ENGG 409: Engineering Mechanics

Module 2: Equivalent Force Systems

Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Singer, F. L. (n.d.). Engineering Mechanics 2nd Ed. Harper & Row, New York, Evanston & London.
Hibbeler, H. I. (2013). Engineering Mechanics: Statics 13th Edition Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Introduction:
An entity as basic as a force can be represented and therefore analyzed using its different
equivalent configurations. This equivalence provides a simpler way of analysis which would
not have been possible otherwise. A thorough understanding of equivalent systems of forces is
indispensable.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this course, the students should be able to:
ILO 1: differentiate the attributes of forces and force derivatives
ILO 2: calculate the various effects and uses of forces

Topic Outcomes:
This module aims that the students will be able to:
• Numerically and graphically represent forces in a system
• Correctly use forces and their corresponding equivalents in analysis of force systems

Resolution of a Force into Components

• A single force F acting on a particle may be replaced by
two or more forces that, together, have the same effect
on the particle. These forces are called components of
the original force F, and the process of substituting them
for F is called resolving the force F into components.
• Each force F can be resolved into an infinite number of
possible sets of components.
• Sets of two components P and Q are the most important
as far as practical application are concerned. The
number of ways in which a given force F may be
resolved into two components is unlimited.

Two cases in resolving the force F into components:

• One of the two components, P, is known. We obtain the second
component, Q, by applying the triangle rule and joining the tip of P to the
tip of F. We can determine the magnitude and direction of Q graphically
or by trigonometry. Once we have determined Q, both components P and
Q should be applied at A.
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• The line of action of each component is known. We

obtain the magnitude and sense of the components by
applying the parallelogram law and drawing lines
through the tip of F that are parallel to the given line of
action. This process leads to two well-defined
components, P and Q, which can be determined
graphically or computed trigonometrically by applying
the law of sines.

Many other cases can be encountered; for example, the direction of one component may be
known, while the magnitude of the other component is to be as small as possible. In all cases
the appropriate triangle or parallelogram which satisfies the given conditions is drawn.

Awareness for Learning

Queries to help ensure clarity in your understanding:
why can components replace the original force?
what is the advantage of using mutually perpendicular component forces instead of the
original force?

Adding Force by Components

Adding forces using their components, especially

rectangular components. This method is often the most
convenient way to add forces and in practice, is the most
common approach.

Rectangular Components of a Force: Unit Vectors

• It is useful to resolve a force into two components
that are perpendicular to each other.
• A force F resolved into a component Fx along the x
axis and a component Fy along the y axis. The
parallelogram drawn to obtain the two components is a rectangle, and Fx and Fy are
called rectangular components.
• In determining the rectangular components of a force, you should think of the
construction lines shown in figure as being parallel to the x and y axes, rather than
perpendicular to these axes.

Force in Terms of Unit Vectors

• To simplify working with rectangular components, two

vectors of unit magnitude, directed respectively along
the positive x and y axes can be used. These vectors are
called unit vectors and are denoted by i and j,
respectively.
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• Note that we can obtain the rectangular components Fx and Fy of a force F by multiplying
respectively the unit vectors i and j by appropriate scalars. We have
F Fi
x= x F Fj
y= y F = Fi + Fj
x y

• The scalars Fx and Fy are called the scalar components of the force F, whereas the actual
component forces Fx and Fy should be referred to as the vector components of F. The
vector as well as the scalar components of F may be referred as simply components of
F.
• Note that the scalar component Fx is positive when the vector component Fx has the same
sense as the unit vector i (i.e., the same sense as the positive x axis) and is negative
when Fx has the opposite sense. A similar conclusion holds for the sign of the scalar
component Fy.

Scalar Components

• Denoting by F the magnitude of the force F and by θ the angle between F and the x
axis, which is measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis (previous figure),
the scalar components of F may be expressed as
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
• These relations hold for any value of the angle θ from 0° to 360°, and they define the
signs as well as the absolute values of the scalar components Fx and Fy.
Direction of a Force

When a force F is defined by its rectangular components FX and FY, the angle θ defining its
direction can be found from
tan θ = Fy / Fx

The magnitude F of the force can be obtained by applying the Pythagorean Theorem,

F2 = Fx2 + Fy2

Or by using, FX = F cos θ FY = F sin θ

Addition of forces by summing x and y components

• When adding three or more forces, we cannot obtain any practical trigonometric
solution from the force polygon that defines the resultant of the forces.
• In this case, the best approach is to obtain an analytic solution of the problem by
resolving each force into two rectangular components.
• For example, there are three forces P, Q, and S acting on particle. Their resultant R is
defined by the relation R = P + Q + S.
• Resolving each force into its rectangular components:
Rxi + Ryj = Pxi + Pyj + Qxi + Qyj + Sxi + Syj
= (Px + Qx +Sx)i + (Py + Qy + Sy)j
• From this equation, we can say that
Rx = Px + Qx + Sx Ry = Py + Qy + Sy
or Rx = Fx Ry = Fy
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• As conclusion, when several forces are acting on a particle, we obtain the scalar
components Rx and Ry of the resultant R by adding algebraically the corresponding
scalar components of the given forces.

