Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2005, 19(2), 412–420
q 2005 National Strength & Conditioning Association
MECHANOMYOGRAPHIC AND ELECTROMYOGRAPHIC
RESPONSES OF THE VASTUS MEDIALIS MUSCLE
DURING ISOMETRIC AND CONCENTRIC
MUSCLE ACTIONS
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JARED W. COBURN,1 TERRY J. HOUSH,1 JOEL T. CRAMER,2 JOSEPH P. WEIR,3
JOSHUA M. MILLER,1 TRAVIS W. BECK,1 MOH H. MALEK,1 AND GLEN O. JOHNSON1
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583; 2University of Texas-Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019;
1
Des Moines University, Des Moines, Iowa 50312.
3
ABSTRACT. Coburn, J.W., T.J. Housh, J.T. Cramer, J.P. Weir,
J.M. Miller, T.W. Beck, M.H. Malek, and G.O. Johnson. Me-
chanomyographic and electromyographic responses of the vastus
medialis muscle during isometric and concentric muscle actions.
J. Strength Cond. Res. 19(2):412–420. 2005.—The purpose of this
study was to examine the patterns for the mechanomyographic
(MMG) and electromyographic (EMG) amplitude and mean pow-
er frequency (MPF) vs. torque relationships during submaximal
to maximal isometric and isokinetic muscle actions. Seven men
(mean 6 SD age, 22.4 6 1.3 years) volunteered to perform iso-
metric and concentric isokinetic leg extension muscle actions at
20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% of maximal voluntary contraction
(MVC) and peak torque (PT) on a Cybex II dynamometer. A pi-
ezoelectric MMG recording sensor was placed between bipolar
surface EMG electrodes on the vastus medialis. Polynomial re-
gression and separate 1-way repeated-measures analysis of var-
iance were used to analyze the EMG amplitude, MMG ampli-
tude, EMG MPF, and MMG MPF data for the isometric and
isokinetic muscle actions. For the isometric muscle actions,
EMG amplitude (R2 5 0.999) and MMG MPF (R2 5 0.946) in-
creased to MVC, mean MMG amplitude increased to 60% MVC
and then plateaued, and mean EMG MPF did not change (p .
0.05) across torque levels. For the isokinetic muscle actions,
EMG amplitude (R2 5 0.988) and MMG amplitude (R2 5 0.933)
increased to PT, but there were no significant mean changes
with torque for EMG MPF or MMG MPF. The different torque-
related responses for EMG and MMG amplitude and MPF may
reflect differences in the motor control strategies that modulate
torque production for isometric vs. dynamic muscle actions.
These results support the findings of others and suggest that
isometric torque production was modulated by a combination of
recruitment and firing rate, whereas dynamic torque production
was modulated primarily through recruitment.
KEY WORDS. electromyography, mechanomyography, phonomyo-
graphy, acoustic myography, quadriceps
INTRODUCTION
echanomyography (MMG) records the low-
M frequency pressure waves produced by lat-
eral oscillations of contracting skeletal mus-
cle fibers (5, 29, 40). It has been suggested
that these lateral oscillations are due to (a)
a gross lateral movement of the muscle at the initiation
of contraction, (b) smaller subsequent lateral oscillations
that occur at the resonant frequency of the muscle, and
(c) dimensional changes of the active muscle fibers (3).
A number of studies (11, 12, 31, 38) have used iso-
metric muscle actions to determine the relationship be-
412
tween MMG amplitude and force (or torque). These stud-
ies have shown an increase in MMG amplitude to maxi-
mal voluntary contraction (MVC) (11, 12, 38) or an in-
crease to approximately 75–80% MVC, followed by a
plateau or decrease to MVC (11, 12, 31). The pattern of
the MMG amplitude vs. isometric force relationship may
be influenced by motor unit activation strategies, muscle
compliance, and/or muscle stiffness (31, 33, 34, 42). In-
creases in MMG amplitude to MVC have been attributed
to the progressive recruitment of new motor units and
increases in the firing rates of the already activated mo-
tor units (11, 12, 38), whereas the plateau and/or decrease
in MMG amplitude has been attributed to decreased mus-
cle compliance, increased muscle stiffness, or the fusion
of motor unit twitches at high firing rates (11, 12, 31, 33,
34, 38).
