Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

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The magmatic history of the Vetas-California mining district, Santander Massif,

Eastern Cordillera, Colombia
Luis C. Mantilla Figueroa a, *, Thomas Bissig b, Víctor Valencia c, Craig J.R. Hart b
a
Universidad Industrial de Santander (UIS), AA. 678. Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia
b
Mineral Deposit Research Unit (MDRU), Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
c
School of Earth and Environmental Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Vetas-California Mining District (VCMD), located in the central part of the Santander Massif
Received 1 August 2012 (Colombian Eastern Cordillera), based on UePb dating of zircons, records the following principal tectono-
Accepted 15 March 2013 magmatic events: (1) the Grenville Orogenic event and high grade metamorphism and migmatitization
between w1240 and 957 Ma; (2) early Ordovician calcealkalic magmatism, which was synchronous with
Keywords: the CaparonensiseFamatinian Orogeny (w477 Ma); (3) middle to late Ordovician post-collisional calc
Colombia
ealkalic magmatism (w466e436 Ma); (4) late Triassic to early Jurassic magmatism between w204 and
Santander Massif
196 Ma, characterized by both S- and I-type calcealkalic intrusions and; (5) a late Miocene shallowly
Vetas-California mining district
Magmatic history
emplaced intermediate calcealkaline intrusions (10.9
0.2 and 8.4
0.2 Ma). The presence of even
UePb geochronology younger igneous rocks is possible, given the widespread magmaticehydrothermal alteration affecting all
Detrital zircons rock units in the area.
The igneous rocks from the late Triassiceearly Jurassic magmatic episodes are the volumetrically most
important igneous rocks in the study area and in the Colombian Eastern Cordillera. They can be divided
into three groups based on their field relationships, whole rock geochemistry and geochronology. These
are early leucogranites herein termed Alaskites-I (204e199 Ma), Intermediate rocks (199e198 Ma), and
late leucogranites, herein referred to as Alaskites-II (198e196 Ma). This Mesozoic magmatism is
reflecting subtle changes in the crustal stress in a setting above an oblique subduction of the Panthalassa
plate beneath Pangea.
The lower Cretaceous siliciclastic Tambor Formation has detrital zircons of the same age populations as
the metamorphic and igneous rocks present in the study area, suggesting that the provenance is related
to the erosion of these local rocks during the late Jurassic or early Cretaceous, implying a local supply of
sediments to the local depositional basins.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction In this paper we provide new information on the igneous evo-

The northeastern Cordillera of Colombia is a key area to un-
derstand the tectonic interactions between the South American,
Caribbean and North American plates, and the accreted terranes in
northwestern Colombia, in the context of multiple subduction and
orogenic events since the Proterozoic (e.g., Cediel et al., 2003;
Restrepo et al., 2011). The igneous rocks that are hosted in these
tectonic blocks are records of these plate interactions, and unrav-
elling the timing and chemistry of these igneous bodies are crucial
in interpreting the nature of such interactions.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ57 1048225503.
E-mail address: lcmantil@uis.edu.co (L.C. Mantilla Figueroa).
lution of the Santander Massif (Fig. 1), with an emphasis on the
Mesozoic intrusive evolution. In particular, we evaluate the rocks of
the Vetas-California area, which is w40 km NE of the City of
Bucaramanga in the Santander Department, Colombia. The area
hosts important porphyry and epithermal style Au and base metal
mineralization, which is to a large part, hosted in the Mesozoic
igneous rocks. Therefore, an improved understanding of the
intrusive history will potentially benefit mineral exploration in the
district.
