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....
0 a b x
Figure 11.13
The region R is specified in polar coordinates by 0  ✓  ⇡/4 and a  r  b. The integrand becomes
y2 r2 sin2 ✓
= = tan2 ✓,
x2 r2 cos2 ✓
– 10 –
and the area element is dS = dx dy = r dr d✓. Therefore, the value of the integral is found by
Z ✓=⇡/4 Z r=b Z ✓=⇡/4  r=b
r2
I= tan2 ✓ rdr d✓ = tan2 ✓ d✓
✓=0 r=a ✓=0 2 r=a
Z ✓=⇡/4  ✓ 2 2
◆ ✓ ◆ Z ✓=⇡/4
2 b a b2 a2
= tan ✓ d✓ = (sec2 ✓ 1) d✓, using 1 + tan2 ✓ = sec2 ✓,
✓=0 2 2 ✓=0
✓ 2 ◆ ✓ 2 ◆ h⇣
b a2 ⇡/4 b a 2
⇡⌘ i (4 ⇡)(b2 a2 )
= [tan ✓ ✓]0 = 1 (0) = .
2 2 4 8
***Do Exercise F Calculate the area of the cardioid r = a(1 cos ✓) 0  ✓  2⇡, using the formula
ZZ
area = r dr d✓ .
R
6. There are no conceptual di↵erences between the evaluation of integrals in two-dimensions and integrals in
three or more dimensions. The integration method involves writing the multiple integral as a succession of
single integrals whose integration ranges generally depend on the other integration variables. Work through
the calculation of a triple integral in the staightforward Example below.
ZZZ
Example 5 Evaluate (xy 2 + z 3 ) dx dy dz , where B is the rectangular box 0  x  a, 0  y  b,
B
0  z  c.
To evaluate the integral you must follow a three step procedure:

1. Fix the value of one of the variables, for example z, within the domain 0  z  c. In geometrical
terms this choice is equivalent to slicing the box with a plane perpendicular to the z-axis. Since the region
of integration in this Example is a box the slice obtained is a rectangle.
z ....
......
........
..
...
c ...
.
...........................................................................................................................
.
..
..
...
..... ... ...
..... ....
...... .... ..... ...
...
. .....
..... ... ..... ...
..
....... .
. ......... ...
........ .
.
. ... ..... ...
..
. . .... .
.
. ........ ...
........ .
.
. ........ ...
........ .
.
. ..
.....
. ...
..
.....
. .
.
. ...
..... ...
.......
. .
.
. .
....... ....
..................................................................................................................
.... .. . .......................................................................................................................
.
... ..
........
. .
.
. . ............... ..
........
.
... . ....
.. ..
.......... ......... ....
..
... ..... ... ... ..........
.....
...
... .....
..... ... .......
...
...
. .......... ..........
..........
.
b ...
. ......
..... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
...
... ....
.
...........
........
.... ...
.
.
. ..............
.
.
. ............... .
.......... ...
.. .
.......... y
... ..
. ...
.. . .
. . . ... ...
... ..... ...... ...........
.
.....
.
.....
...
..... ...... .......... ......... .....
... .......... ...... ............ . .....
... ........ .......... .. ..... .....
...... .......... . ..... .....
......................................................................................................................................... ....
... .....
...... ... .....
... .......... ... ..........
... ........ ... ........
a ......
......
.
...........................................................................................................
......
.
.........
...........
........
x
Figure 11.14
2. Find the inequalities satisfied by a second variable, for example y, compatible with the chosen value
of z. Since the slice obtained in the previous step is rectangular the limiting values of y are independent of
the variable z: 0  y  b.
3. Find the inequalities satisfied by the final variable, compatible with the values of y and z. Since the
slice is rectangular the limiting values of x are independent of both y and z: 0  x  a.
– 11 –
The calculation proceeds as follows (clearly the order of integration could be changed)
ZZZ Z c Z b Z a Z c Z b  x=a
x2 y 2
I= (xy 2 + z 3 ) dx dy dz = (xy 2 + z 3 ) dx dy dz = + xz 3 dy dz
B 0 0 0 0 0 2 x=0
Z c Z b ✓ ◆ Z c 2 3 y=b Z c✓ 2 3 ◆
a2 y 2 a y a b
= + az 3 dy dz = + ayz 3 dz = + abz 3 dz
0 0 2 0 6 y=0 0 6
 2 3 z=c
a b z abz 4 a2 b3 c abc4
= + = + .
6 4 z=0 6 4
Note that the region of integration in the above Example is a volume, but it is not a volume which is being
calculated. One interpretation of the answer is the mass of a rectangular solid box when the density of the
solid is xy 2 + z 3 .
Z 3 Z 2 Z 1
***Do Exercise G Evaluate x dx dy dz.
0 0 0
7. This module has concentrated on the techniques of evaluating double and triple integrals. Before finishing
we list some of the many geometrical and physical applications of these integrals, a few of which have been
discussed above.
(a) The area A of a region R in the xy-plane is given by

ZZ
A= dx dy .
R
(b) The volume V beneath the surface z = f (x, y) (> 0) and above a region R in the xy-plane is
ZZ
V = f (x, y) dx dy .
R
(c) Let f (x, y) be the density (= mass per unit area) of a thin lamina of area R in the xy-plane. Then the
total mass M of the lamina is ZZ
M= f (x, y) dx dy ,
R
the centre of mass of the lamina has coordinates (x, y), where
ZZ ZZ
1 1
x= x f (x, y) dx dy, y= y f (x, y) dx dy,
M R M R
the moments of inertia Ix and Iy of the lamina about the x- and y-axes respectively are
ZZ ZZ
Ix = y 2 f (x, y) dx dy, Iy = x2 f (x, y) dx dy,
R R
and the polar moment of inertia I0 of the lamina about the origin is
ZZ
I0 = Ix + Iy = (x2 + y 2 )f (x, y) dx dy.
R
(d) The volume V of a three-dimensional region R is

ZZZ
V = dx dy dz.
R
– 12 –
(e) Let f (x, y, z) be the density (= mass per unit volume) of a solid body of volume V in three dimensional
space. Then the total mass M of the solid is
ZZZ
M= f (x, y, z) dx dy dz,
V
and the centre of mass of the solid has coordinates (x, y, z), where
ZZZ ZZZ ZZZ
1 1 1
x= x f (x, y, z) dx dy dz, y= y f (x, y, z) dx dy dz, z= z f (x, y, z) dx dy dz.
M V M V M V
Corresponding expressions for the moments of inertia of the solid could also be written down.

S. contains more material for this Module than there exists in J. Turn to S. p.1025 and work through
Programme 23 frames 1-46. These frames include all the basic work on double and triple integrals, but do
not consider changing the order of integration. Hence, after completing the stated frames in S. you should
go through Work Scheme A presented in detail earlier in this Module, concentrating on the new material.
– 13 –
Specimen Test 11
1. Evaluate the double integrals

Z y=2 Z x=3 Z 1 Z 1
(i) xy 2 dx dy, (ii) y dy dx.
y=1 x=2 0 x2
2. A region of integration R is shaded on the diagram below
..
........
y
........
....
...
...
...
1 ......
...
.....
...........
2................................
x=y
...
.. .
. ... ......
.
... .......... ....
... ..... ............
..... .
... .......... .....
... ..... .............
.
y=x
.
.
... .............. .........
... .... ..........
.
... ...... .......

...... .............
...... .......
.. .... .
................................................................................................................................................................
.
0 ...
.. 1 x
For points (x, y) within R write down the inequalities which
(i) show the limits between which y varies when x is fixed,

and indicate the corresponding overall limits between which x varies;
(ii) show the limits between which x varies when y is fixed,

and indicate the corresponding overall limits between which y varies.
Z x=1 Z y=1 x2
3. A double integral is defined by I= xy dy dx .
x=0 y=0
(i) Sketch the region of integration.

(ii) Evaluate the integral.
(iii) Re-write the integral so that the integration with respect to x may be performed first.
(iv) Evaluate the integral by first integrating with respect to x.
4. (i) State the expression for an element of area in terms of plane polar coordinates (r, ✓).
(ii) Evaluate the double integral
Z ✓=⇡ Z r=a
sin ✓ r dr d✓.
✓=0 r=0
– 14 –
Self-paced Course
MODULE 24 STATISTICS I
Module Topics
1. Probability
2. Conditional probability
3. Combinations and permutations
4. Discrete and continuous random variables
1. All of you should have met some of the work in this module, which is on probability. Turn first to
p.1000 and read section 13.1, the introduction.
2. Read section 13.2.1 which contains general comments on sampling.

Read sections 13.2.2 and 13.2.3 on plotting data, although the topics are not considered further in these
modules.
3. Study section 13.3.1 on interpreting probabilities, and then study the first two paragraphs in section
13.3.2. Work through Examples 13.1 and 13.2.
The word experiment is used for any process in which the result of each performance depends on chance
and therefore cannot be predicted uniquely – e.g. throwing a die and observing the number that appears
uppermost, the random selection and testing of 10 fuses from a box containing 100. The result of a single
performance of a statistical experiment is called an outcome.
Study the remainder of section 13.3.2 on pp.1007 and 1008. The notation and interpretations for union,
intersection and complement are very important.
4. Before it is possible to discuss the probability of some event, it is necessary to assign a probability to each
of the outcomes in the sample space. The probability that is assigned to a given outcome is equal to the
proportion of times that the outcome is expected to occur in a large number of repetitions of the experiment.
This is known as the frequency interpretation of probability.
Suppose an experiment is carried out N times under the same experimental conditions, and that the outcome
e1 occurs n1 times. Then n1 /N is called the relative frequency of e1 . The probability, p1 , of e1 occurring
is the proportion of times that e1 occurs in a long series of repeated experiments, i.e. p1 = lim (n1 /N ) .
N →∞
Study section 13.3.3 on the axioms of probability. All seven numbered results are important and you
need to remember them. Note that rule (4) states that p(A) = 1 − P (A) , i.e. the probability an event does
NOT occur is 1 minus the probability that it does occur.
5. As mentioned at the top of p.1009, Venn diagrams are useful in illustrating many of the results. The
sample space is represented by a rectangle. The area inside a closed curve within the rectangle represents
–1–
an event A, so figure 1a below is a Venn diagram of an event A, showing A and its complement A.
S S S S
A A A B A B A B
figure 1a figure 1b figure 1c figure 1d