Recent studies that have examined MMG amplitude
responses during dynamic muscle actions have found in-
creases with force during submaximal concentric muscle
actions for the biceps brachii (9, 36) and brachioradialis
muscles (36). Madeleine et al. (27), however, found no
change in MMG amplitude from the first dorsal interos-
seus muscle when subjects performed dynamic muscle ac-
tions across a wide range of force outputs (0, 25, 50, 75,
and 100% MVC). These findings (9, 27, 36) suggest that
there are muscle-specific MMG amplitude responses dur-
ing dynamic muscle actions. Furthermore, with regard to
the frequency domain of the MMG signal, 3 studies have
reported increases to 80–90% MVC (10, 31, 38) followed
by an increase, decrease, or plateau in the MMG mean
power frequency (MPF), depending on the strength of the
subjects (31) or the specific muscle examined (38). No
studies, however, have examined the MMG amplitude or
MPF vs. force (torque) relationships during dynamic mus-
cle actions of the leg extensors.
Gordon and Holbourn (17) described MMG as the me-
chanical counterpart of motor unit electrical activity as
measured by electromyography (EMG). The time and fre-
quency domains of the MMG and EMG signals have been
used to study various aspects of muscle function, includ-
ing neuromuscular fatigue (43), muscle activation pat-
terns (6, 15), electromechanical delay (7), muscle action
potential conduction velocity (6, 15), muscle fiber-type
distribution patterns (1, 29, 35), and neuromuscular dis-
orders in adult and pediatric populations (1). According
to Stokes (40), ‘‘As knowledge of muscle sounds increases

and the development of more appropriate methodology oc-
curs, the potential uses and limitations of [MMG] must
be reassessed continually.’’ One potential application of
simultaneous measurements of MMG and EMG ampli-
tude and frequency characteristics is the determination
of motor control strategies (motor unit recruitment and
firing rate) during different types of muscle actions (28,
41). For example, it has been suggested that the ampli-
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tude of the MMG and EMG signals are related to motor
unit activation, whereas the frequency of the MMG signal
may be related to the firing rate of the active motor units
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(34). Therefore, simultaneous examination of the MMG
and EMG signals may contribute to our understanding of
muscle-specific patterns of motor unit recruitment and
firing rate that modulate force production during isomet-
ric and dynamic muscle actions. The purpose of this study
was to examine the patterns for the MMG and EMG am-
plitude and MPF vs. torque relationships during submax-
imal to maximal isometric and isokinetic muscle actions.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
The study protocol was designed to examine the patterns
for MMG and EMG amplitude and MPF vs. torque for
submaximal to maximal isometric and dynamic muscle
actions of the vastus medialis. These patterns may reflect
the motor control strategies used to modulate torque dur-
ing different types of muscle actions. We chose surface
EMG as a relatively simple, noninvasive method of mea-
suring neural activation. Mechanomyography is a non-
invasive method that measures the mechanical compo-
nent of muscle function. The amplitude and MPF of the
MMG signal may be reflective of motor unit recruitment
and motor unit firing rate, respectively. To our knowl-
edge, no previous study has simultaneously compared the
patterns for MMG and EMG amplitude and MPF during
submaximal to maximal isometric and dynamic muscle
actions of the vastus medialis.
Subjects
Seven men (mean 6 SD age, 22.4 6 1.3 years) volun-
teered to be subjects for this investigation. All procedures
were approved by the University Institutional Review
Board for Human Subjects, and the subjects signed in-
formed consent before any testing.
Each subject visited the laboratory on 3 occasions sep-
arated by at least 24 hours. The first visit was an orien-
tation session that was used to describe the study protocol
and familiarize the subjects with the testing equipment.