We present nine new UePb ages on intrusive rocks and
comprehensively discuss these in the context of the previously
published age constraints (Goldsmith et al., 1971; Ward et al., 1973;
Boinet et al., 1985; Dörr et al., 1995; Royero and Clavijo, 2001;
Cordani et al., 2005; Mantilla et al., 2009, 2011, 2012; Restrepo-Pace

0895-9811/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2013.03.006
236 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249
Fig. 1. Location of Vetas-California mining district (Santander Massif, Colombian Eastern Cordillera) with respect to Chibcha terrane (Ch; in the sense of Restrepo et al., 2011) and
the triangular Maracaibo tectonic block (Maracaibo Subplate Realm, in the sense of Cediel et al., 2003), bordered by the major NNW striking Santa-Marta Bucaramanga fault and the
NE striking Boconó fault.
and Cediel, 2010; Leal-Mejía et al., 2011). In addition, we also ob-
tained ages on detrital zircon grains extracted from Cretaceous
sandstone deposited unconformably on the pre-Cretaceous igneous
and metamorphic basement and discuss the paleogeographic
implications.
2. Background and geological context
2.1. Basement evolution
The Colombian Andean Orogenic System is the result of Paleo-
zoic to the middle Miocene accretion of a series of allochthonous
terranes (e.g., Restrepo et al., 2011). Cediel et al. (2003) subdivided
the Andean region of Colombia into tectonic realms composed of
the Central Continental Subplate Realm, Maracaibo Subplate Realm,
Western Tectonic Realm and the Guajira-Falcon Composite Terrane.
The study area is located in the Maracaibo Subplate Realm, in the
sense of Cediel et al. (2003) and in the Chibcha Terrane, in the sense
of Restrepo et al. (2011; Fig. 1). The Maracaibo Subplate Realm
comprises the triangular tectonic Maracaibo block between the
major NNW striking Santa-Marta Bucaramanga fault (SMBF) and
the NE striking Boconó fault (Taboada et al., 1999, 2000). The study
area, located in the Vetas-California Mining District (VCMD, Figs. 1
and 2), coincides with the southern tip of the Maracaibo Block in a
cornerback position (Tschanz et al., 1974; Van der Hilst and Mann,
1994).
The oldest rocks in the VCMD belong to the Santander Massif
(Clavijo, 1994) and comprise at least three principal metamorphic
units. The main unit is the Bucaramanga Gneiss (Ward et al., 1973;
a.k.a. as Bucaramanga Complex: Clavijo, 1994), which consists of
high grade migmatitic paragneisses of early Proterozoic age (García
and Ríos, 1999; Ordóñez-Cardona et al., 2006). Peak metamorphism
has been dated at 1057
28 by UePb SHRIMP geochronology on
zircons, which emphasizes an association with the Grenvillian
Orogeny (Cordani et al., 2005). Pressures between 5.5 and 7.2 kbar
and temperatures from 660 to 750  C, have been estimated for the
peak metamorphism (Urueña and Zuluaga, 2011). The Bucar-
amanga Gneiss is overlain by the Silgará Formation; composed
mainly of late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic ortho-amphibolites,
schists, phyllites, metasiltstones, meta-sandstone, meta-grey-
wackes and minor amounts of marble; and is also part of the
metamorphic basement of the Santander Massif (Ward et al., 1973;
Schaefer et al., 1998; García and Ríos, 1999; Ríos et al., 2003). This
unit is not outcropping in the VCMD but present in the surrounding
areas (Ward et al., 1973). Upper amphibolite facies metamorphic
conditions (Schäfer et al., 1998) and early-middle Ordovician peak
metamorphic ages; likely related to the Caledonian or more spe-
cifically to the CaparonensiseFamatinian Orogeny; have also been
reported (Forero, 1990; Ríos et al., 2003; Ordóñez-Cardona et al.,
2006; Clavijo et al., 2008; Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010).
Meta-diorites, dated at 477 Ma by zircon UePb LA-ICPMS, have
been documented for the Angostura project area within the VCMD
 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249 237

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the Vetas-California mining district (Santander Massif, Colombia). Geology from Ward et al. (1973), Evans (1977), Polania (1980), and this study.

(Mantilla et al., 2012) and represent the youngest rocks affected by
the high grade metamorphism. These rocks are related to an
episode of mantle-derived magmatism in a subduction setting,
possibly emplaced during the CaparonensiseFamatinian Orogeny
(Mantilla et al., 2012).