R2 = ∑Rx2 + ∑Ry2.

Resultant of Forces
• Experimental evidence shows that two forces P and Q acting on a particle A can be
replace by a single force R that has the same effect on the particle. This force is called
the resultant of the forces P and Q.

• R can be obtained by constructing a parallelogram, using P and Q as two adjacent sides.

• The diagonal that passes through A represents the resultant.
• This method for finding the resultant is known as the parallelogram law for the addition
of two forces. This law is based on experimental evidence; it cannot be proved or
derived mathematically.

Resultant of Concurrent Forces

Consider a particle A acted upon by several coplanar
forces, i.e., by several forces contained in the same
plane. Since the forces considered here all pass through
A, they are also said to be concurrent. The vectors
representing the forces acting on A may be added by the
polygon rule (Fig. b). Since the use of the polygon rule
is equivalent to the repeated application of the
parallelogram law, the vector R thus obtained
represents the resultant of the given concurrent forces, i.e., the single force which has the same
effect on the particle A as the given forces. As indicated above, the order in which the vectors
P, Q, and S representing the given forces are added together is immaterial.
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Resultant of Parallel Forces

• A parallel force system is one in which the action lines
of all the forces are parallel. The resultant of such a
system is determined when it is known in magnitude,
direction, and position.
• The difference between a concurrent and a parallel force
system is that in the former the position of the resultant
is known by inspection whereas in the latter it is not.
• Consider the system of forces P, Q, and S shown in
figure. Select reference axes as shown, with the Y axis
parallel to the forces so that none of the forces have an
X component and the Y component of each force is its
own magnitude.
• X = 0 and Y = F where F is the algebraic summation of the forces. Therefore, R = F.
• To determine the position of R, select some convenient point O as a moment center and
employ the principle that the moment of a resultant equals the moment sum of its parts:
R · d = Mo

Awareness for Learning

While memorizing the formula for the resultant of forces serves a purpose, it’s worth noting
that it is not a sort of magic formula. It is simply vector addition (F2 = X2 + Y2), hence the
formula for the resultant is R2 = ∑Rx2 + ∑Ry2. For space (three-dimensional) forces, this will
be R2 = ∑Rx2 + ∑Ry2 + ∑Rz2.
Query: if a resultant is computed from 5 forces, is it correct to call the 5 forces components?

Sample Problem 1. The link shown is subjected to two forces F1 and F2. Determine the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

First, we resolve each force into its x and y components,

then we sum these components algebraically.
∑Fx = 0; 600 cos 30° N - 400 sin 45° N = 0
Fx = 236.8 N
∑Fy = 0; 600 sin 30° N + 400 cos 45° N = 0
Fy = 582.8 N
The resultant force, has a magnitude of
R2 = (236.8 N)2 + (582.8 N)2
R = 629 N Ans.
From the vector addition,
θ = tan-1 (582.8 N / 236.8 N) = 67.9° Ans.
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Sample Problem 2. Two tugboats are pulling a

barge. If the resultant of the forces exerted by the
tugboats is a 5-kN force directed along the axis of
the barge, determine (a) the tension in each of the
ropes, given that α = 45°, (b) the value of for which
the tension in rope 2 is minimum. (Ans. a. T1 = 3.7
kN, T2 = 2.6 kN; b. 60°)

Solution

a. Tension for α = 45°. Graphical Solution. The parallelogram law is

used; the diagonal (resultant) is known to be equal to 5000 lb and to
be directed to the right. The sides are drawn parallel to the ropes. If
the drawing is done to scale, we measure

T1 = 3700 lb, T2 = 2600 lb

Trigonometric Solution. The triangle rule can be used. We note that the triangle shown
represents half of the parallelogram shown above. Using the law of sines, we write

T1 / sin 45° = T2 / sin 30° = 5000 lb / sin 105°

Simplifying the equation, we obtain

T1 = 3660 lb T2 = 2590 lb

b. Value of a for Minimum T2. To determine the value of a

for which the tension in rope 2 is minimum, the triangle
rule is again used. In the sketch shown, line 1-1’ is the
known direction of T1. Several possible directions of T2 are
shown by the lines 2-2’. We note that the minimum value
of T2 occurs when T1 and T2 are perpendicular. The
minimum value of T2 is

T2 = (5000 lb) sin 30° = 2500 lb

Corresponding values of T1 and α are

T1 = (5000 lb) cos 30° = 4330 lb
α = 90° - 30° α = 60°
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Exercise Problems:

1) A steel tank is to be positioned in an excavation.

