Facts and Opinion

Fact is a statement that can be proven true or false.

-Used in discussing the significance of something that in the case noun.

-A piece of information used as evidence or as part of a report or news article.
-is confirmed or validated to such an extent that is considered reality.

Opinion is an expression of a person’s feelings that cannot be proven.

- can be based on facts or emotions and sometimes they meant to deliberately mislead others.
- a view or judgement formed about something not necessarily based on fact or knowledge
-A belief or judgement that rests on grounds insufficient to produce a complete certainty

Logical Fallacies

Error in reasoning is also called Logical Fallacy. These fallacies are errors in content or form of the
arguments presented in a text.
Below are the common logical fallacies we can encounter in our readings, and we should be careful
to avoid when assessing and making arguments.

1. APPEAL TO AUTHORITY uses famous personalities in their fields to endorse a particular idea,
product, or even another person. The credibility of these authorities may not extend beyond their
field of expertise.
Ex. Even though an actress is highly regarded in the field of acting her popularity and celebrity status
cannot be used as basis for her credibility in endorsing a beauty product. In similar way, a
cardiologist who does not have any experience in eye ailments cannot be asked to speak about a
topic in a conference.

2. BANDWAGON assumes that everybody should agree with the majority. It is used to make one feel
left out because he or she is not doing what most people are doing.
Ex. Advertisers may try to convince consumers to buy their product by releasing-by-releasing survey
results showing that most people prefer their brand than their competitors. While it may be safe to
say that many consumers buy their product it doesn’t necessarily mean it is the better one and that
you should buy it, too.

3. CIRCULAR REASONING merely repeats or restates the conclusion using different words instead of
providing an evidence or reason.
Ex. It is circular reasoning when you claim that to comprehend the text, you need to understand
what the author is saying. In the example, instead of explaining how you can comprehend, it merely
restates the point by using the word understand for comprehension and text with what the author is
saying are the really the same thing.

4. EITHER-OR FALLACY presupposes that there are only two sides with no other available option.
While there are situations when two choices are sufficient, in many instances, it cannot be a mere
case of black versus white.
Ex. Just because your two friends are arguing, you should take a side. It is not logical for them to
insist that you choose one of them. It’s entirely possible that you want to be neutral, or you have
your own position.

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5. EMOTIONAL MANIPULATION or the use of emotionally toned language involves exaggeration to
make words appeal to our prejudices, to our emotions, to our senses and to our needs. It is used to
distract the audience from the truth because there is no concrete evidence to support a
generalization or conclusion.
Ex. You are using emotional manipulation when you say that we should vote for a person because
he or she is the only physically disabled person among the candidates. In this instance, instead of
presenting the qualifications and political agenda of the candidate, you try to get the sympathy of
the voters.

6. FALSE or CARELESS ANALOGY seemingly presents the important points of similarity between two
things, ideas, or situations. However, they are more different than alike.
Ex. It is considered false comparison when a product endorser states.” Just as flowers need to be
sprayed with water so do women need to be sprayed with Perfume X.” Flowers need water to live
and grow which is far from truth when compared to the situation of women.

7. FALSE or PERSONAL ATTACK focuses on the personality rather than actual actions or ideas.
Ex. It is incorrect to say, “Senator de Jesus is for the legalization of jueteng because he is gambler
and can often be seen playing card in casinos.” Instead of evaluating the arguments of the senator,
his personal behavior and habits were used against him. Instead of character assassination,
presenting concrete evidence against the arguments of a person is the better option.

8. HASTY GENERALIZATION is based on insufficient evidence. It is not fair to make a judgement

based on a small sample.
Ex. A person who was robbed by a group of teenagers cannot claim that all teenagers are involved in
criminal activities. One’s experience and even cultural orientation cannot be the basis for jumping to
conclusions.

9. NON- SEQUITOR means it does not follow. Some writers expect readers to accept their
proposition that two events that follow each other are casually related. This belief disregards other
factors that can influence the events.
Ex. Examples are fliers distributed by politicians during campaign. They highlight the fact that they
are poor, and they claim that because they have experienced poverty, they can understand the
situation of the poor and be better leaders.

10. RED HERRING is a technique used to divert the attention of the audience by including a detail
which does not support the claim.
Ex. A person who is accused of tax evasion may try to cover up this issue by claiming that he
contributes a big part of his profits to charitable institutions. While it may be true that he is
philanthropist, it is not related to his tax evasion case. Another example is when you insist that your
staff can do the job effectively because he is willing to work outside regular working hours.
Willingness to work overtime cannot be used as concrete evidence of effectiveness.

These errors can contribute to inappropriate evaluation of information so we should make a

conscious effort in checking for the validity and sufficiency of supporting points in order to avoid
committing these fallacies.