The shaded area in figure 1b above represents A ∪ B, the union of A and B, i.e. all outcomes that belong
to A or B. Note that an outcome in A ∪ B can lie in both A and B.
In an analogous way figure 1c above illustrates A ∩ B, the intersection of A and B, with the shaded area
this time showing all outcomes in both A and B.
When no outcomes lie in both A and B, i.e. A ∩ B = ∅ , (see figure 1d above), then J. calls the events
disjoint. It is more usual to say that in this situation the events are mutually exclusive.
The general addition rule (7) on p.1008 is illustrated on the next page by figure 13.7, but is more clearly
shown in figure 2 below.
= +
P(A or B) P(A) P(B) P(A and B)

figure 2
Work through Examples 13.3 and 13.4. Note that in Example 13.3
1 1 1 1
P ({2, 4, 6}) = P (2 or 4 or 6) = P (2) + P (4) + P (6) = + + = ,
6 6 6 2
since the events of obtaining a 2, 4 or 6 in a single throw are mutually exclusive. In a similar way it can
be shown that P ({1, 3, 5}) = 1/2.
In Example 13.4, 80% of students passed the examination in mathematics, and this implies that the prob-
ability of any one student passing this examination is 0.8. De Morgan’s law is not necessary for part (c).
Instead, you can use the Venn diagram shown as figure 1b above, which allows you to see that the probability
that a student fails both mathematics and laboratory work is 1 minus the probability that he passes at least
one of them.
6. Study section 13.3.4 on conditional probability on p.1010, and then work through Examples 13.5
and 13.6. In part (b) of the latter example, the result is obtained using
P (A ∩ D) = 1 − P (A ∪ D) = 1 − {P (A) + P (D) − P (A ∩ D)},
the result mentioned at the end of section 5 above.
***Do Exercises 7, 8, 11 on p.1017***
7. It is shown below the horizontal line on p.1012 that the defined conditional probabilities satisfy the
axioms of probability, but you do not need to study that section.
Look at Example 13.7. The solution given in J. seems rather complicated, and you may find the one below
easier to follow. You are given the information that
–2–
P (rain|given previous day sunny) = P (R|S) = 0.6, P (rain|given previous day rainy) = P (R|R) = 0.8 .
Since every day is either sunny or rainy, it follows that P (S|S) = 1 − 0.6 = 0.4, P (S|R) = 1 − 0.8 = 0.2 .
You need to calculate the probability that Saturday is sunny knowing that Thursday was rainy. There are
only two possibilities for Friday, that it was sunny or rainy. Hence
P (Sat. sunny) = P ((Sat. sunny and Fri. sunny) or (Sat. sunny and Fri. rainy))
= P (Sat. sunny and Fri. sunny) + P (Sat. sunny and Fri. rainy)
= P (Sat. sunny|Fri. sunny)P (Fri. sunny) + P (Sat. sunny|Fri. rainy)P (Fri. rainy)
= P (Sat. sunny|Fri. sunny)P (Fri. sunny|Thurs. rainy)
+ P (Sat. sunny|Fri. rainy)P (Fri. rainy|Thurs. rainy)
= P (S|S)P (S|R) + P (S|R)P (R|R) = (0.4)(0.2) + (0.2)(0.8) = 0.24.
8. Study section 13.3.5 on independence of events. To help you understand the first paragraph note that,
from its definition,
P (B1 and A) P (B1 )
P (B1 |A) = , = ,
P (A) P (A)
since if B1 occurs then A always does also (see figure 13.11). The figure also shows that P (A) < 1, therefore
P (B1 )/P (A) > P (B1 ). However, B2 and A are mutually exclusive, so P (B2 and A) = 0, and hence
P (B2 and A)
P (B2 |A) = = 0, < P (B2 ).
P (A)
J. states that the events A and B are independent if P (B|A) = P (B). It is more usual to express the
result in the form
A and B are independent if P (A and B) = P (B)P (A).
Work through Examples 13.8, 13.9, 13.10 and 13.11.
9. The conditional probability is a particularly powerful tool in the manipulation of probabilities, as this
section will demonstrate. Consider this example:
Example A: At a plant manufacturing floppy disks for microcomputers, three machines are currently in
use. Machine A manufactures 60% of the disks, machine B 30% and machine C 10%. However, only 1%
of disks produced on machine A are faulty, whilst 2% are faulty from machine B and 5% from the oldest
machine, C. What is the probability that the next disk manufactured at the plant will be faulty?
To answer this question, let F be the event that a disk is faulty, and then look at figure 3 below. Note first
that
S
A
F
B
figure 3
the sample space S can be subdivided into the three mutually exclusive (and exhaustive) events A, B and
C (representing the three machines), since these are the only machines involved in the manufacture and a
disk can be made on only one of them. The event F intersects with all three of A, B and C. Consequently,
we can write
F = (F ∩ A) ∪ (F ∩ B) ∪ (F ∩ C) ,
–3–
and, since A, B and C are mutually exclusive, so are F ∩ A, F ∩ B and F ∩ C. Thus, taking the
probability of this relation gives
P (F ) = P (F and A) + P (F and B) + P (F and C) .
However, we know P (F and A) = P (A)P (F |A) etc. and, therefore, obtain the result
P (F ) = P (A)P (F |A) + P (B)P (F |B) + P (C)P (F |C) .
For our Example, all the probabilities on the right-hand side of the equation are known and can be sum-
marised as
P (A) = 0.6 P (F |A) = 0.01
P (B) = 0.3 P (F |B) = 0.02
P (C) = 0.1 P (F |C) = 0.05
Consequently,
P (F ) = (0.6)(0.01) + (0.3)(0.02) + (0.1)(0.05) = 0.017 .
Example A, cont’d: Suppose now that a floppy disk is picked up at random and found to be faulty. What
is the probability that it was manufactured on machine A?
Answer this by noting
P (F and A) = P (A)P (F |A) = P (F )P (A|F ) .
Manipulating this expression leads to
P (A)P (F |A) (0.6)(0.01)
P (A|F ) = = = 0.353 .
P (F ) (0.017)
***Do Exercises 18, 19, 22 on pp. 1017 and 1018***
10. For many problems involving probability, the counting of outcomes corresponding to various events
becomes difficult unless compact counting methods are developed.
A permutation is an ordered arrangement of a set of objects, and the number of permutations of n
distinct objects is n! (pronounced ‘ n factorial’), where n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 3.2.1.
On the other hand, a combination is a subset selected from a set of distinct objects ! "(without regard to
order). The number#of$combinations of size r that can be drawn from n objects is nr (pronounced ‘ n
n n!
choose r ’), where = . This is often said to be the number of ways of choosing r from n.
r r!(n − r)!
Example B: Find the number of permutations of the letters a, b and c.

Using the formula the answer is 3! = 3.2.1 = 6 , namely abc, acb, bac, bca, cab and cba.
Example C: Find the number of ways of choosing two letters from four.
# $
4 4! 4.3
Here the formula gives = = = 6.
2 2!2! 2.1
You should note that in evaluating nr , the calculation is simplified if, in the first instance, the largest
! "
factorial in the denominator is divided into the numerator. Thus, for example,
# $
8 8! 8.7.6
= = = 56 .
3 3!5! 3!
–4–
Example D: A box contains 12 valves, four of which are faulty.
(i) What is the probability that, if two valves are drawn at random, both are faulty?
(ii) What is the probability that at least one of the pair is faulty?
(i) The solution is derived here using combinations,

! " but other methods are possible. The number of ways
in which we can select two valves from 12 is 12 2 = 66. These pairs make up the sample space and are
all equally likely to be selected. Hence we can assign a probability of 1/66 to each. The number of pairs
satisfying the condition ‘both are faulty’ is 42 = 6. Consequently
!"
!4"
2 6 1
P (both are faulty) = !12 "= = .
2
66 11
(ii) This is answered by remembering

# $ that P (at least one faulty) = 1 − P (none faulty) . The number of pairs
8 8! 8(7)
with neither valve faulty is = = = 28, since this is the number of ways of selecting two valves
2 6!2! 2(1)
from the eight that work. Consequently,
!8"
2 19
P (at least one faulty) = 1 − !12 "= .
2
33
***Do Exercise A: Find the number of ways of choosing 4 objects from 6.
11. Read the introduction to random variables in section 13.4.1. Then study section 13.4.2 on discrete
random variables, for which the random variable can take only a discrete set of values.
12. A continuous random variable can take any value in a specified range. Study section 13.4.3 and
work through Example 13.13. In this solution you should note that the distribution function is calculated
1
by integrating the density function e−x/2 with respect to x from x = 0 to x. To avoid confusion between
2
the variable of integration x and the upper limit x, J. changes the variable of integration from x to z . The
distribution function, FX (x), clearly measures the area under the graph of the density function fX (x),
for X ≤ x.
13. Study section 13.4.4 on the properties of density and distribution functions. Work through
Example 13.14, noting that the solution uses the expression for FX (x) calculated in Example 13.13.
14. Measures of location and dispersion are considered in section 13.4.6. Read the introductory para-
graph and study the subsection on mean, median and mode.
Work through Example 13.16. For part (a), observe that
# $ # $ # $ # $ # $ # $
1 1 1 1 1 1
µX = 1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 = 3.5 ,
6 6 6 6 6 6
as stated. The mean in part (b) is calculated in a similar way.
15. Continue section 13.4.6 by studying the subsection on p.1026 on variance, standard deviation and
quartiles. Look through Example 13.17.
–5–
16. Finally read 13.4.7 on expected values.
***Do Exercises 33, 38(a),(b mean only),(c) on pp.1037 and 1038***

S. contains much of the material on probability required for this module but some topics are omitted. It
is suggested that you work through frames 1–56 of Programme 28 in S, starting on p.1176, and then go
through A: Work scheme based on J. to study the new material, mainly on Venn diagrams and properties
of discrete and continuous random variables.
–6–
Specimen Test 24
1. The sample space S consists of the following set of seven outcomes:
S = {copper, sodium, nitrogen, potassium, oxygen, uranium, zinc},
and the events E1 , E2 and E3 are given by
E1 = {copper, sodium, zinc}, E2 = {sodium, nitrogen, potassium}, E3 = {oxygen, uranium, zinc}.
List the outcomes of the following events:

(i) (E1 or E3 )
(ii) (E1 and E2 )
(iii) [(E1 and E3 ) or E2 ]
(iv) E2
2. If P (A) = 0.5, P (B) = 0.3 and P (A or B) = 0.7 , what is P (A and B) ?
3. One bag contains four white balls and another contains two white balls and two black. One of the bags
is selected at random, and a ball is drawn from it which turns out to be white. What is the probability
that the remaining balls in the bag are all white?
4. In how many ways can 4 objects be chosen from 9?
5. If the probability density function of a random variable X is given by
ce−x x>0
%
fX (x) =
0 otherwise
where c is a constant, find
(i) the value of c
(ii) the distribution function
(iii) P (X > 1).
1 1 2 1 1
6. A discrete random variable can take the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 with probabilities , , , , .
5 10 5 10 5
Obtain the (i) mean, (ii) mode.
7. You are given that fX (x) denotes the probability density function of a continuous random variable
which can take any value between 0 and 1.
(i) Write down an expression for µ, the mean of the distribution.
(ii) Write down an expression for σ 2 , the variance of the distribution.
–7–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 25 STATISTICS II
Module Topics
1. Mean and standard error of sample data