Knowing that α = 20°, determine by trigonometry
(a) the required magnitude of the force P if the
resultant R of the two forces applied at A is to be
vertical, (b) the corresponding magnitude of R.
(Ans. P = 392#, R = 346#)

2) Two forces are applied as shown to a hook. Determine

graphically the magnitude and direction of their resultant
using (a) the parallelogram law, (b) the triangle rule. (Ans.
R= 1400 N, 48° N of E)

3) Two structural members B and C are bolted to bracket

A. Knowing that both members are in tension and that P
= 10 kN and Q = 15 kN, determine graphically the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force exerted on
the bracket using (a) the parallelogram law, (b) the
triangle rule. (Ans. R = 20 kN, 20° S of W)

4) A stake is being pulled out of the ground by means of

two ropes as shown. Knowing that ∝ =30°, determine by
trigonometry (a) the magnitude of the force P so that the
resultant force exerted on the stake is vertical, (b) the
corresponding magnitude of the resultant. (Ans. a. P =
101.43 N, b. R = 196.60 N)

5) Two forces P and Q are applied to the lid of a storage

bin as shown. Knowing that P = 48 N and Q = 60 N,
determine by trigonometry the magnitude and direction
of the resultant of the two forces. (Ans. R = 104.37 N,
86.71° N of W)
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Moment of a Force

• The moment of a force about an axis or line is the measure of its ability to produce
turning or twisting about the axis.
• The magnitude of the moment of a force about an axis which is perpendicular to a plane
containing the line of action of the force is defined as the
product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the
axis to the line of action of the force (M = Fd). The distance d
is frequently called the moment arm of the force.
• The axis of moments, which is perpendicular to the plane of
forces, appears as a point commonly called the center of
moments. In the figure, point O is the center of moments.
• The center of moments is really the intersection of the axis of
moments with the plane of the forces.
• The unit of moment is correspondingly the product of the dimensional units of force
and distance (N-m or lb-ft).

The Principle of Moments

Varignon’s Theorem. The moment of a
force is equivalent to the sum of the
moments of its components.

Application: In some cases, it is more

convenient to determine the moment of a
force from the sum of the moments of its
components rather than from the force
itself. For example, suppose a force F, x
making an angle with the X axis, passes
through a point A having the coordinates (x,
y).

In this case it is convenient to calculate the moment arm d. By resolving the force into its
components Fx and Fy at A, the moment arm of Fx about O is the coordinate distance y, and
the moment arm of Fy about O is the coordinate distance x. Then the moment of F is
expressed by
MO = F · d = Fx · y – Fy · x
From which the value of the moment arm d may be computed if desired.

To solve for the intercepts of the line of action of F with X and Y axes, replace F by its
components at B and C in figure. Then, we have
MO = FX · iY
MO = FY · iX

Note that Fy at B and Fx at C both have zero moment about O since they both pass through
O and therefore have zero moment arms.
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Couples
• Sometimes the resultant of a force system will be zero in magnitude and yet have a
resultant moment sum.
• The special case in which the resultant has zero
magnitude but does have a moment is said to consist
of a couple.
• Couple is made up of two equal, parallel, oppositely
directed forces.
• The perpendicular distance between the action lines
of the forces is called the moment arm of the
couple.
• Their moment sum is constant and independent of
the moment center. This is proved by selecting
moment centers at A and B (see figure) to give respectively

F · d = F (d + a) – F · a

• To conclude, the moment of a couple C is equal to the product of one of the forces
composing the couple multiplied by the perpendicular distance between their action
lines.
(C = F · d)

• Since the only effect of a couple is to produce a moment that is independent of the
moment center, the effect of a couple is unchanged if
a. The couple is rotated through any angle in its plane
b. The couple is shifted to any other position in its plane
c. The couple is shifted to a parallel plane
• For the somewhat special case in which the given force system is composed entirely of
couples in the same or parallel planes, the resultant consists of another couple equal to
the algebraic summation of the moment sum of the original couples.

Resolution of a force into a force and a couple

• It sometimes becomes necessary to replace force acting at a given point by equal force
acting through some other point. This introduces a couple.
• For example, in figure a, let a known force F be acting through A. By adding two
collinear forces F’ and F” equal and parallel to F at B, the effect of F is unchanged. The
forces F and F” form a couple having the moment arm d. Since the moment of a couple
is independent of its moment center, it is convenient to represent this couple by the
curved vector C = Fd in figure b. F and F” having been disposed of, there remains only
F’ which acts at B. The original force at A has therefore been replaced by equal force
acting at B plus a couple C having the magnitude Fd.
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Resolution of a Force into a Force and a Couple

Always remember:

• Adding two or more couples. This results in a new couple, the moment of which is
obtained by adding vectorially the moments of the given couples.
• Replacing a force with an equivalent force-couple system at a specified point. The
force of a force-couple system is equal to the original force, whereas the required couple
vector is equal to the moment of the original force about the given point. In addition, it
is important to note that the force and the couple vector are perpendicular to each other.
Conversely, it follows that a force-couple system can be reduced to a single force only
if the force and couple vector are mutually perpendicular (see the next paragraph).
• Replacing a force-couple system (with F perpendicular to M) with a single
equivalent force. The requirement that F and M be mutually perpendicular is satisfied
in all two-dimensional problems. The single equivalent force is equal to F and is applied
in such a way that its moment about the original point of application is equal to M.