During the orientation session, the subjects performed
maximal and submaximal trials of the isometric and iso-
kinetic testing at 5 randomly selected percentages of their
maximal values. The second visit was an isometric testing
session, and the third visit was an isokinetic testing ses-
sion. The order of the isometric and isokinetic testing ses-
sions was randomized for each subject. Each session be-
gan with a warm-up that consisted of 5 minutes of cycle
ergometry at a power output of 50 W.
Isokinetic Measurements
Concentric, isokinetic leg extension peak torque (PT) of
the dominant limb (based on kicking preference) was
measured using a calibrated Cybex II isokinetic dyna-
mometer (CYBEX Division of LUMEX, Inc., Ronkonko-
MMG AND EMG RESPONSES 413
FIGURE 1. Electromyographic electrode and mechanomy-
ographic sensor placement.
ma, NY) at 308·s21. The subjects were in a seated position
in accordance with the Cybex II testing manual (Isolated
Joint Testing & Exercise; CYBEX Division of LUMEX).
Two maximal muscle actions were performed, with the
highest value selected as PT. All other muscle actions
were submaximal, and the subjects were instructed to
produce a torque that, to the best of their subjective abil-
ity, corresponded to a specific percentage of PT, according
to the procedures of Weir et al. (49). That is, the subjects
were asked to provide, in random order, concentric, iso-
kinetic muscle actions at 20, 40, 60, and 80% of PT. The
subjects were given verbal feedback to produce the de-
sired amount of torque. A submaximal trial was repeated
if the actual torque produced was not within 65% of the
desired torque value. A 2-minute rest was allowed be-
tween muscle actions.
Isometric Measurements
Maximal isometric torque was determined at a leg flexion
angle of 0.785 rad (458) below the horizontal plane. Two
maximal muscle actions were performed, with the highest
value selected as the MVC. Submaximal isometric muscle
actions at approximately 20, 40, 60, and 80% of MVC
were then performed at the same leg flexion angle (49).
The order of the submaximal muscle actions was random-
ly determined. Each isometric muscle action was held for
6 seconds. A submaximal trial was repeated if the actual
torque produced was not within 65% of the desired
torque value. A 2-minute rest was allowed between mus-
cle actions. In addition to verbal feedback, the subjects
were able to read their torque production directly off the
dynamometer.
EMG Measurements
A bipolar (7.62 cm center to center) surface electrode
(Quinton Quick Prep silver-silver chloride) arrangement
was placed over the longitudinal axis of the vastus me-
dialis muscle of the dominant limb. The interelectrode
distance was selected to accommodate placing the MMG
sensor between the EMG electrodes (Figure 1). The elec-
trode placement for the vastus medialis was 20% of the
distance between the medial gap of the knee joint and the
anterior superior spine of the pelvis (51). For the EMG
 414 COBURN, HOUSH, CRAMER ET AL.
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FIGURE 2. Raw electromyographic and mechanomyographic signals and torque production curve.
measurement, the reference electrode was placed over the
iliac crest. Interelectrode impedance was kept below
2,000 Ohms by shaving the area and careful skin abra-
sion. The EMG signal was preamplified (gain 31,000) us-
ing a differential amplifier (EMG 100, Biopac Systems
Inc., Santa Barbara, CA; bandwidth, 1–5,000 Hz).
MMG Measurements
The MMG signal was detected by a piezoelectric crystal
contact sensor (model 21050A, Hewlett-Packard; band-
width, 0.02–2,000 Hz). The MMG sensor was placed over
the belly of the vastus medialis muscle (Figure 1). A sta-
bilizing ring, double-sided foam tape, and microporous
tape were used to ensure consistent contact pressure of
the MMG sensor.
Signal Processing
The raw MMG and EMG signals were stored and dis-
played on a personal computer (AcqKnowledge III, Biopac
Systems Inc.). The sampling frequency was 1,000 Hz for
both signals. The MMG and EMG signals were bandpass
filtered (fourth-order Butterworth filter) at 5–100 Hz and
10–500 Hz, respectively. For the isokinetic muscle ac-
tions, the MMG and EMG amplitude and frequency val-
ues were calculated for a 1-second period that correspond-
ed to a 308 range of motion from approximately 120–1508
of leg flexion. This range of motion was selected to avoid
the acceleration and deceleration phases that are typical
of isokinetic dynamometry (8). For the isometric muscle
actions, the middle 2 seconds of the 6-second muscle ac-
tion were used for the MMG and EMG analyses (Figure
2). The signals were expressed as root mean square am-
plitude values, and all frequency analyses were per-
formed with custom programs written with LabVIEW
software (version 6.1, National Instruments, Austin, TX).