2. Normal distribution
3. Sampling
4. Confidence intervals for means
5. Hypothesis testing
1. Turn to p.1029 and study section 13.4.8. Work through Example 13.19.
2. Read through section 13.4.9 on scaling and adding random variables. Note the shaded result on p.1031
for the mean E(X + Y ) and, provided X and Y are independent, the corresponding result for Var(X + Y )
on p.1032.
3. Move on to section 13.4.10, which concerns sample data. Study first the introductory comments and
the subsection on sample average and variance. It is important for you to note that the first definition
2
of sample variance in J. is not correct, and you should use the quantity SX,n−1 , defined at the bottom of
p.1033. The reason why the divisor is n − 1 and not n is that the differences Xi − X sum to zero, and
2
so are not independent. Given any n − 1 differences the nth is then completely determined, and SX is the
average of only n − 1 independent terms.
2 2 2
Clearly the values of SX,n and SX,n−1 come close together when n is large. The expression for SX,n−1
can be written in a different form, which is often useful in calculations, and you will find this alternative
definition on the Formula Sheet.
Work through Example 13.22, noting that the answer for standard deviation will be slightly different due
to the change in definition.
***Do Exercise 42(a, sample average and correct sample standard deviation only) on p.1038***
4. Read the introduction to section 13.5. The Poisson distribution is not considered in this module.
Study section 13.5.1 on the binomial distribution. For the Bernoulli trial and binomial distribution it is
common to introduce q = 1 − p, so that q represents the probability of a failure. You can then write the
second shaded formula on p.1040 in the form Var(Y ) = npq.
Study Example 13.25.
5. Omit section 13.5.2 and turn to p.1044. Study section 13.5.3 on the normal distribution. The
standard normal distribution, with mean 0 and variance 1, is extremely useful in applications. J. points out
–1–
2 2
that if a random variable X is normally distributed with mean µX and variance σX (i.e. X ∼ N (µX , σX )),
X − µX
then Z = is normally distributed with mean 0 and variance 1 (i.e. Z ∼ N (0, 1)). Figure 13.22
σX
on p.1045 shows a large collection of results. A very much smaller subset is given on the Formula Sheet.
Work through Examples 13.28 and 13.29. In part (a) of the solution to 13.29 note that, because of
symmetry of the standard normal distribution about Z = 0, we know P (Z < −2) = P (Z > 2), and then
P (Z > 2) = 1 − P (Z ≤ 2) = 1 − Φ(2).
***Do Exercises 50, 51, 59 on pp.1053 and 1054***
6. The remainder of the topics to be covered in this module are not in J., so the material is discussed in
some detail below.
One of the major problems in statistics is estimating the properties of a large population from the properties
of a sample of individuals chosen from that population. The theory of sampling deals with this estimation
process and with determining the accuracy of the estimates.
Select at random a sample of n observations X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn taken from a population. From these n obser-
vations you can calculate the values of a number of statistical quantities, for example the sample mean X.
If you choose another random sample of size n from the same population, a different value of the statistic
will, in general, result. In fact, if repeated random samples are taken, you can regard the statistic itself as a
random variable, and its distribution is called the sampling distribution of the statistic.
As an illustration, consider the distribution of heights of all adult men in England. It is an empirical fact
that this distribution conforms very closely to the normal curve. However, take a large number of samples
of size four, drawn at random from the population, and calculate the mean height of each sample. How will
these mean heights be distributed? We find that they too would be normally distributed, and about the
same mean as the original distribution. However, the dispersion of the second distribution would be less.
This is expected, since a random sample of four is likely to include men both above and below average height;
the mean of the sample will therefore tend to deviate from the true mean less than a single observation will.
The very important general result can be stated as follows:
If random samples of size n are taken from a distribution whose mean is µX and whose standard
deviation is σX , then the sample means√form a distribution with the same mean µX , but with a smaller
standard deviation given by σX = σX / n.
Note that the theorem is independent of the distribution of the parent population, and holds whether it is
normal, binomial or any other. However, if the parent distribution is normal, then it can be shown
√ that
the sampling distribution of the sample mean is also normal. The standard deviation σX = σX / n of the
sample mean is usually called the standard error of the sample mean to distinguish it from the standard
deviation of the parent population.
Let us now present three worked examples.
Example A: A random sample is drawn from a population with a known standard deviation of 2.0. Find
the standard error of the sample mean if the sample is of size (i) 9, (ii) 25, (iii) 100. What sample size would
give a standard error equal to 0.5?
√
The standard error of the sample mean is σX / n, if σX is the standard deviation for the whole population.
Hence, the required standard errors of the sample mean are
2 2 2
(i) √ = 0.667, to 3 decimal places, (ii) √ = 0.4, (iii) √ = 0.2.
9 25 100
√
If the standard error is equal to 0.5, then 2/ n = 0.5 = 1/2. Squaring, it then follows that 4/n = 1/4 or
n = 16, thus the sample size is n = 16.
–2–
Example B: The diameters of shafts made by a certain manufacturing process are known to be normally
distributed with mean 2.500 cm and standard deviation 0.009 cm. What is the distribution of the sample
mean diameter of nine such shafts selected at random? Calculate the proportion of such sample means which
can be expected to exceed 2.506 cm.
The earlier result states that the sampling distribution of the sample mean will also√be normal, with the
same mean, 2.500 cm, but with a standard deviation (or standard error) σX = 0.009/ 9 = 0.003 cm.
In order to calculate the probability that X > 2.506, we standardize in the usual way by putting Z =
(X − 2.500)/0.003. Then
! "
2.506 − 2.500
P (X > 2.506) = P Z> = P (Z > 2.0) = 1−P (Z ≤ 2.0) = 1−Φ(2.0) = 1−.9772 = 0.0228 .
0.003
Hence, the proportion of sample means which can be expected to exceed 2.506 cm. is 2.28%.
Example C: What is the probability that an observed value of a normally distributed random variable
lies within one standard deviation from the mean?
Suppose the given normally distributed random variable, X say, has mean µX and standard deviation σX ,
2 X − µX
i.e. X ∼ N (µX , σX ). We need to calculate P (µX − σX ≤ X ≤ µX + σX ). Define Z = , then
σX
Z ∼ N (0, 1). It follows that
P (µX − σX ≤ X ≤ µX + σX ) = P (−1 ≤ Z ≤ 1) = 2 P (0 ≤ Z ≤ 1), by symmetry

= 2(Φ(1) − Φ(0)) = 2(0.8413 − 0.5000) = 2(0.3413) = 0.6826.
7. When the parent distribution is normal, then so is the sampling distribution of the sample mean. What
happens when the parent distribution is not normal? The rather surprising result is that, provided reasonably
large samples are taken (i.e. n ≥ 30), the sampling distribution of X is approximately normal whatever the
distribution of the parent population. This remarkable result, known as the central limit theorem, can
be stated as follows:
If a random sample of size n is taken from ANY distribution with mean µX and standard deviation √ σX ,
the sampling distribution of X is approximately normal, with mean µX and standard deviation σX / n, the
approximation improving as n increases.
Study the following example.
Example D: It is known that a particular make of light bulb has an average life of 800 hrs with a standard
deviation of 48 hrs. Find the probability that a random sample of 144 bulbs will have an average life of less
than 790 hrs.
Since the number √

of bulbs in the sample is large, the sample mean will be normally distributed with mean
800 and σX = 48/ 144 = 4. Put Z = (X − 800)/4. Then
! "
790 − 800
P (X < 790) = P Z< = P (Z < −2.5) = P (Z > 2.5) = 1 − P (Z ≤ 2.5) = 0.0062 .
4
The main results concerning the distribution of X can be summarised as follows:
–3–
X − µX
Z= √
σX / n
Size of sample Form of distribution of Z

n ≥ 30 Good approximation to the standard normal
distribution N (0, 1), regardless of the distri-
bution of the parent population.
n < 30 The distribution is approximately N (0, 1) if
the distribution of the parent population is
approximately normal.
all n The distribution is N (0, 1) if the distribution
of the parent population is normal.
***Do Exercise A: The length of a steel rod in a given batch is normally distributed with mean 3.10 m.
and standard deviation 0.16 m. Calculate the proportion of rods that are longer than 3.50 m.
***Do Exercise B: The lifetimes of a batch of video components are known to be normally distributed
with mean 500 hours and standard deviation 50 hours. A purchaser requires at least 95% of them to have
a lifetime greater than 400 hours. Will the batch meet the purchaser’s specification?
8. Let us now consider confidence intervals. Suppose you take a sample chosen at random from a
population, then the mean, X, of the sample is said to provide a point estimator of the population mean
µX . This point estimator is a random variable distributed in some way around the population mean; but
it contains within itself no measure of its precision. A method of estimation that does also contain such a
measure is the confidence interval, within which you can be reasonably sure that the value of µX lies.
The procedure is to calculate a number k such that the interval (X − k, X + k) has a specified probability
of containing the population mean. The values usually chosen for this probability are 0.95 and 0.99. For
example, if k is calculated so that
P (X − k ≤ µ ≤ X + k) = .95 ,
then the interval is called the 95% confidence interval. That is, if the interval is calculated for very many
samples, then 95 out of 100 intervals would contain µX .
2
To proceed further, assume that the population variance σX is known and that
X − µX
Z= √ (1)
σX / n
is distributed with the standard normal distribution N (0, 1)—the conditions for this are displayed in the
boxed results above. Now the results on the Formula Sheet show that 95% of the standard normal distribution
lies between −1.96 and 1.96. Hence
! "
X − µX
P −1.96 ≤ √ ≤ 1.96 = 0.95 .
σX / n
X − µX √
Next re-arrange the inequalities inside the bracket. If √ ≤ 1.96 then X − µX ≤ 1.96σX / n and
σX / n
√ X − µX √
hence X − 1.96σX / n ≤ µX . Similarly, if −1.96 ≤ √ then µX ≤ X + 1.96σX / n . It follows that
σX / n
the expression can be re-written as
! "
σX σX
P X − 1.96 √ ≤ µX ≤ X + 1.96 √ = 0.95 .
n n
–4–
Hence, the interval
σX σX
X − 1.96 √ ≤ µX ≤ X + 1.96 √ (2)
n n
σX
is the 95% confidence interval for µX . Similarly X ± 2.58 √ is the 99% confidence interval.
n
Work through the example below.
Example E: The percentage of copper in a certain chemical is to be estimated by taking a series of

measurements on randomly chosen small quantities of the chemical and using the sample mean to estimate
the true percentage. From previous experience, individual measurements of this type are known to have
a standard deviation of 2.0%. How many measurements must be made so that the standard error of the
estimate is less than 0.3? If the sample mean w of 45 measurements is found to be 12.91%, give a 95%
confidence interval for the true percentage, ω.
√
Assume that n measurements are made. The√ standard error of the sample mean is (2/ n)%. If the required
precision is to be achieved, we must have 2/ n < 0.3, i.e. n > 4/0.09 = 44.4. Since n must be an integer,
at least 45 measurements must be made to achieve the required precision.
With a sample of 45 measurements we can use the central limit theorem
√ and take the sample mean percentage
W to be distributed normally with mean ω and standard error 2/ 45. Hence, if ω is the true percentage, it
W −ω
follows that = √ is distributed as N (0, 1). Since 95% of the area under the standard normal curve lies
2/ 45
between Z = −1.96 and Z = 1.96,
! "
W −ω
P −1.96 ≤ √ ≤ 1.96 = 0.95 .
2/ 45
Re-arranging, we obtain
! ! " ! ""
2 2
P W − 1.96 √ ≤ ω ≤ W + 1.96 √ = 0.95 .
45 45
Hence, the 95% confidence interval for the true percentage is
(12.91 − 1.96(0.298), 12.91 + 1.96(0.298)) = (12.33, 13.49) .
***Do Exercise C: A machine fills cartons of liquid; the mean fill is adjustable but the dial on the gauge
is not very accurate. The standard deviation of the quantity of fill is 6 ml. A sample of 30 cartons gave a
measured average content of 570 ml. Find 90% and 95% confidence intervals for the mean.
***Do Exercise D: While performing a certain task under simulated weightlessness, the pulse rate of
32 astronaut trainees increased on average by 26.4 beats per minute, with a standard deviation of 4.28 beats
per minute. Construct a 95% confidence interval for the true average increase in the pulse rate of astronaut
trainees performing the given task.
9. Given a sample of n observations X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn , the sample mean X can be calculated. The quantity
n
1 #$ %2
s2 = Xi − X (3)
n − 1 i=1
is called the sample variance. The quantity s2 varies from sample to sample, and hence it has a sampling
distribution. It can be shown that the mean of the sample variance, averaged over many samples, is equal
–5–
2
to the population variance σX . It is for this reason that it is preferable to use the sample variance s2 as an
2
estimator of σX .
2
In our discussion of confidence intervals for the mean, it was assumed that the population variance σX was
2
known. What happens when this is not the case? For samples of size n ≥ 30, a good estimate of σX
is obtained by calculating the sample variance s2 , and then replacing σX by s in equation (1). However,
for small samples (n < 30), the values of s2 fluctuate considerably from sample to sample; the sampling
X − µX
distribution of the values of √ is no longer a standard normal distribution. If the samples are taken
s/ n
X − µX
from a normal distribution, the sampling distribution of √ is called the t-distribution. The latter
s/ n
distribution depends on n − 1 and is extensively tabulated, but is not considered further in this module.
10. As mentioned earlier, one of the most important aspects of statistics is using data from a sample to make
inferences about the population from which the sample was drawn. An assumption about the population is
called a statistical hypothesis. A random sample is chosen and, from the information contained in the
sample, we try to decide whether or not the hypothesis is true. If the evidence from the sample is inconsistent
with the hypothesis, then it is rejected—i.e. we conclude that it is false. If the evidence is consistent with
the hypothesis, then it is accepted— or, at least, not rejected. The procedure adopted in investigating the
evidence is called a statistical test.
The hypothesis which we are trying to test in any instance is called the null hypothesis. It will always be
stated so as either to specify a particular value of the population parameter or to specify that two or more
parameters are equal. The null hypothesis is usually denoted by H0 . A common example is the statement
that the population mean has a particular value—i.e. H0 : µX = µ0 .
A contrary assumption is called an alternative hypothesis and is usually denoted by H1 . In contrast to
H0 , it usually specifies a range of values for the parameter. Examples of three alternative hypotheses to the
null hypothesis H0 : µX = µ0 are
(i) H1 : µX > µ0 , (ii) H1 : µX < µ0 , (iii) H1 : µX ̸= µ0 .
Alternative hypotheses of types (i) and (ii) are said to be one-sided or one-tailed, those of type (iii) are
two-sided or two-tailed.
The result of a test is a decision to choose H0 or H1 . Such a decision is subject to uncertainty, and hence to
error. Two types of error are possible. The first (an error of type I), occurs when we reject H0 on the basis
of the test although it happens to be true. The probability of making such an error is called the level of
significance of the test and is decided on before testing. In practice, the values most commonly chosen for
the significance level are 5% or 1%.
The other type of error (type II) occurs when you accept the null hypothesis on the basis of the test although
it happens to be false.
The above ideas are now applied to the determination of whether or not the mean, X, of a sample is consistent
with a specified population mean µ0 . The null hypothesis is H0 : µX = µ0 and a suitable statistic to use is
X − µ0
Z= √ ,
σX / n
where σX is the standard deviation of the population (assumed known) and n is the size of the sample.
You then need to determine the range of values of Z for which the null hypothesis would be accepted.
This is known as the acceptance region for the test and it will depend, as you shall see below, on the
pre-determined significance level and also on our choice of H1 . The corresponding range of values of Z for
which H0 is rejected is called the rejection region.
A worked example is now presented.
–6–
Example F: A standard process produces yarn with mean breaking strength 15.8 kg and standard devia-
tion 1.9 kg. A modification is introduced and a sample of 30 lengths of yarn produced by the new process is
tested to see if the breaking strength has changed. The sample mean breaking strength is 16.5 kg. Assum-
ing the standard deviation is unchanged, is it correct to say that there is no change in the mean breaking
strength?
In this case, the null hypothesis is that there has been no change in the mean breaking strength and the
alternative hypothesis is that there has been a change. Thus
H0 : µ X = µ 0 , H1 : µX ̸= µ0 ,
where µ0 = 15.8 and µX is the mean breaking strength for the new process.
X − µ0
If H0 is true, then we know that the statistic Z = √ has approximately the N (0, 1) distribution, where
σX / n
X is the mean breaking strength of the 30 sample values, n = 30 and σX is the standard deviation.
Let us test at the 5% significance level. This means that there is a rejection region of 2.5% in each tail, as
shown in the diagram (since, under H0 ,
P (Z > 1.96) = P (Z < −1.96) = 1 − P (Z ≤ 1.96) = 1 − Φ(1.96) = 0.025, i.e. 2.5%).
This is an example of a two-sided test leading to a two-tailed rejection region.
rejection acceptance rejection