Sample Problem. Four tugboats are bringing

an ocean liner to its pier. Each tugboat exerts a
5000# force in the direction shown. Determine
(a) the equivalent force couple system at the
foremast O, (b) the point on the hull where a
single, more powerful tugboat should push to
produce the same effect as the original four
tugboats.

Solution.
a. Force-Couple System at O. Each of the given forces is resolved into components. The
force-couple system at O equivalent to their resultant force R and a couple, the moment of
which is equal to MO as follows:

R2 = [5000 x (cos 60° + 3/5 + 0 + cos 45°)]2 + [5000 x (-sin 60° - 4/5 -1 + sin 45°)]2
R2 = (9035.53)2 + (-9794.59)2, R = 13325.72 kips

MO = 5000 x (50’ x cos 60° + 70’ x 3/5 + 0 -70 x cos 45°) + 5000 x (-90’ x sin 60° + 100’ x
4/5 + 400’ x 1 -300’ x sin 45°) = 1037.14 kip-ft
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b. Single Tugboat. The force exerted by a single tugboat

must be equal to R, and its point of application A must be
such that the moment of R about O is equal to MO:

MO = Rx · 70’ + Ry · x
1037.14 kip-ft = 9035.53 · 70’ + 9794.59 x
x = 41.31 ft

Exercise Problems:

1) In figure, assuming clockwise moments as positive,

compute the moment of a force F = 450 lb and of force P =
361 lb about points A, B, C, and D.
(Ans. F: MA = 1350 lb-ft CCW, MB = 2160 lb-ft CW, Mc =
1350 lb-ft CW, MD = 810 lb-ft CW; P: MA = 1.53 x 10-3 lb-ft
CW or 0, MB = 300 lb-ft CCW, Mc = 1201.48 lb-ft CCW, MD
= 1201.48 lb-ft CW)

2) Locate the amount and position of

the resultant of the loads acting on the
Fink truss shown in figure.
(Ans. R = 3400 lb downward, d = 12.
06 ft to the right of A)

3) Determine the resultant of the four parallel forces

acting on the rocker arm. (Ans. R = 50 lb downward, d
= 4 ft to the right of O)

4) Replace the couple and force shown by an equivalent

single force applied to the lever. Determine the distance
from the shaft to the point of application of this equivalent
force. (Ans. F = 400 N downward, distance from shaft to pt.
of application = 420 mm)
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5) Two 80-N forces are applied as shown to the

corners B and D of a rectangular plate. (a)
Determine the moment of the couple formed by the
two forces by resolving each force into horizontal
and vertical components and adding the moments
of the two resulting couples. (b) Use the result
obtained to determine the perpendicular distance
between lines BE and DF. (Ans. a. 7.32 Nm CCW,
b. 91.5 mm)

6) The three-step pulley shown in figure is subjected to the

given couples. Compute the value of the resultant couple. Also,
determine the forces acting at the rim of the middle pulley that
are required to balance the given system. (Ans. C = 760 lb-in
CCW, F = 63.33 lb CCW)

7) A worker tries to move a rock by applying

a 360-N force to a steel bar as shown. If two
workers attempt to move the same rock by
applying a force at A and a parallel force at
C, determine these two forces so that they
will be equivalent to the single 360-N force
shown in the figure. (Ans. A = 168 N 50° S
of W, C = 192 N 50° S of W)

8) Compute the resultant of the three forces

shown in figure. Locate its intersection with X
and Y axes. (Ans. R = 957.74 lb, 32.17° S of E,
ix = 2.20 ft right of O, iy = 1.38 ft above O)
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9) Determine completely the resultant of the forces acting on

the step pulley shown in figure. (Ans. F = 1254.89 lb, 44.21°
S of E)

10) A 4.80-m-long beam is subjected to the

forces shown. Reduce the given system of
forces to (a) an equivalent force-couple
system at A, (b) an equivalent force-couple
system at B, (c) a single force or resultant.
Note: Since the reactions at the supports are
not included in the given system of forces,
the given system will not maintain the beam
in equilibrium. (Ans. a. 1880 Nm CW, b.
1000 Nm CCW, c. 3.13 m right of A)