Each MMG and EMG data segment was processed with
a Hamming window and Discrete Fourier Transformation
(DFT). We chose DFT, as opposed to Fast Fourier Trans-
formations, because the DFT is not constrained to 2n
number of data points. Therefore, DFT analyses were per-
formed without having to truncate the data segments or
resort to zero padding. Frequency data were expressed as
MPF.
Statistical Analyses
Before the statistical analyses, each subject’s data were
normalized to their highest recorded value (percentage of
MVC or PT) for EMG amplitude, MMG amplitude, EMG
MPF, and MMG MPF. Polynomial regression and sepa-
rate 1-way repeated-measures analyses of variance (AN-
OVAs) were used to analyze the EMG amplitude, MMG
amplitude, EMG MPF, and MMG MPF data for the iso-
metric and isokinetic muscle actions (SPSS version 11.5
for Windows software package, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL).
Follow-up analyses for the ANOVAs included Tukey post
hoc comparisons. An a # 0.05 was considered statistically
significant for all comparisons. Post hoc effect size and
statistical power were calculated (Table 1).
RESULTS
Isometric and Isokinetic EMG Amplitude
Figure 3 shows the mean 6 SEM normalized EMG am-
plitude values at 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% of MVC and
PT for the isometric and isokinetic muscle actions. For
the isometric muscle actions, the EMG amplitude vs. the
percentage of MVC relationship was quadratic (R2 5
0.999), and EMG amplitude increased significantly for
each percentage of MVC (100 . 80 . 60 . 40 . 20%).
For the isokinetic muscle actions, the EMG amplitude vs.
percentage of PT relationship was linear (r2 5 0.988), and
EMG amplitude increased significantly for each percent-
age of PT, except between 40 and 60% PT (100 . 80 .
60 and 40 . 20%).
Isometric and Isokinetic EMG MPF
Figure 4 includes the mean 6 SEM normalized EMG
MPF values at 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% MVC and PT for
 MMG AND EMG RESPONSES 415

TABLE 1. Normalized isometric and isokinetic electromyographic (EMG) and mechanomyographic (MMG) amplitude and mean
power frequency (MPF) (n 5 7).
Maximal voluntary contraction or peak torque
20% 40% 60% 80% 100% p value Effect size Power
Isometric
EMG amplitude 0.121 6 0.005 0.266 6 0.026 0.468 6 0.037 0.708 6 0.038 0.988 6 0.012 ,0.05 0.979 1.000
EMG MPF 0.888 6 0.023 0.920 6 0.018 .927 6 0.012 0.947 6 0.016 0.905 6 0.024 .0.05 0.187 0.362
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MMG amplitude 0.155 6 0.022 0.318 6 0.038 0.631 6 0.093 0.795 6 0.101 0.772 6 0.083 ,0.05 0.713 1.000
MMG MPF 0.606 6 0.036 0.646 6 0.034 0.806 6 0.040 0.907 6 0.031 0.932 6 0.028 ,0.05 0.835 1.000
Isokinetic
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EMG amplitude 0.209 6 0.022 0.476 6 0.059 0.601 6 0.35 0.771 6 0.040 0.986 6 0.010 ,0.05 0.930 1.000
EMG MPF 0.928 6 0.016 0.883 6 0.011 0.890 6 0.023 0.896 6 0.038 0.855 6 0.016 .0.05 0.206 0.406
MMG amplitude 0.234 6 0.042 0.424 6 0.088 0.519 6 0.45 0.580 6 0.077 0.890 6 0.056 ,0.05 0.677 1.000
MMG MPF 0.753 6 0.068 0.822 6 0.052 0.849 6 0.044 0.916 6 0.037 0.827 6 0.037 .0.05 0.223 0.403

the isometric and isokinetic muscle actions. There was no
significant relationship for EMG MPF vs. percentage of
MVC, and there were no significant differences in EMG
MPF among the percentage of MVC levels for the iso-
metric muscle actions. For the isokinetic muscle actions,
the EMG MPF vs. percentage of PT relationship was cu-
bic (R2 5 0.999), but there were no significant differences
in EMG MPF among the percentage of PT levels.