region region region
2 12 % -1.96 0 1.96 2 1 %
2
Figure 6a
The test is therefore:
accept H0 if −1.96 ≤ Z ≤ 1.96, reject H0 otherwise.
16.5 − 15.8
From the data, Z = √ = 2.018. Hence, H0 is rejected at the 5% significance level: i.e. the evidence
1.9/ 30
suggests that there IS a change in the mean breaking strength.
Suppose now that the modification in the process was specifically designed so as to increase the strength of
the yarn. The null hypothesis in this case is, as before, that the mean breaking strength is unchanged. The
alternative hypothesis in this case is that the mean breaking strength is increased. Thus
H0 : µ X = µ 0 , H1 : µ X > µ 0 .
Now H0 is rejected if the value of Z is unreasonably large. You are now dealing with a one-sided test and
the acceptance and (one-tailed) rejection regions at the 5% significance level are shown below.
acceptance rejection
region region
0 1.64 5%
Figure 6b
–7–
At the 5% significance level, the test is
accept H0 if Z ≤ 1.64, reject H0 otherwise.
For the data of this particular problem, Z = 2.018 and, once again, the null hypothesis is rejected. However,
you should compare the two diagrams above, which illustrate the statement that the rejection region for a
test depends on the form of the alternative hypothesis and on the significance level.
***Do Exercise E: The strength of steel wire made by an existing process is normally distributed with
a mean value of 1250 and a standard deviation of 150 (in appropriate units). A batch of wire is made by a
new process and a sample of 25 measurements gives an average strength of 1312. The standard deviation of
the measurements is assumed to be unchanged. Do the measurements provide evidence that the new process
is an improvement? (Use a 5% significance level.)
***Do Exercise F: For a certain chemical product it is thought that the true percentage of phosphorus
is 3 per cent. 64 analyses give a mean percentage of 3.3 per cent with a standard deviation of 0.8 per cent.
Is the sample mean significantly different from 3 per cent?

Only a small proportion of the material in this module can be found in S., in parts of Programmes 27 and
28, so it seems sensible just to work through A: Work scheme based on J. presented above.
–8–
Specimen Test 25
1. Find the sample average and standard deviation for the following sample of component lifetimes (in
thousands of hours):
5.6, 4.1, 6.0, 5.8, 5.2, 4.3, 6.4, 5.5, 6.0, 5.1
2. The weights of components produced in a particular industrial process are normally distributed with a
mean weight of 18 kg and a standard deviation of 2 kg. Determine the proportion of components with
weights
(i) over 21 kg,
(ii) at most 19 kg,
3. Random samples of size n are taken from a normal distribution whose mean is µ and whose standard
deviation is σ.
(i) What is the mean of the sampling distribution of sample means?
(ii) What is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of sample means?
(iii) If a large number of samples of size 9 is taken, for what proportion of the samples will the mean X
exceed µ by at least σ/3?
4. A machine produces metal bars. A sample of 100 bars is taken. The mean length X of the bars in the
sample and the sample variance s2 have the values X = 120 mm , s2 = 400 mm2 . Estimate
(i) the standard deviation σ of the population from which the sample is drawn,
(ii) the standard error of the mean,
(iii) the 95% confidence interval for the population mean.
5. The average life of a random sample of 100 light bulbs is 3580 hours with standard deviation 400 hours.
We wish to determine whether this indicates that the average life of this brand of light bulbs is greater
than 3500 hours.
(i) State the appropriate null hypothesis.
(ii) State the alternative hypothesis.
(iii) Are we dealing with a one-sided or with a two-sided test?
(iv) Assuming that Z is normally distributed as N (0, 1), show on a diagram the acceptance and rejection
regions for this problem at the 5% level of significance.
(v) Should the null hypothesis be rejected at the 5% level of significance?
(vi) What is the probability of observing a sample mean ≥ 3580 when the true mean is 3500 hours?
–9–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 7 FUNCTIONS
Module Topics
1. Functions and inverse functions

2. Trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions
3. Exponential and logarithmic functions
4. Hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions
5. Di↵erentiation of inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
1. This module concerns parts of a long chapter in J. on functions. Read section 2.1, the introduction to
chapter 2, on p.64.
2. Study section 2.2.1 to the bottom of p.65 and then work through Examples 2.1 and 2.3. The most
important property to note for functional relationships y = f (x) is that for each value of the independent
variable x there is one, but only one, value of the dependent variable y. Complete this section by studying
the text on the lower half of p.68.
3. Turn on to p.74 and study carefully section 2.2.3 on inverse functions, including Examples 2.6 to
2.8. Figure 2.11 shows that the inverse function y = f 1 (x), if it exists, is found by reflecting the graph
y = f (x) in the line y = x. The discussion in Example 2.8 on finding the inverse function is particularly
important.
4. Study section 2.2.4 on composite functions stopping after Example 2.9.
5. Study section 2.2.6, including Examples 2.11 and 2.12. Knowledge of odd, even and periodic functions
is particularly useful in discussing Fourier series, which you will study in more detail either this year or next
year.
***Do Exercises Exercise 14 on p.87 and Exercises 10(a),(c) on pp.81-82***
6. Omit sections 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5 on linear, polynomial and rational functions and move on to p.128. Read
quickly through the text in sections 2.6.1 to 2.6.5, much of which has been covered in module 2.
Study carefully section 2.6.7 on defining inverse trigonometric functions. Work through Examples 2.50,
and then the much harder Example 2.51.
***Try Exercises 68(a),(c) (both hard) on p.151***
7. Read the introduction to section 2.7 on p.152 and then study section 2.7.1 on exponential functions.
Properties 2.35 are consistent with the indicial laws revised in module 1. Note the comments below properties
2.35 on the use of the ‘exp’ notation in certain situations.
–1–
8. Study section 2.7.2 on the logarithmic function and study Example 2.57. The graph of ln x is on the
Formula sheet and in the Data Book, and it is easily seen that y = ln x is the inverse function corresponding
to y = ex . As stated in J. it is customary to use the notation log to denote a logarithm to base 10 and ln
to denote the corresponding function to base e. Properties 2.37 and 2.38(a),(b),(c) are especially useful.
9. Study section 2.7.4 on hyperbolic functions. The hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine are defined
on p.158 and these definitions appear on the Formula sheet and in the Data Book. The definitions of the
other hyperbolic functions, tanh x, sech x, cosech x and coth x, are defined from cosh x and sinh x in exactly
the same way as the trigonometric functions tan x, sec x, cosec x and cot x are defined in terms of cos x and
sin x. Graphs of cosh x, sinh x and tanh x are shown on the Formula sheet and in the Data Book.
The definitions of cosh x and sinh x lead to equation 2.40, which is an important relation connecting these
two hyperbolic functions. Equation 2.40 also appears on the Formula sheet and in the Data Book. In a
similar way the relations 2.41 can be determined, although these need not be remembered. Study Example
2.58.
Osborn’s rule on p.161 indicates how a trigonometric identity is related to the corresponding hyperbolic
one. In general we will not need to use this result although it does indicate that the hyperbolic identity
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1 is related to the trigonometric expression cos2 x + sin2 x = 1. Study Examples 2.59
and 2.60.
10. Study section 2.7.5 on inverse hyperbolic functions. Graphs of these functions are shown in Figure
2.88. Note, in particular, the restriction on the range of cosh 1 x which is necessary to obtain a function.
You are not expected to memorise equations 2.42 to 2.44. Work through Example 2.61.
***Do Exercises 75, 76, 77 on p.157 and Exercises 81(a),(e) on p.164***
11. To complete this module you need to consider the di↵erentiation of the inverse functions introduced
above. Turn to p.585 and study the part of section 8.3.9 below equation 8.18. Study Example 8.17 parts
(f ), (g) and (h). Then study Example 8.18(b).
12. Turn to p.592 and study how the derivatives of the hyperbolic functions can be derived. Only the
derivatives of sinh x and cosh x are listed on the Formula sheet - you should be able to derive the other
results given by equations 8.24(c)–(f ) if required. Note that equations 8.25(a),(b) for the derivatives of
the inverse hyperbolic functions sinh 1 x and cosh 1 x are quoted on the Formula sheet and in the Data
Book. Study Example 8.20.
***Do Exercises 35(a),(c),(f ) on p.590 and Exercises 40(c),(d), 41(a),(b) on p.595***

S. contains most of the algebraic material in this module but omits some of the initial definitions and the
graphical interpretations. Hence, to start this module you are advised to work through the items 1-5, 7 and
8 in the above work scheme based on J.
Turn to S. p.495 and work through frames 1-38 of Programme 3 on hyperbolic functions. Note that the
references to series in the early frames can be omitted, they will be discussed later in the year, and the
results in logarithmic form in frame 31 need not be memorised. In order that cosh 1 x is a function each
value of x must lead to only 1 value of cosh 1 x. Thus the plus sign must be taken as the answer in frame
30.
The di↵erentiation of hyperbolic functions is considered in Programme 7 (in the frames omitted when you
were studying module 4). Work through frame 2 on p.621, question 5 in frame 13 on p.625 and frames 17
and 18 on pp.627 and 628.
–2–
Finally, Programme 9 starting on p.663 contains the material on di↵erentiating inverse trigonometric and
hyperbolic functions. Work through frames 1-17 of this programme. The crucial point not emphasised in
S. is that for a function y = f (x) to have an inverse each value of y must correspond to exactly one value of
x.
Specimen Test 7
x2 + 1
1. The function f (x) is defined by the equation f (x) = p for an appropriate domain.
x2 1
(i) Write down the domain of the function.
(ii) State whether the function over its domain is even or odd or neither even nor odd.
1
2. (i) Draw the graph of cos x, showing carefully the domain and range of the function.
1
(ii) Find the value of cos 1/2 , and illustrate it on your graph.
⇢
1
3. Given that y = exp ln xln(x 3) (x > 3), use the elementary properties of ln and exp
2
to simplify the right-hand expression as much as you can.
4. Given that sinh x = 5/12 find

(i) cosh x, (ii) tanh x, (iii) sech x.
5. (i) Define sinh y in terms of exponentials.