2.2. Late Paleozoic to recent evolution
All metamorphic rocks in the study area are older than 471 Ma
(Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010). Non or weakly metamorphosed
igneous rocks coincident with or post-dating the Caledonian
238 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249
orogeny, have been reported in the Eastern Cordillera (Goldsmith
et al., 1971; Ward et al., 1973), and are recorded in detrital zircons
(see below). However, igneous or sedimentary rocks of ages be-
tween 470 and 210 Ma have not been mapped in the VCMD.
Magmatism here resumed in the late Triassic and early Jurassic.
Previous workers (Goldsmith et al., 1971; Ward et al., 1973) docu-
mented tonalites and granodiorites at Páramo Rico in the south-
eastern part of the study area, whereas leucogranites and quartz
monzonites are recognized in the central part of the VCMD (Fig. 2).
These felsic rocks have generally been considered to be younger
than the more mafic rock varieties. Limited KeAr geochronology on
muscovite places the leucogranites at 195
7 Ma (Goldsmith et al.,
1971; Ward et al., 1973), somewhat younger than the age reported
for intermediate composition rocks from Páramo Rico which was
dated by conventional UePb on zircons at 205e210 Ma (Dörr et al.,
1995). The latter are considered I-type granitoids by Dörr et al.
(1995) as they contain hornblende and titanite (cf., Chappell and
White, 1974).
Sedimentary rocks unconformably cover the igneous and
metamorphic rocks in the western part of the study area. Directly
overlying the basement are the sandstones and conglomeratic
sandstones of the lower Cretaceous Tambor Formation (Mendoza
and Jaramillo, 1979). The siliciclastic rocks are interpreted to have
been deposited in an alluvial environment in local depocenters
such as half-grabens (Ward et al., 1973; Mendoza and Jaramillo,
1979; Royero and Clavijo, 2001; Sarmiento, 2001), while most of
the Santander Massif remained emergent throughout the Mesozoic
(Etayo-Serna et al., 1983; Fabre, 1985, 1987; Sarmiento, 1989;
Cooper et al., 1995; Sarmiento, 2001).
Magmatism younger than mid Jurassic is scarce. Some published
Cretaceous KeAr ages for granitic rocks are probably unreliable as
these rocks have likely been affected by partial resetting or alter-
ation (e.g., Hargraves et al., 1984; Dörr et al., 1995) and these rocks
are considered part of the late Triassic to early Jurassic intrusive
episodes. However, narrow dikes and, locally, up to 1 km diameter
intrusions of porphyritic granodiorites, have been observed and are
post-Cretaceous in age because they intrude the Cretaceous sedi-
mentary rocks (Ward et al., 1973; Polania, 1980, 1983; Galvis, 1998;
Cooperación Técnica Colombo-Alemana, 1998; Felder et al., 2005).
Recently reported geochronological data (Mantilla et al., 2009,
2011; Leal-Mejía et al., 2011), indicate that these lithologies overall
span the interval between 10.9
0.2 and 8.4
0.2 Ma. Magmatic
hydrothermal alteration and mineralization overprints these late
Miocene igneous rocks indicating that gold mineralization is, con-
trary to previously published Re/Os age constraints (Mathur et al.,
2003), not Paleocene but 10.9 Ma or less in age. This Miocene
magmatism in the VCMD, temporally coincides with reactivation
and sinistral transpressional movement of the Santa-Marta
Bucaramanga fault (SMBF), likely related to the accretion of the
Chocó block, and rapid uplift of this part of the Eastern Cordillera
(Dengo and Covey, 1993; Kellogg and Vega, 1995; Taboada et al.,
1999, 2000; Villamil, 1999; Pindell and Kennan, 2001; Villagómez
et al., 2011).
2.3. Uplift and exhumation history of the Eastern Cordillera
A positive tendency (i.e., tendency of the earth surface to stay
emergent) of the Santander Massif (SM), during the continental and
marine Mesozoic sedimentation in Colombia, was proposed by
Juliver (1963b), on the basis of thinner continental siliciclastic
Upper Jurassic Girón Formation toward the massif and the presence
of lower Cretaceous evaporitic rocks surrounding it. This positive
tendency continued during the Early Cretaceous as documented by
Etayo-Serna et al. (1983) and Fabre (1985). There is no evidence that
the SM was emergent during the late Cretaceous (at least since the
Turonian-Coniacian), as is supported by the preservation of the
marine sedimentary record on some areas of the SM for this time
period. However, the positive tendency of the SM resumed in the
Tertiary (Juliver, 1963b).