Isometric and Isokinetic MMG Amplitude
For the isometric and isokinetic muscle actions (Figure
5), the MMG amplitude vs. percentage of MVC or PT re-
lationships were linear (r2 5 0.902 and 0.933, respective-
ly). Figure 5 shows the mean 6 SEM normalized MMG
amplitude values at 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% MVC and
PT for the isometric and isokinetic muscle actions. For
the isometric muscle actions, MMG amplitude values at
60, 80, and 100% MVC were significantly greater than
those at 20 and 40% MVC but not significantly different
from each other. In addition, there was no significant dif-
ference in MMG amplitude between 20 and 40% MVC.
For the isokinetic muscle actions, MMG amplitude was
significantly greater at 100% PT than at 20, 40, 60, and
80% PT. The MMG amplitude values at 60 and 80% PT
were also significantly greater than at 20% PT.
Isometric and Isokinetic MMG MPF
For the isometric muscle actions, the MMG MPF vs. per-
centage of MVC relationship was linear (Figure 6, r2 5
0.946), but for the isokinetic muscle actions, there was no
significant relationship between MMG MPF and percent-
age of PT. Figure 6 includes the mean 6 SEM normalized
MMG MPF values at 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% MVC and
PT for the isometric and isokinetic muscle actions. For
the isometric muscle actions, MMG MPF values at 60, 80,
and 100% MVC were significantly greater than at 20 and
40% MVC, whereas 100% MVC was also greater than
60% MVC. For the isokinetic muscle actions, there were
no significant differences in MMG MPF among the per-
centage of PT levels.
DISCUSSION
The results of this study indicated that there were differ-
ences between the isometric and isokinetic muscle actions
for the torque-related patterns of EMG and MMG ampli-
tude and MPF. These patterns may reflect differences in
the motor control strategies (motor unit recruitment and
firing rates) that modulate force production during iso-
metric and dynamic muscle actions (24, 26, 39, 44–48).
Recent studies have found muscle-specific differences in
the contributions of motor unit recruitment and firing
rate to isometric and dynamic force production of the bi-
ceps brachii (24, 26, 44–48), brachioradialis (47, 48), bra-
chialis (48), pronator teres (48), and flexor carpi radialis
muscles (39). No studies, however, have used simulta-
neous measurements of EMG and MMG responses to
characterize the motor control strategies of the vastus
medialis during incremental isometric and dynamic leg
extension muscle actions.
Typically, isometric muscle actions are characterized
by linear or curvilinear increases in EMG amplitude with
torque (or force) due to concurrent increases in motor unit
recruitment and firing rates to approximately 50–80%
MVC and then increases in firing rates only between ap-
proximately 50–80% and 100% MVC (12, 13, 31, 38). In
general, EMG vs. isometric torque relationships from
muscles with a mixed fiber-type distribution tend to be
curvilinear, whereas those from muscles with a uniform
fiber-type distribution tend to be linear (50). The vastus
medialis muscle has a mixed fiber-type distribution (18);
therefore, the curvilinear increase in EMG amplitude
with isometric torque found in the present study (Figure
3) may have been due to progressive recruitment of large-
diameter fast twitch muscle fibers with greater action po-
tential amplitudes (50).
It has also been suggested that a curvilinear EMG am-
plitude vs. isometric torque relationship may be due to
increases in the firing rates of motor units with fused
twitches (50). Theoretically, increases in the firing rates
of these motor units (with fused twitches) could cause an
increase in EMG amplitude without a corresponding in-
crease in torque production and, therefore, result in a cur-
vilinear EMG amplitude vs. isometric torque relationship
(50).