(ii) If x = sinh y use the expression from (i) to obtain a quadratic equation for ey involving x.
⇥ p ⇤
(iii) Solve this quadratic equation for ey and hence prove that sinh 1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 .
6. Di↵erentiate the following functions with respect to x:

1
(i) tan (4x), (ii) x3 sinh x.
–3–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 8 DIFFERENTIATION II
Module Topics
1. Maxima, minima and points of inflection

2. Curve sketching
3. Parametric di↵erentiation, implicit di↵erentiation of functions of one variable and logarithmic di↵erenti-
ation
4. Taylor series, Maclaurin series
1. Read the introduction to section 8.5 on p.609. Study section 8.5.1 up to and including Example
8.31. The latter section considers the familiar topic of calculating critical or stationary points, and then
determining their nature. The methods based on the change in signs of the first derivative and the value of
the second derivative must both be known, since each is important in certain situations.
Examples 8.33 to 8.35 which complete the section can be read, but need not be studied. They indicate the
wide range of problems for which the calculation of optimal values is important but unfortunately we do not
have sufficient time to include these applications within this year’s mathematics units.
2. Before sketching curves it is necessary to turn back to p.123 on asymptotes. Study the whole of section
2.5.3, including Examples 2.36 and 2.37.
3. Graphical calculators can display graphs of functions. However, you do need to be able to use the above
techniques to obtain the major properties of the graphs by calculation.
To sketch a graph of the function f (x), therefore, it is necessary to:
(i) look for any useful general property of f , such as eveness, oddness or periodicity;
(ii) find any stationary points of f and determine whether they are maxima, minima or points of
inflection;
(iii) determine any asymptotes and the behaviour of f on both sides of these lines;
(iv) find the values of f (x) as x ! ±1 ;
(v) determine any points of intersection of the graph with the coordinate axes.
N.B. In graph questions in examinations marks will be awarded for each of these tasks so even though your
calculator will be of assistance in the plot it is important that you carry out the necessary algebraic steps
listed above.
Given a polynomial f (x), note that in determining where y = f (x) intersects the x-axis, in other words
finding the roots of f (x) = 0, it is often useful to use the factor theorem. This states that if x = a satisfies
f (a) = 0 then (x a) is a factor of f (x), i.e. f (x) = (x a)g(x), where g(x) is a polynomial of lower order.
–1–
For example, consider the particular case f (x) = x3 6x2 +11x 6. It is easily seen that f (1) = 0, so (x 1)
is a factor of f (x), or x3 6x2 + 11x 6 = (x 1)g(x). The function g(x) is clearly a quadratic and the
coefficient of x2 and the constant can then be found by inspection: x3 6x2 + 11x 6 = (x 1)(x2 + bx + 6).
The remaining constant b is then determined by multiplying out, and must take the value 5. Hence, it
follows that x3 6x2 + 11x 6 = (x 1)(x2 5x + 6) = (x 1)(x 2)(x 3).
***Do Exercises 44(a),(b) on p.128***
***Do Exercises 79(a), 80(c) on p.618***
4. Turn back to p.595. Study the paragraph on parametric di↵erentiation and then work through Example
8.21.
5. Equations of the form g(x, y) = 0 often arise in applications. In simple situations the equations can
dy
be solved for y to give y = f (x), an explicit expression for y in terms of x, and calculation of is then
dx
usually straightforward.
The above simplification is not always possible. For instance, the equation y 4 + sin(xy) = 0 cannot be
written in the explicit form y = f (x), but remains as an equation in which x and y are linked implicitly.
dy
The calculation of is still necessary for such equations, however, and you must study on p.596 the
dx
method of implicit di↵erentiation, which uses the chain rule. Work through Examples 8.22, 8.23 and
8.24.
6. Study p.599 on logarithmic di↵erentiation. This method can simplify the calculation of derivatives, as
shown in Examples 8.25 and 8.26.
***Do Exercises 47, 51, 52 (but for the equation x3 + y 3 xy x = 0 instead), 53(a) on p.600
and Exercises (harder) 58(a),(c) on p.601***
7. Study section 8.4 on the determination of second derivatives using parametric or implicit di↵erentiation
d2 x
starting on p.601. Study Example 8.29. The general expressions, such as the one for calculated on
dy 2
p.605, should not be memorised but you could be asked to perform the calculation in particular situations.
8. Most standard functions of x can be expressed in terms of powers x through the appropriate Maclaurin
series or Taylor series. This topic is introduced briefly here (since it is used in some of your first year
engineering units) but will be considered in greater depth in Module 20, or next year.
Turn to p.718 and study section 9.4.2. The general result with series and remainder is stated by equation
(9.11), but the remainder often goes to zero as n ! 1. In these situations we obtain equation (9.12) (the
Taylor series expansion of f (x) about x = a) or equation (9.13) (the Maclaurin series is just another name
for a Taylor series about x = 0).
Work through the first half of Example 9.10, omitting the sentence beginning “It remains to show...” and
the remainder of that Example.
Read the paragraph at the bottom of p.719 and look at the expansions in Figure 9.6.
x x2 x3
***Do Exercise A Use the Maclaurin series expansion to confirm that ex = 1 + + + + ....
1! 2! 3!
***Do Exercise B Obtain the first four non-zero terms of the Maclaurin series expansion of (1 + x) sin x
(a) by calculations using the Maclaurin series expansion with f (x) = (1 + x) sin x;
(b) using the known Maclaurin series expansion for sin x and multiplication.
–2–
The material in this module can be found in S., but in di↵erent places in the book. First work through
frames 18-35 of Programme 9. There are di↵erent ways of determining points of inflection and S. does not
use the same approach as J.
Next turn to Programme 12 on p.729, on curves and curve fitting. Read through frames 1-17 which contain
revision material on straight lines, polynomials, conics, exponential, logarithmic and hyperbolic functions,
and then study frames 18-39 on asymptotes and curve sketching. Note that the method in S. of obtaining
asymptotes by substituting y = mx + c is di↵erent from that discussed in J.
For the next topic go to p.628 and work through frames 19-36 in programme 7.
Go to p.796 and work through frames 1-18 of Programme 14, and then finally work through frames 46-49
of the same programme. This material on Maclaurin series and Taylor series will be expanded in Module
20.
Specimen Test 8
1. (i) Write down the condition for the point x = x0 to be a stationary point of the function f (x).
(ii) Write down the extra conditions to be satisfied if the stationary point x0 is to be a point of inflection.
2. Find the stationary points (if any) of the following functions, and determine their nature:
(i) f (x) = x x2 , (ii) f (x) = x + ex , (iii) f (x) = x3 3x + 3
3. Sketch the graph of the function y = x3 3x2 + 2 showing clearly your working.
[You may find it useful to note that y = 0 when x = 1. ]
dy d2 y
4. A curve is defined parametrically by the equations x = t2 and y = t3 . Find and in terms
dx dx2
of t.
5. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve x3 + y 2 + xy 3 = 0 at the point (1, 1).
x3 x5
6. Use the Maclaurin series expansion to confirm that sin x = x + + ...
3! 5!
–3–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 10 INTEGRATION III
Module Topics
1. Integration of rational functions

2. Improper integrals
1. In the previous modules on integration you used simple substitutions to reduce integrals to one of the
standard forms appearing on the Zformula sheet. For some integrals it is first necessary to complete the
1
square. For example, consider dx . The quadratic equation x2 + 2x + 5 = 0 does not
x2 + 2x + 5
have real roots (since with the usual notation for the solution of a quadratic equation b2 4ac < 0) so the
denominator in the integrand cannot be expressed as a product of linear factors with real coefficients. To
proceed you first complete the square by writing
x2 + 2x + 5 = x2 + 2x + 1 + 4 = (x + 1)2 + 4 = (x + 1)2 + 22 ,
and then reduce the integral to standard form by putting x + 1 = 2u (to make the denominator a multiple
dx
of 1 + u2 ). With this substitution = 2, i.e. dx = 2 du and the integral can be evaluated as follows:
du
Z Z Z Z ✓ ◆
dx dx 2 du 2 du 1 1 x+1
= = = = tan + c.
x2 + 2x + 5 (x + 1)2 + 22 (2u)2 + 22 22 (u2 + 1) 2 2
***Do Exercises 105(e), 106(f ),(l) on p.647***
p(x)
2. Integrands of rational functions of the form , where p(x) and q(x) are both polynomials, occur
q(x)
frequently in practice. You have evaluated integrals of this type when the numerator is the derivative of the
denominator by using a simple substitution. However, the general situation has not been considered until
now.
Partial fractions are often used in evaluating integrals of this type. You should remember that partial
fractions were considered in some detail in section 14 of module 1, and you should remind yourself of the
method by again working through that section.
Partial fractions are also considered in J. and for this alternative account you can read pp.116-121. The
summary of the method on pp.121 seems particularly useful. Note that in step 1 of this summary J. tells
you to find, if necessary, the function r(x) by division whereas in module 1 it was suggested that you could
find it as part of the partial fraction process. Both methods can be used - you should adopt the one that
you find the most straightforward. Note also that in some situations J. uses the cover-up rule to find
the constant coefficients which are associated with linear factors. This rule is a neat way of obtaining the
–1–
constants but can only be used in some situations and it is not normally much quicker than using the general
method outlined in module 1.
After splitting up the integrand into partial fractions and then determining the coefficients, the resulting
terms can be integrated using the methods that have been developed in previous modules, although one
further type of integrand is looked at in more detail below.
3. You have seen inZ section 1 how completing the square is useful in reducing an integrand to standard
2x
form. The integral 2
dx does not fall into this general category because of the appearance of
x + 2x + 5
x in the numerator. However, the numerator is close to the derivative of the denominator, and the method
of integration proceeds as follows:
Z Z Z Z
2x (2x + 2) 2 2x + 2 2
2
dx = 2
dx = 2
dx 2
dx .
x + 2x + 5 x + 2x + 5 x + 2x + 5 x + 2x + 5
The two integrals in the final expression above are now considered in turn. The numerator in the first integral
has been chosen to be the derivative of the denominator, so can be integrated by using the substitution
du
u = x2 + 2x + 5, giving = 2x + 2 with the integral becoming
dx
Z Z
2x + 2 du
2
dx = = ln |u| + c1 = ln |x2 + 2x + 5| + c1 .
x + 2x + 5 u
The second integral is a constant multiple of the one that was investigated in section 1, and so the answer
can be written down.
The full solution, therefore, is
Z Z Z
2x 2x + 2 2
2
dx = 2
dx dx
x + 2x + 5 x + 2x + 5 x2
+ 2x + 5
⇢ ✓ ◆
2 1 1 x+1
= ln |x + 2x + 5| + c1 2 tan + c2
2 2
✓ ◆
x+1
= ln |x2 + 2x + 5| tan 1 + c.
2
4. Turn to p.653 in J. and study Example 8.52. You will notice that all details of the determination of the
partial fractions are omitted. You should be able to write down directly the solutions of the two integrals
that appear in part (a), but the substitutions u = x + 2 and u = x 4 respectively can be used if required.
Similarly substitutions, if required, that are appropriate for the three integrals in part (b) are u = x 1,
u = x + 2 and u = x + 2 respectively.
***Do Exercises 117(a),(d),(f ),(i,harder) on p.656***
5. To complete this module you need to study section 9.2 on improper integrals. Study first the
introductory comments starting on p.702, including the definition of infinite discontinuity or singularity.
J. uses the phrase infinite discontinuity in the subsequent sections but singularity is preferred by most
authors.
Study section 9.2.1 and work through Example 9.1. Continue by studying the comments before Example
9.2 and then work through Example 9.2.
Finally, study section 9.2.2 on infinite integrals and Example 9.4.
***Do Exercises 1(e),(g) on p.707***
–2–
Most of this module is covered in S. Completing the square is considered in Programme 16, starting with
frame 4 on p.855. First READ through frames 1-18, which deal with two standard results you are not
expected to remember in this course. The most relevant part of the programme begins at frames 20 and 21
which you should work through. Note that the result at the top of frame 21 is more general than the one
you are given on the formula sheet and in the Data Book, and to obtain the answer after completing the
square you will often need to introduce a further substitution. For instance, for Example 1 in frame 21 you
need to proceed as follows: Z Z
1 1
dx = dx ,
x2 + 16 x 2 + 42
and it is then necessary to use the substitution x = 4u so that the denominator becomes a multiple of
u2 + 1, which does appear in the list on the formula sheet. From the substitution x = 4u it follows that
du 1
= , and hence the calculation can be completed:
dx 4
Z Z Z Z ⇣ ⌘
1 4 du 4 du 1 1 1 1 1 x
dx = du du du = tan u + c = tan + c.
x 2 + 42 (4u)2 + 42 42 (u2 + 1) 4(u2 + 1) 4 4 4
Work through frames 22-35 of Programme 16 with further examples on completing the square, noting that
you would again need to use substitutions similar to the one discussed above before being able to use the
standard results on the formula sheet.
You have studied partial fractions in section 14 of module 1. Make sure you know that work or, alterna-
tively, work through Programme F.7 in S. You can find how partial fractions are used to evaluate integrals
by first studying frames 16-22 of Programme F.12 starting on p.411, although this section only covers
denominators which are products of linear factors. For a fuller discussion turn to p.839 in Programme 15
and work through frames 31-42.
S. does not contain any material on improper integrals, so for this short section you should study section 5
of the work scheme based on J.
Specimen Test 10
Z
1
1. Determine the indefinite integral dx.
4x2 + 4x + 2
2. Use partial fractions to find the following indefinite integrals:

Z Z
2x + 1 x+3
(i) dx, (ii) dx.
(x + 2)(x + 1) (x + 2)2
Z
x2
3. Determine the indefinite integral dx.
x2 + 1
Z 1
1
4. Evaluate the improper integral p dx , if it is defined.
1 x
–3–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 12 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS II
Module Topics
dx ⇣x⌘
1. First order ordinary di↵erential equations of the type =f
dt t
2. Exact first order ordinary di↵erential equations
3. Linear first order ordinary di↵erential equations
4. Applications
1. You should remember that di↵erential equations were considered in Module 6. A number of basic
definitions were introduced and then some first order ordinary di↵erential equations of separable type and
second order homogeneous ordinary di↵erential equations with constant coefficients were solved. Remind
yourself of the contents of that Module before moving on.
2. Some other types of first order ordinary di↵erential equations which can be solved analytically are studied
in this Module. Turn to section 10.5.5 on p.813 and study the solution method for equations of type 10.16,
dx x
in which the derivative depends only on the ratio . The equation is reduced to separable type using
dt t
x
the substitution y = .
t
N.B. The notation used in J. is di↵erent from that in the Data Book. Do make sure you can apply the
formulae in the Data Book to equations which have x and t (and not y and x) as the dependent and
independent variables respectively.
Work through Example 10.14. The key point to note is that the original equation in the variables x and
t is replaced by a new equation in the variables y and t. This is achieved by introducing the new variable
x dx dy dy
y = , i.e. x = ty. Di↵erentiating the latter with respect to t then gives =t + 1.y = t + y, which
t dt dt dt
is substituted into the original ordinary di↵erential equation, as shown in Example 10.14. An analytical
solution exists when the resulting equation for y(t) can be solved.
***Do Exercises 18(b), 20(d), 21(b) on p.815***
3. You must next study exact first order ordinary di↵erential equations. Before reading the relevant
section in J. we must reconsider partial derivatives, which were introduced at the end of Module 4. Much
more on partial derivatives will appear in Module 19, but two topics require consideration here in order that
you might understand the theory on solving exact first order ordinary di↵erential equations.
First order partial derivatives were defined in Module 4, and second and higher order partial derivatives can
be obtained with an obvious generalisation of the procedures for ordinary derivatives. For example, given
f (x, y) = x2 y 2 , it follows that
@f @f
= 2xy 2 , = 2x2 y.
@x @y
–1–
Higher derivatives are then determined, using an obvious notation, by
✓ ◆
@2f @ @f @
= = (2xy 2 ) = 2y 2 ,
@x2 @x @x @x
✓ ◆
@2f @ @f @
= = (2x2 y) = 4xy,
@x@y @x @y @x
✓ ◆
@2f @ @f @
= = (2xy 2 ) = 4xy.
@y@x @y @x @y
@2f @2f
For the particular function f chosen here, f (x, y) = x2 y 2 , it is shown above that = . It can be
@x@y @y@x
proved that these mixed second order partial derivatives are always equal for all reasonable functions f .
The second topic needed for our current discussion concerns the chain rule. You have considered the latter
applied to di↵erentiation of functions of a single variable, but the chain rule can be applied to functions of
more than one variable. It is sufficient here to note that for a function h satisfying h(x, t) = c, where c is
a constant, which links the dependent variable x to the independent variable t, the appropriate expression
for the time derivative of h, using the chain rule for functions of two variables (to be considered more fully
in Module 19), is
dh @h dx @h
= + .
dt @x dt @t
4. Turn now to J. p.815 and study section 10.5.7 up to the beginning of Example 10.16, noting that
condition 10.19 must hold for the equation 10.17 to be exact.
Work through Example 10.16. For this Example p(x, t) = ln(sin t) 3x2 , q(x, t) = x cos t + 4t, and hence
the consistency condition 10.19 can be checked. After confirming the latter is satisfied equations 10.18
are written down, for solution. Unfortunately, solving partial di↵erential equations, however simple they
are, is more complicated than solving comparable ordinary di↵erential equations. Consider, for instance, the
elementary partial di↵erential equation
@h
= x,
@x
which has the general solution
x2
h= + c(t).
2
The usual constant of integration must now become an arbitrary function of the other variable(s), since when
di↵erentiating partially with respect to x the other variable(s), here only t, is held fixed and hence c(t) is
constant. The partial di↵erential with respect to x of this term is therefore zero, and one recovers the original
@h @h
di↵erential equation. In Example 10.16 the more complicated expressions for and are integrated
@x @y
in a similar way, giving two forms for the function h, each containing a function to be determined. These
two expressions for h are di↵erent representations of the same function and, therefore, must be consistent,
leading to the final solution stated.
***Do Exercises 23(e), 25(b), 24(d) on pp.818-819***
5. First order linear ordinary di↵erential equations have the general form of Equation 10.20 on p.819.
This type of equation occurs in a number of di↵erent physical situations. Read through the theory in section
10.5.9 up to Example 10.17. This determination of the solution procedure is quite complicated, but in
order to solve particular problems you only need to remember the four important steps in the process.
–2–
dx
(a) Write the equation in the general form 10.20 where the coefficient of is 1. Observe the form of p(t).
dt
R
(b) Calculate g(t) = e p(t)dt ; g(t) is called the integrating factor.
(c) Multiply the equation (in the form 10.20) by g(t). The resulting equation can then always be rewritten
d
(xg(t)) = g(t) r(t).
dt
(d) Integrate this equation with respect to t to determine x.
Work through Example 10.17 observing the four steps above. First the equation is in the standard form
10.20, so it is possible to calculate g(t) immediately, exp(t2 /2). Multiplying throughout by this integrating
d
factor it is apparent that the left-hand-side can be expressed x exp(t2 /2) . Finally, in this case both
dt
t2
sides can be integrated with respect to t (using u = in the integral on the right-hand-side, if you need
2
to introduce a substitution).
***Do Exercises 31(c), 33(c), 32(c) on pp.825-826***
6. First order ordinary di↵erential equations of separable type were considered in Module 6, and three other
types of first order equations have been solved in the sections above. Some first order equations fall into
more than one category, and you should investigate the types of first order equation in the following order:
dx ⇣x⌘
separable, linear, =f , exact,
dt t
solving any given equation using the method appropriate to the first category in which it appears - this will
usually give you the easiest method of solution.
dx
For illustrative purposes, consider the equation t + x = 0.
dt
Z Z
dx dt
This equation is separable since it can be written = ;
x t
1
and linear with p(t) = , r(t) = 0.
t
dx x
However, the equation can also be rewritten in the form = , with the right-hand-side depending only
dt t
on the ratio x/t;
@ @
and it is exact since p(x, t) = t and q(x, t) = x imply (t) = 1 = (x).
@t @x
dx
Thus the equation t + x = 0 falls into all four categories. The simplest method of solution is to treat the
dt
equation as separable, but it would be good for you to find the solution using all four methods. You should
get the same answer in all cases, of course!
Some special methods exist for other first order ordinary di↵erential equations. However, there remain a
large number of equations which cannot be solved analytically, and for these equations numerical methods
must be used. Such methods are not considered in this course.
7. As mentioned earlier first order ordinary di↵erential equation arise in many engineering situations and
to conclude this Module it is useful to look at some of these applications. At the beginning of Module 6 you
read section 10.2. Four applications were discussed - two of which resulted in first order ordinary di↵erential
–3–
equations, so read again sections 10.2.2 and 10.2.3 on pp.792–794. You should now be able to classify
Equations 10.6 and 10.7! Finally, turn to J. p.835 and read through section 10.7.
Hopefully you have found these applications of interest, but don’t worry if you have found it difficult to
understand the modelling involved in setting up the di↵erential equations. In the mathematics examinations
this year you will only be asked questions on the solution methods.

A considerable part of the material in this Module can be found in Programme 24 of S. Turn to p.1063
and work through frames 27–64. You should note that S. develops the theory using the variables y and x
whereas J. uses x and t. Since J. is the principal text you should expect questions to be written in terms
of the latter pair of variables.
Exact first order ordinary di↵erential equations are not considered in S. For this topic you should study
sections 3 and 4 of A: Work scheme based on J. above.
–4–
Specimen Test 12
1. Classify, but do not solve, the equation

dx
t + x = t3
dt
dx ⇣x⌘
under as many as possible of the headings: Separable, =f , Exact, Linear.
dt t
2. Find the solution of the equation

dx 2
+ x=t
dt t
1
which satisfies the boundary condition x = when t = 1.
4
3. Using the substitution x = yt find the general solution of the equation
dx
t2 = tx + x2 .
dt
dx
4. Write down the condition for the equation p(x, t) + q(x, t) = 0 to be exact.
dt
Verify that the following equation is exact and find its general solution:
dx
(t + ex ) + 2 cos t + x = 0 .
dt
–5–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 20 FURTHER CALCULUS II
Module Topics
1. Sequences and series