On the basis of zircon and apatite fission track ages, uplift and
exhumation initiated in the southern corner of the triangular
Maracaibo block, where the study area is located, in the late
Cretaceous to Paleogene, and a major and final uplift pulse occurred
in the Plio-Pleistocene (Shagam et al., 1984; Horton et al., 2010; Nie
et al., 2010; Villagómez et al., 2011). Paleobotanical data indicate
that rapid uplift of the Colombian Eastern Cordillera took place
between 5 and 2 Ma (Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000). The collision of the
Panama-Chocó island arc with the northwestern margin of the
South American plate between 12 and 6 Ma (Dengo and Covey,
1993; Kellogg and Vega, 1995) has been related to the deforma-
tion in the Eastern Cordillera. There is a general consensus that
uplift of the Western and Central Cordilleras took place mostly in
the late CretaceousePaleocene, while the uplift of the Eastern
Cordillera mostly occurred in the PlioceneePleistocene (Gregory-
Wodzicki, 2000; Villagómez et al., 2011). At 4 Ma the Eastern
Cordillera probably had no more than 40% of its current elevation
(Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000).
3. Analytical techniques
3.1. UePb (LA) ICPMS in zircons
Heavy mineral concentrates of the <350 mm fraction were
separated using traditional techniques at ZirChron LLC at Wash-
ington State University. Zircons from the non-magnetic fraction
were mounted in epoxy and slightly ground and polished to expose
the surface and keep as much material as possible for laser ablation
analyses.
LA-ICPMS UePb analyses were conducted at Washington State
University after CL imaging using a New Wave Nd:YAG UV 213-nm
laser coupled to a ThermoFinnigan Element 2 single collector,
double-focusing, magnetic sector ICPMS. Operating procedures and
parameters are a modification of Chang et al. (2006). Laser spot size
and repetition rate were 30 nm and 10 Hz, respectively. He and Ar
carrier gases delivered the sample aerosol to the plasma. Each
analysis consisted of a short blank analysis followed by 250 sweeps
through masses 204, 206, 207, 208, 232, 235, and 238, taking
approximately 30 s. Time-independent fractionation was corrected
by normalizing UePb and Pb/Pb ratios of the unknowns to the
zircon standards (Chang et al., 2006). For this study we used two
zircon standards: Peixe, with an age of 564 Ma (Dickinson and
Gehrels, 2003), and FC-1, with an age of 1099 Ma (Paces and
Miller, 1993). Uraniumelead ages were calculated using Isoplot
(Ludwig, 2003) and includes the systematic and analytic errors (2s).
3.2. UePb TIMS in zircons
One sample was dated by Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrom-
etry (TIMS) procedures following a procedure modified from
Mundil et al. (2004), Mattinson (2005) and Scoates and Friedman
(2008). This analysis has been performed at the Pacific Center for
Isotope and Geochemical Research (PCIGR), University of British
Columbia, Canada. After rock samples have undergone standard
mineral separation procedure, zircon grains were handpicked in
alcohol, and then annealed in quartz glass crucibles at 900  C for
60 h. Grains were chemically abraded (leached) in ultrapure HF and
HNO3 at 175  C for 12 h. Single grains were then dissolved in HF and
nitric acids in a 10:1 ratio at 240  C for 40 h. Each sample was spiked
with a 233e235Ue205Pb tracer. The resulting solutions were dried at
130  C and the fluoride precipitate was dissolved in 6 N HCl in high
 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249
pressure Parr devices for 12 h at 210  C. The resulting HCl solutions
were mixed with 2 mL of 0.5 NH3PO4 and dried. Samples were
finally loaded onto degassed, zone-refined Re filaments in 2 mL of
silicic acid emitter (Gerstenberger and Haase, 1997). Isotopic ratios
were measured using a modified single collector VG-54R or VG-
354S (the latter with Sector 54 electronics) thermal ionization mass
spectrometer (TIMS) equipped with an analogue Daly detector.