Although there is conflicting evidence (14), it has been
suggested that fast twitch motor units with higher re-
cruitment thresholds tend to have higher firing rates
than slow twitch motor units with lower recruitment
thresholds (50). Therefore, a torque-related increase in
recruitment should result in an increase in the average
motor unit firing rate. Although it has not been directly
verified (2), it has been suggested that the MPF of the
MMG signal may qualitatively reflect the global firing
rate of the unfused activated motor units (40). Thus, the
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FIGURE 3. The relationships and mean 6 SEM normalized
electromyographic (EMG) amplitude for the isometric (100 .
80 . 60 . 40 . 20% maximal voluntary contraction [MVC], p
, 0.05) and isokinetic (100 . 80 . 60 and 40 . 20% peak
torque [PT], p , 0.05) muscle actions. For the isometric mus-
cle actions, the EMG amplitude vs. percentage of MVC rela-
tionship was quadratic (R2 5 0.999), whereas for the isokinetic
muscle actions, the EMG amplitude vs. percentage of PT rela-
tionship was linear (r2 5 0.988).
increase in MMG MPF with isometric torque in the pres-
ent study (Figure 6) may have resulted from an increase
in the muscles global firing rate associated with the re-
cruitment of higher-threshold fast twitch motor units, as
well as an increase in the firing rates of motor units that
were already recruited.
During submaximal isometric muscle actions, MMG
amplitude reflects the summation of the twitch oscilla-
tions of the activated motor units (4, 34). The increase in
MMG amplitude to 80% MVC found in the present study
(Figure 5) was consistent with isometric torque-related
increases in motor unit recruitment and firing rates (4,
34). Orizio et al. (32) suggested that the plateau in MMG
amplitude at high levels of force may signal the end of
motor unit recruitment and an increase in the global fir-
ing rate of the active motor units. Thus, the plateau in
MMG amplitude between 80 and 100% MVC in the pre-
sent study (Figure 5) was consistent with previous studies
(11, 12, 31) and may have been due to high motor unit
firing rates that caused fusion of motor unit twitches and
limited the oscillations of some muscle fibers (31). It has
FIGURE 4. The relationships and mean 6 SEM normalized
electromyographic (EMG) mean power frequency (MPF) for the
isometric (100 5 80 5 60 5 40 5 20% maximal voluntary con-
traction [MVC], p . 0.05) and isokinetic (100 5 80 5 60 5 40
5 20% peak torque [PT], p . 0.05) muscle actions. For the iso-
metric muscle actions, there was no significant relationship for
EMG MPF vs. percentage of MVC (r2 5 0.180). For the isoki-
netic muscle actions, the EMG MPF vs. percentage of PT rela-
tionship was cubic (R2 5 0.999).
also been suggested, however, that a plateau in the MMG
amplitude vs. torque relationship may result from high
levels of muscle stiffness (31) or intramuscular fluid pres-
sure (37).
It has been suggested that during isometric muscle
actions, the frequency content of the EMG signal reflects
the average action potential conduction velocity (6, 20),
which is related to the number and type of the activated
motor units (19). Theoretically, EMG MPF should in-
crease with torque due to the progressive recruitment of
fast twitch motor units with higher action potential con-
duction velocities (6). Previous studies, however, have re-
ported increases (15, 16, 20), no change (23), or decreases
(23) in EMG center frequencies with isometric force for
the quadriceps femoris muscles. The differences between
studies (15, 16, 20, 23) for the EMG MPF vs. isometric
force relationship may be due to the specific muscles ex-
amined, electrode types and configurations, sex differenc-
es, and/or skinfold thicknesses (20). In the present study,
there was no change in EMG MPF across percentage of
MVC values (Figure 4). Further research is needed to

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FIGURE 5. The relationships and mean 6 SEM normalized
mechanomyographic (MMG) amplitude for the isometric (100,
80, and 60 . 40, 20% maximal voluntary contraction [MVC], p
, 0.05) and isokinetic (100 . 80, 60, 40, and 20, and 80, 60 .