2. Rolle’s theorem and the mean value theorems
3. Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s theorems
4. L’Hôpital’s rule
1. When obtaining a mathematical solution to an engineering problem it is possible to proceed in an

obvious way but sometimes obtain the wrong answer, even though the initial model and all the algebraic
manipulations are correct. In these situations the errors usually arise because some mathematical procedure
has been assumed to be true, whereas a much closer inspection would have revealed a flaw in the argument.
Analysis is the area of mathematics in which the rigour of a process is investigated. Very little on this topic
is covered in your engineering course but a few ideas are introduced in this module.
You should know that many mathematical results are correct only if certain conditions are satisfied. These
conditions will normally be valid in an engineering process, but they will not always be true and in these
cases a new solution procedure must be found.
First some features of sequences and series will be investigated. Start by reading section 7.1, the intro-
duction to chapter 7, on p.473.
2. Read the paragraph on notation in section 7.2.1 on p.473. The notation {fk }nk=0 is not universally
adopted, but in this course we shall follow J. and use it.
Work through Examples 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3. Note that Example 7.2 is not really a problem, it simply states
the sequence of answers for the ducting of an increasing number of cables. The elements in this sequence do
not follow from neighbouring elements in any easily prescribed way.
Complete section 7.2.1 by studying the concluding paragraph, below the horizontal line on p.475.
3. Read the introductory sentence to section 7.3 on p.480 and then study section 7.3.1 on arithmetical
sequences and series. This is the simplest finite sequence and series, and one you will almost certainly
have seen before. You should remember formula (7.2).
Work through Examples 7.7 and 7.8.
4. Study section 7.3.2 on geometric sequences and series, both common types. You need to know result
(7.4).
–1–
5. Read the introductory paragraph to section 7.5 on p.501, and then move on to section 7.5.1 on
convergent sequences. You need to understand the general ideas of convergent sequences, but you will not
be expected to reproduce the full mathematical detail. Study p.502, although the highlighted mathematical
statement in the middle of the page is not necessary for this module.
Study Figure 7.8 and the bottom eight lines on p.502, noting that a sequence {an }1 n=0 is convergent to
the limit a when for any small positive value of ✏ you prescribe there always exists a place in the sequence
(where n = N ) beyond which every term in the sequence lies between a ✏ and a + ✏. The smaller the
value of ✏ then the further along the sequence you need to go to find N . If a sequence does not converge
then we say it diverges.
6. Study the properties of convergent sequences at the beginning of section 7.5.2. Some rules are stated,
but not proved. These rules are often very useful in answering questions.
***Do Exercise A: Find the limits of the sequences {xn }1

n=0 defined by
n+1 3n2 + 2n + 1
(a) xn = , (b) xn = .
n2 + 1 6n2 + 5n + 2
7. Read the introduction to section 7.6 on infinite series starting on p.509. The manipulations in this
paragraph show how easy it is to obtain fallacious results.
Study section 7.6.1 including Example 7.25, parts (a) and (c) only. The result (7.14) for the sum of an
infinite geometric series is particularly useful, and must be remembered.
8. Little time is available to discuss the tests used to establish the convergence or divergence of an infinite
series. Read the introductory paragraph to section 7.6.2 and then move to p.512 and study part (b) on
D’Alembert’s ratio test, including Example 7.27(a).
Complete the section by studying the material below the horizontal line on p.513. The highlighted result is
very useful and is used in Example 7.28, which you should work through.
9. We now change topic and consider a number of theorems. Start by reading the introduction to section
9.3 on p.708.
10. Move on to section 9.3.1 and study theorem 9.1, Rolle’s theorem, and the first paragraph below
the statement of the theorem, together with figure 9.2. The theorem essentially says that for all reasonable
(non-constant) functions satisfying f (a) = f (b), there exists at least one maximum or minimum between
a and b, at x = c say, where f 0 (c) = 0. When the function is constant then all points c between a and b
satisfy f 0 (c) = 0.
Rolle’s theorem only requires f (x) to be di↵erentiable on (a, b), the open interval, not including the end-
points x = a and x = b. The theorem holds, therefore, for the semi-circle x2 + y 2 = 1, y 0, which has
infinite slope at the end-points.
You do need to be a bit careful, however. Suppose firstly that f (x) satisfies f (a) = f (b) but the function
does not have a derivative at every point between a and b. Figure 1 below shows such a function, and
clearly there is no point between a and b at which the tangent to the graph is parallel to the x-axis.
Consider next a function f (x) which satisfies f (a) = f (b) but is not continuous at all points in a < x < b.
A function with one point of discontinuity in this interval is displayed in Figure 2 below, and it is easily seen
from the graph that again there is no point between a and b at which the tangent is parallel to the x-axis.
–2–
N.B. Although Rolle’s theorem states the existence of a point x = c, it is very important to observe that it
does not tell you how to find the value of c.
... ...
... ..... ...
... ......... ...
....
. ..... ...
.
....
.....
..... .
....
.
..... ...... .
.....
.....
. ....... ....
.
.....
. ........ ......
.
...
... ............
... ......... ....
... . ... ........ ..
......... .
.
....
.
....
.. .......... ....
.. ...........
..............
.. ... ... ...
.. . . .
... . . .
. ... ... ...
.. .. . .. .. .
............................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................................
. .
a b x a b x
Figure 1 Figure 2
11. Continue reading section 9.3.1. Look at theorems 9.2 and 9.3 on the first mean value theorems,
stopping four lines below the stated end of theorem 9.3.
Z b
Theorem 9.2 states that the area under the graph of a function f (x), f (x) dx, can always be equated to
a
the area of a suitable rectangle, (b a)f (c), for some suitably chosen c satisfying a < c < b. Figure 9.3(a)
shows there can be more than one value for c.
Theorem 9.3 can be obtained by applying theorem 9.2 to the function f 0 (x). The result is illustrated in
Figure 9.3(b) and discussed in the paragraph below the statement of Theorem 9.3. Once again you should
observe that the theorem states the existence of at least one point x = c, whilst the figure shows that
more than one solution is certainly possible. Theorem 9.3 is really a rotated version of Rolle’s theorem.
[In fact, another way of proving 9.3 is to apply Rolle’s theorem to the function g(x) = f (x) f (a)
f (b) f (a)
(x a) . ]
b a
12. Read the introduction to section 9.4 on p.715, and then study the introductory paragraph to section
9.4.1.
13. Turn to p.717 and study from below the horizontal line to the end of section 9.4.1. Equation (9.9) states
the rather surprising result that however many terms you choose to have in your polynomial approximation
to f (x), the di↵erence between f (x) and the polynomial can always be expressed in a comparatively simple
form, Lagrange’s form of the remainder. It should be emphasised that the precise value for ✓ is
not known, although it must satisfy 0 < ✓ < 1, but knowledge of this range and the functional form of
the remainder means that the maximum magnitude of the remainder can often be calculated. This is an
important application of Taylor’s theorem.
14. Before studying section 9.4.2 let us look briefly at power series. Turn back to p.516 and read the
introduction to section 7.7. Infinite series have been considered above, but when the elements have the form
an xn , where the an are independent of x, then we have a power series.
Study section 7.7.1 on convergence, and how the radius of convergence is determined in part(a) of Example
7.29.
A list of special power series, with their domains of validity, is given in Figure 7.13 on p.520. The most
important of these series appear on the Formula sheet and a smaller number can be found in the Data Book.
15. Return to p.718 and study section 9.4.2 on Taylor and Maclaurin series up to equation (9.13)
(You did look briefly at this topic in Module 8). Equations (9.10) and (9.11) are equivalent, one is found
from the other by a change of variable. Note that equation (9.11) appears on the Formula sheet and in the
Data Book (in a slightly di↵erent form).
–3–
The Maclaurin series expansion of f (x) is obtained from the Taylor series expansion by choosing a = 0.
In a similar way, putting a = 0 into equations (9.10) or (9.11) leads to Maclaurin’s theorem
x 0 x2 x3 xn (n)
f (x) = f (0) + f (0) + f 00 (0) + f 000 (0) + . . . f (0) + Rn (x) ,
1! 2! 3! n!
where
xn+1 (n+1)
Rn (x) = f (✓x) , with 0 < ✓ < 1.
(n + 1)!
Note that in Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s theorems J. defines Rn as above, containing the term xn+1 , with the
preceding term in the series containing xn . It is more usual to write Rn+1 for the term displayed above but
to avoid confusion with J. we shall use his notation throughout this module.
Work through Example 9.10, although this is not an easy one. The two expressions for f 0 (x) are equal
because ⇣ ⇡⌘ ⇡ ⇡ 1 1
sin x + = sin x cos + cos x sin = p sin x + p cos x .
4 4 4 2 2
To obtain f 00 (x) you should di↵erentiate the result for f 0 (x) as a product, and then rewrite the answer to
yield the stated form. A pattern for the higher derivatives then emerges. The general expression for Rn can
be written down. Since | sin !|  1 and |e✓x | < ex , J. is able to show that Rn ! 0 as n ! 1 for all x.
Thus Maclaurin’s series expansion for ex sin x exists, and takes the displayed form.
16. Now study the following Example.

Example 1 Use Maclaurin’s theorem, with two terms and a remainder, to show that the error in writing
sin x as x is less than 0.005 if 0 < x < 0.1.
With f (x) = sin x, it follows that f 0 (x) = cos x, f 00 (x) = sin x. Maclaurin’s theorem, with two terms and
a remainder, implies
x2 00
f (x) = f (0) + x f 0 (0) + f (✓x) 0 < ✓ < 1
2!
x2
i.e. sin x = sin 0 + x cos 0 + ( sin(✓x)), 0 < ✓ < 1
2!
x2 sin(✓x)
= x + R1 , where R1 = , 0<✓<1
2
Now
x2 sin(✓x) 1
|R1 | =  x2 , since |sin(✓x)|  1,
2 2
and in the given range 0 < x < 0.1 it then follows that
1
|R1 | < (0.1)2 = 0.005.
2
Thus, replacing sin x by x has an error of maximum magnitude 0.005 (provided 0 < x < 0.1).
1 2
***Do Exercise B: Use Maclaurin’s theorem to show that if 0 < x < ⇡/2 then cos x = 1 x +R3 (x) ,
2
4
x x2
where 0 < R3 (x) < . Obtain an expression for the maximum error if the approximation cos x = 1
4! 2
⇡
is used to calculate cos .
10
Use your calculator to evaluate cos x and 1 x2 /2 when x = ⇡/10, and comment briefly on your results.
–4–
***Do Exercise C: Apply Maclaurin’s theorem with two terms and a remainder to the function f (x) =
(1 + x)1/2 to show that
1
(1 + x)1/2 = 1 + x + R1 (x).
2
Write down Lagrange’s form of the remainder R1 (x) and deduce that the error in writing (1.02)1/2 as 1.01
is at most 0.00005.
***Do Exercise D: Find the Maclaurin’s series expansion of ex .
17. To complete this module we consider L’Hôpital’s rule. Turn to section 9.4.3 on p.723. It is often
necessary to find limits of the form
f (x)
lim .
x!a g(x)
A number of situations can arise. Suppose lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B, and that B is non-zero, then
x!a x!a
f (x) A
lim = .
x!a g(x) B
When B = 0, the quotient can have a limit only when A = 0, but simple division then leads to the
0
indeterminate form . How do we proceed?
0
Study section 9.4.3, and then work through Example 9.14. Note that in the worked Examples the numerator
and denominator are both di↵erentiated once at each step, until one of the derivatives becomes non-zero at
x = a.
18. L’Hôpital’s rule can also be used when both numerator and denominator tend to infinity. Consider the
following Example.
x
Example 2. Find lim .
x!1 ex
Clearly both x and ex approach infinity as x ! 1. The quotient is indeterminate so di↵erentiate both
numerator and denominator. Then
x 1
lim = lim x , = 0,
x!1 ex x!1 e
since ex gets larger and larger as x ! 1.
***Do Exercises 19(a),(b),(c),(e) on p.725

The material on sequences and series can be found in programme 13 of S., starting on p.767. Study frames
1–18, then 24–38 and finally 43–49.
S. contains some frames on the remaining topics in this module. Turn to programme 14 in S., starting on
p.795, and study frames 1–30, which mainly concern Maclaurin’s series.
Next read frame 31, and then study frames 37–45 on L’Hôpital’s rule.
Complete programme 14 by studying frames 46–49 on Taylor’s series.
After studying the above you should finish the module by going through sections 9–18 of the above Work
scheme based on J, since the latter contains some topics not covered in S. Note in particular the additional
material on Rolle’s, Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s theorems, and the discussion of the remainder term.
–5–
Specimen Test 20
1. The second and fourth terms of an arithmetical sequence are 2 and 18 respectively.
(i) Find the first term and the common di↵erence.
(ii) What is the tenth term in the sequence?
2
2. A geometric sequence has first term 3 and common ratio 3.
(i) Find the third term in the sequence.