20% peak torque [PT], p , 0.05) muscle actions. For the iso-
metric and isokinetic muscle actions, the MMG amplitude vs.
percentage of MVC or PT relationships were linear (r2 5 0.902
and 0.933, respectively).
identify muscle-specific differences in the isometric
torque-related pattern for EMG MPF and the physiologic
mechanism underlying the relationship.
For the isokinetic muscle actions, the amplitude of the
EMG signal increased linearly from 20 to 100% PT (Fig-
ure 3). These findings were consistent with previous stud-
ies that have also reported torque-related increases in
EMG amplitude from the quadriceps femoris muscles
during dynamic muscle actions (22, 50). There were, how-
ever, no torque-related changes in EMG MPF for the iso-
metric or isokinetic muscle actions (Figure 4). This simi-
larity in patterns suggests that the EMG MPF responses
to isometric and isokinetic muscle actions may be medi-
ated by the same physiologic mechanism. A recent inves-
tigation, however, reported a dissociation between action
potential conduction velocity and the median frequency of
the EMG signal during dynamic muscle actions (30).
Thus, additional research is needed to compare the EMG
MPF responses to various modes of muscle actions and to
determine if there are mode-specific mechanisms under-
lying the patterns of responses.
In the present study, MMG amplitude increased lin-
MMG AND EMG RESPONSES 417
FIGURE 6. The relationships and mean 6 SEM normalized
mechanomyographic (MMG) mean power frequency (MPF) for
the isometric (100, 80, and 60 . 40, 20 and 100 . 60% maxi-
mal voluntary contraction [MVC], p , 0.05) and isokinetic (100
5 80 5 60 5 40 5 20% peak torque [PT], p . 0.05) muscle
actions. For the isometric muscle actions, the MMG MPF vs.
percentage of MVC relationship was linear (r2 5 0.946), but for
the isokinetic muscle actions, there was no significant relation-
ship between MMG MPF and percentage of PT (r2 5 0.426).
early to 100% PT during the isokinetic muscle actions
(Figure 5). These findings are unique, because no previ-
ous studies have examined the relationships for MMG
amplitude from the muscles of the quadriceps femoris vs.
submaximal to maximal torque during dynamic muscle
actions of the leg extensors. Previous studies, however,
have reported linear increases in MMG amplitude from
the biceps brachii (9, 36) and brachioradialis muscles (36)
with increases in concentric forearm flexion torque. In
contrast, Madeleine et al. (27) reported no significant (p
. 0.05) change in MMG amplitude from the first dorsal
interosseous muscle across concentric torque values that
ranged from 0–100% PT. For the isometric muscle actions
in the present study, MMG amplitude plateaued at 80%
MVC. The differences in the patterns of response for the
isokinetic vs. isometric muscle actions may have been due
to differences in muscle stiffness and/or intramuscular
fluid pressure. In the present study, isokinetic PT was
approximately 90% of the isometric MVC; therefore, it is
likely that the isokinetic muscle actions were character-
 418 COBURN, HOUSH, CRAMER ET AL.
ized by less muscle stiffness and intramuscular fluid pres-
sure than the isometric muscle actions.
It is also possible that the differences in the MMG
amplitude vs. torque relationships for the isokinetic and
isometric muscle actions reflected the motor control strat-
egies used to modulate torque production. For example, a
number of studies have found lower motor unit recruit-
ment thresholds and/or greater muscle activation for the
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biceps brachii (24, 26, 44–48), brachioradialis (47, 48),
brachialis (48), pronator teres (48), and flexor carpi ra-
dialis muscles (39) during concentric than isometric mus-
CX1AWnYQp/IlQrHD3i3D0OdRyi7TvSFl4Cf3VC4/OAVpDDa8K2+Ya6H515kE= on 10/22/2023
cle actions. Kossev and Christova (24) reported that dur-
ing concentric muscle actions of the biceps brachii, gra-
dations in muscle force were influenced more by motor
unit recruitment than alterations in firing rate and that,
unlike isometric muscle actions (24), ‘‘the recruitment of
new units takes place throughout the whole range of mus-
cle forces. . . .’’ It has been suggested that a plateau in
MMG amplitude, often observed for incremental isomet-
ric muscle actions at approximately 80% MVC, represents
the end of motor unit recruitment (32). The increase in
MMG amplitude to 100% PT in the present study (Figure
5) for the concentric isokinetic muscle actions supports
the conclusions of Kossev and Christova (24) and suggests
that, like the biceps brachii, motor unit recruitment in
the vastus medialis during dynamic muscle actions may
continue throughout the whole range of torque production
(24, 32).
The patterns of MMG MPF vs. torque for the isoki-
netic and isometric muscle actions (Figure 6) found in the
present study may also reflect the differences in motor
control strategies. For the isometric muscle actions, the
increase in MMG MPF with torque may have reflected
increases in the muscle’s global motor unit firing rate as-
sociated with the progressive recruitment of higher-
threshold fast twitch motor units and increases in the
firing rates of already activated motor units (40). For the
isokinetic muscle actions, however, there was no change
(p . 0.05) in MMG MPF from 20 to 100% PT. These find-
ings suggested that torque may have been modulated by
motor unit recruitment, with little or no change in firing
rate. Previous studies have also reported stable motor
unit firing rates with changes in concentric force produc-
tion for the tibialis anterior (21), biceps brachii (24), and
first dorsal interosseus muscles (25).
In summary, the present study found differences in
the torque-related changes for EMG amplitude, MMG
amplitude, and MMG MPF between the isometric and iso-
kinetic muscle actions. For the isometric muscle actions,
there was a plateau in MMG amplitude at 80% MVC. The
plateau in MMG amplitude may have reflected the end
of the recruitment of new motor units and a sole reliance
on increased motor unit firing rate to increase torque (32).
High motor unit firing rates above 80% MVC may have
resulted in the fusion of motor unit twitches, which lim-
ited muscle fiber oscillations and caused the plateau and
decrease in MMG amplitude (31). There was also a dis-
proportionate increase in EMG amplitude at the highest
torque levels during the isometric muscle actions. An in-
crease in EMG amplitude without a commensurate in-
crease in torque could occur due to increases in the firing
rates of motor units with fused twitches (50). It has been
suggested that the MMG MPF may reflect the global fir-
ing rate of the unfused activated motor units (40). In the
present study, the increase in MMG MPF from 20 to
100% MVC suggested an increase in motor unit firing
rate due to the progressive recruitment of higher thresh-
old motor units and increases in the firing rates of al-
ready activated motor units. An examination of the pat-
terns of the EMG and MMG amplitude and MMG MPF
responses in the present study supported these findings
and suggested that the isometric muscle actions were
graded through a combination of motor unit recruitment
and firing rate up to 80% MVC, with increases in motor
unit firing rate alone increasing torque above this level.
For the isokinetic muscle actions in the present study,
EMG and MMG amplitude increased to 100% PT, which
suggested that recruitment of new motor units occurred
throughout the entire range of isokinetic torque produc-
tion. There were no changes in EMG or MMG MPF values
from 20 to 100% PT. The lack of change in MMG MPF
suggested there was no change in the global motor unit
firing rate across torque levels for the isokinetic muscle
actions (34). These results suggested that the isokinetic
muscle actions were modulated through increased motor
unit recruitment, with little or no change in motor unit
firing rate. Collectively, the EMG and MMG signals pro-
vided evidence that the motor control strategies used by
the vastus medialis to modulate torque production differ
for isometric and isokinetic muscle actions.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The results of this investigation suggest there are differ-
ences in the motor control strategies used by the vastus
medialis to modulate torque for the isometric and concen-
tric isokinetic muscle actions. A better understanding of
how torque is modulated for different force and movement
tasks may enable practitioners to better design training
programs to achieve desired goals. Mechanomyography
provides the researcher with a noninvasive tool for mon-
itoring muscle function. With additional examination and
validation, the concurrent use of MMG and EMG may
allow the coach, trainer, or therapist to monitor training-
induced changes in muscle function and, potentially, to
prevent overtraining.
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Address correspondence to Dr. Jared W. Coburn,
jcoburn@unlserve.unl.edu.