(ii) Determine the sum of the first eight terms in the sequence.
3. For each of the following sequences, defined for n = 1, 2, . . ., state whether or not the sequence converges
and, if it does, find the limit:
1 2n2
(i) an = (ii) an = 1 + 4n n2
1 + n + n2
1 2 3 4
4. Determine whether the series + + + + ... is convergent.
3 4 5 6
5. State Maclaurin’s theorem, putting in the first three terms, the term involving xn and the Lagrange
form of the remainder.
✓ ◆
cos x 1
6. Use l’Hôpital’s rule to evaluate lim .
x!0 x2
7. Apply Maclaurin’s theorem with two terms and a remainder to the function f (x) = (1 + x)2/3 to show
that
2
(1 + x)2/3 = 1 + x + R1 (x) .
3
Write down Lagrange’s form of the remainder R1 .
Deduce that if 0 < x < 0.3 then |R1 (x)| < 0.01 .
–6–
Self-paced Course
MODULE 22 COMPLEX NUMBERS II
Module Topics
1. Relationships between trigonometric and hyperbolic functions

2. Logarithm of a complex number
3. De Moivre’s theorem
4. The nth roots of a complex number
5. Simple loci in the complex plane
1. The work in this module follows on from Module 5, studied in semester 1. Refresh your memory about
that material, if necessary.
Turn to p.204 of J. and start section 3.2.9. Using Euler’s formula and the definitions of the hyperbolic
functions cosh x and sinh x, which all appear on the Formula Sheet or in the Data Book, it is not difficult to
derive equations (3.13) and (3.14) which connect the hyperbolic and trigonometric functions. You need not
remember these relationships but you are expected to know how to derive them using results which appear
on the Formula Sheet or in the Data Book.
2. The method for obtaining cos z, sin z etc. is shown on pp.204 and 205. Study Example 3.17(a),(b),(d).
In part (b), J. uses Osborne’s rule to write down the expansion of sinh(A + B) from knowledge of the
corresponding trigonometric identity for sin(A + B). Another way to proceed is to use formula (3.14b)
with x replaced by 3 + 4j, in which case it is the trigonometric identity for sin(C + D) which is required to
derive the answer.
When ✓ is real you know 1  cos ✓  1. When ✓ is complex the situation is di↵erent, however, and it
follows from equation (3.14a) and the range of cosh x that the values of cos ✓ can lie outside the interval
[ 1, 1]. Part (d) shows there are infinitely many solutions of the equation cos z = 2.
3. Study section 3.2.10 on the logarithm of a complex number. Writing w = u + jv, expressions for u
and v are found on p.208, and hence the final result on p.208 should read
w = ln |z| + j arg z + j 2n⇡, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
For a particular z there an infinite number of values of w = ln z, one for each value of n, and this makes
ln z very di↵erent from the standard functions of a real variable you are used to working with. When the
argument of z takes its principal value, i.e. lies between ⇡ and +⇡, then it is usual to call (3.15) the
principal value of ln z, and this is sometimes denoted by Ln z.
Work through Example 3.18. J. obtains only the principal value of ln( 3 + 4j). Clearly multiples of 2⇡
can be added to arg z and so the general answer should be written
ln( 3 + 4j) = ln 5 + j(2.214 + 2n⇡), n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
–1–
In obtaining solutions it is useful to observe that the exponential form of the complex number z can be
used to calculate ln z. You know that a given complex number z can be written z = rej✓ , where ✓ is the
principal value of the argument. This can also be expressed z = rej(✓+2n⇡) , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., and taking
logarithms of each side and using the usual properties of logarithms and exponentials, we obtain
ln z = ln r + j(✓ + 2n⇡), n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ,
the expression obtained in J. The latter provides the most straightforward way of obtaining the values of
ln z.
***Do Exercises 29(a),(b), 30(a)(harder) on p.209***
1
p
***Do Exercise A: Obtain all values of (a) ln(5 + 12j), (b) ln( 2 j 12 3).
4. Read the introduction to section 3.3 on p.210. Then study the start of section 3.3.1 on de Moivre’s
theorem. Since z = rej✓ = r(cos ✓ + j sin ✓) it follows immediately that theorem (3.16) can be written
{r(cos ✓ + j sin ✓)}n = rn (cos n✓ + j sin n✓),
which is the usual form in which the theorem is stated. On replacing ✓ in the above expression by ✓, it
can be shown that the theorem also holds when the addition signs on both sides of the result are replaced
by subtraction signs.
The latter comment is required to understand Example 3.19, which you should work through. Another way
of obtaining the answer, which does not use de Moivre’s theorem, is
(1 j)12 = {(1 j)2 }6 = {1 2j + j 2 }6 = (1 2j 1)6 = ( 2j)6 = ( 2)6 (j 2 )3 = 64( 1)3 = 64.
It should be pointed out that J. shows that, starting with the exponential form of z, the usual properties of
indices and exponentials imply theorem (3.16) holds for all n. In many texts, however, de Moivre’s theorem
is often considered first for integer n and in that situation the theorem is proved by direct expansion and
the use of trigonometric identities.
5. Study the theory below the horizontal line on p.210 and on p.211. Using de Moivre’s theorem to
calculate the roots of a complex number is very important. Equations (3.17) and (3.18) are two equivalent
expressions for the same result.
Given a complex number z you first determine its modulus, r, and principal argument, ✓. To find the roots
of z it is crucial to add to this value of ✓ integral multiples of 2⇡. The nth roots of z are then found using
formula (3.17) or (3.18).
Study Example 3.20. The given z is expressed in polar form and then z 1/2 and z 1/3 are determined in
parts (a) and (b) respectively. The solution for z 1/2 when k = 1 contains an argument lying outside the
interval ( ⇡, ⇡]. However, this solution can be rewritten
✓ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆
5 5
2 1/4 cos ⇡ + j sin ⇡ .
8 8
In a similar way the solution in part (b) when k = 2 should be expressed
✓ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆
1/6 5 5
2 cos ⇡ + j sin ⇡ .
12 12
6. J. states after Example 3.20 on p.212 that the formula (3.17) is easily extended to deal with z p , where
p = m/n is a rational. The result is used in Example 3.21 which you should work through. The three values
here all involve arguments lying in ( ⇡, ⇡].
–2–
7. Study Example 3.22, which shows how to find the solution of a quadratic equation with complex
coefficients.
***Do Exercises 37, 38(a),(d), 40 on p.217***
8. Study section 3.3.2 on p.214, leading to the formulae (3.20a) and (3.20b).
9. Read the introduction to section 3.4 on loci in the complex plane, on p.218. Move to section 3.4.1
and study Example 3.25. The solution to part (a) is straightforward.
In part (b) the argument of a complex quantity is stated, so defining u = z 1 j we are given arg u = ⇡/4.
Thus we can write u = rej⇡/4 where r is unknown. Introducing the definition of u, and rearranging, then
leads to z = 1 + j + rej⇡/4 .
Part (c) is solved algebraically, and then looked at geometrically (using the fact that |z a| denotes the
distance of the complex number z from a).
Finally part (d) is solved algebraically.
10. Study the introduction to section 3.4.2 on p.219, and then work through Examples 3.26, 3.27 and
3.28.
***Do Exercises 45(a),(c), 47(b) on p.222***

Turn to p.514 of S. and work through frames 39–50 of Programme 3.
Go back to p.459 and work through frames 56–61 in Programme 1. In expressing z in exponential form
the principal value of the argument should be used. However, any integral multiple of 2⇡ can be added
without altering z and so, in general, z = rej(✓+2n⇡) , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .. With this expression it follows
that ln z = ln r + j(✓ + 2n⇡), n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., and so for a given value of z there are an infinite number
of values of ln z, one for each value of n.
Finally turn to p.476 in Programme 2 and work through frames 23–39 and 49–56. Note that if you
complete the square in the quadratic equations which appear as the answers in frames 53 and 56 you can
show these loci are circles, with centres and radii which can be identified. For example, in frame 56 the
solution can be written (x 1)2 +y 2 = 25 = 52 , which denotes a circle of radius 5 and centre at x = 1, y = 0 .
–3–
Specimen Test 22
⇣⇡ ⌘
1. Find the real and imaginary parts of sin +j .
2
[You may use without proof the identities cos(jx) = cosh x and sin(jx) = j sinh x. ]
2. Write 3 in exponential form and hence, or otherwise, deduce the real and imaginary parts of ln( 3).
p
3. (i) Express z = 4 2(1 j) in exponential form and hence find the cube roots of z, leaving your answers
in exponential form.
(ii) Write your roots in the form x + jy .
(iii) Display the roots on an Argand diagram.
4. Given that z = cos ✓ + j sin ✓, show by considering z n and z n

and using de Moivre’s theorem, that
2 cos n✓ = z n + z n
and 2j sin n✓ = z n z n
for any integer n .
z + 2j
5. Find the locus of the point z in the Argand diagram which satisfies the equation = 2.
z j
–4–

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Mathematics for Engineering and the Environment

Self-study course MATH1054

1. Introduction: Aims and Objectives

• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of basic di↵erential and integral calculus,

• Show logical thinking in problem solving;

• Work more e↵ectively with self-study material;

• Demonstrate organisational and time-management skills;

• Critically analyse and solve some mathematical problems;

• PREREQUISITES: Modules 1 and 2 on Algebra and Trigonometry are included in

(ii) Academic Supervisors: Each of the self-paced sessions is overviewed by a Mathe-

4. List of modules (topics)

7. Testing and Marking

11. Contact and Feedback

MATHEMATICS FOR PART I ENGINEERING

1. Simplifying expressions and algebraic functions

1. Removing brackets A basic rule in removing brackets from mathematical expressions is

(a + b)c = ac + bc, a(b c) = ab ac.

(positive) ⇥ (positive) = positive, (positive) ⇥ (negative) = negative

(negative) ⇥ (positive) = negative, (negative) ⇥ (negative) = positive.

***Do Exercise 1. Remove brackets and simplify the following

e.g. 5x 10 = 5(x 2), t2 + t = t(t + 1).

Since the right-hand side can be expanded to give

x(x n) m(x n) = x2 nx mx + mn = x2 (m + n)x + mn,

comparison with the original quadratic shows that you require

(i) m + n = 4, (ii) mn = 21.

x2 4x 21 = (x 7)(x ( 3)) = (x 7)(x + 3).

***Do Exercise 2. Factorise

provided x 6= 3. The latter restriction on x is necessary because in obtaining the answer x 5

***Do Exercise 3. Express as a single fraction

2(s ut) = at2 .

Finally dividing both sides by t2 implies

(am )n = (an )m = amn ,

Check the answer using the xy button on your calculator.

Check your answer again using your calculator.

***Do Exercise 6. Rationalise the denominator in

but linear equations often appear in non-standard form.

Example 9. Solve the equation 3x + 10 = 4(1 x).

Adding 4x to each side gives

Dividing both sides by 7 then leads to the solution x = 6/7.

8. Quadratic equations Quadratic equations have the standard form

Example 10. Solve 6x2 13x 5 = 0.

and hence either 3x + 1 = 0 or 2x 5 = 0. Solving these linear equations leads to

by subtracting a2 from both sides it follows that

Hence, by choosing a = 4, the expression x2 + 8x can be written

x2 + 8x = (x + 4)2 42 = (x + 4)2 16.

and so the given quadratic equation can also be expressed

Adding 3 to both sides gives

This implies 2 + 2y = 5, i.e. 2y = 3, y = 32 .

Graphical methods can easily be extended to more complicated equations.

***Do Exercise 7. Solve the equations

***Do Exercise 8. Solve the equations

***Do Exercise 9. Solve the following sets of equations

When working with inequalities there are a number of basic rules.

Example 14. Solve 3 2x < 4x 5.

(3 2x) 4x 3 < (4x 5) 4x 3

Example 15. Solve x 6 < 2x 5x 3.

The absolute value | a | of a number a is defined by

Thus | 8 |= 8, | 8 |= ( 8) = 8. Note therefore that | a |> 0 if a 6= 0, and | a |= 0 if a = 0. It also follows

... |a b| ! ... ... |a b| ! ...

Example 16. Solve |x 2| < 5.

Hence the point x must satisfy 3 < x < 7.

Inequalities containing a quotient must be solved with care as shown below.

Example 18. Solve graphically the inequality x2 4x + 1 < 3.