Analytical blanks are 0.2 pg for U and for Pb in the range of 1e10 pg.
U fractionation was determined directly on individual runs using
the 233e235U tracer, and Pb isotopic ratios were corrected for frac-
tionation of 0.23%/amu, based on replicate analyses for the
NBS-982Pb reference material and the values recommended by
Thirlwall (2000). Data reduction employed the Microsoft Excel
based program of Schmitz and Schoene (2007). Standard concordia
diagrams were constructed and regression intercepts weighted
averages calculated with Isoplot (Ludwig, 2003). All errors are
quoted at the 2s or 95% level of confidence.
3.3. UePb (LA) ICPMS in detrital zircons
Detrital zircons from sample TB-CV-008 (Fig. 2), collected at
latitude 7 200 58.000 and longitude 72 560 51.100 (or local coordinates
X ¼ 1.304.631; Y ¼ 1.124.764; Z ¼ w2020 mosl; Bogotá as origin of
the reference system; Plane Gauss Krüger projected coordinates),
were analyzed at PCIGR at the University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada; using a laser ablation (LA) ICPMS technique, as
described by Tafti et al. (2009). Instrumentation employed for LA-
ICPMS dating of zircons at the PCIGR, comprises a New Wave UP-
213 laser ablation system and a ThermoFinnigan Element 2 single
collector, double-focusing, magnetic sector ICPMS. Zircons were
randomly separated from a concentrate comprising the entire
recovered populations and then were mounted in an epoxy puck
along with several grains of the Plesovice zircon standard (Sláma
et al., 2007), together with zircon standard FC-1, and brought to a
very high polish. The surface of the mount was washed for 10 min
with dilute nitric acid and rinsed in ultraclean water prior to
analysis. Portions of each grain, free of alteration, inclusions, or
possible inherited cores, were selected for analysis. Line scans
rather than spot analyses were employed in order to minimize
elemental fractionation during the analyses. A 25 mm spot size was
used for all analyses. Backgrounds were measured with the laser
shutter closed for ten seconds, followed by data collection with the
laser firing for approximately 35 s. The time-integrated signals
were analyzed using GLITTER software (Van Achterbergh et al.,
2001; Griffin et al., 2008), which automatically subtracts back-
ground measurements, propagates all analytical errors, and calcu-
lates isotopic ratios and ages. Corrections for mass and elemental
fractionation were made by bracketing analyses of unknown grains
with replicate analyses of the Plesovice zircon standard. Final
interpretation and plotting of the analytical results were done using
ISOPLOT software of Ludwig (2003). Data are listed at the 2 sigma
confidence level and plotted on standard concordia diagrams. The
best estimate for the age of these detrital zircons is given by the
207
Pb/206Pb age if 1500 Ma and older or the 206Pb/238Pb age if
younger than 1500 Ma; these age picks are used to construct a
probability density plot. All data on this latter plot are less than
5%
discordant. Only one analyzed grain was more than 5% discordant
and not used.
3.4. Whole rock geochemistry
Sixteen rocks samples of Mesozoic rocks were analyzed by
whole rock geochemistry at the ‘Acme Analytical Laboratories Ltd’,
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Out of these a subset of 11
samples containing rocks unaffected or only minimally affected by
239
hydrothermal alteration were selected for further data analysis
(Appendix B). The samples were analyzed by the analytical package
4A-4B by ICP-emission mass spectrometry following a lithium
metaborate/tetraborate fusion and dilute nitric acid digestion.
A separate sample split was digested in Aqua Regia and analyzed by
ICP mass spectrometry for precious and base metals. The analytical
data are presented in digital Appendix B. Two additional analyses of
Tonalite (sample 7-1-1-89) and granodiorite (10-1-5-89) were
compiled from Dörr et al. (1995).
4. Results
4.1. Field relationships of igneous rocks
The oldest Phanerozoic igneous rocks recognized in the study
area include meta-gabbros to meta-granodiorites that were
affected by regional deformation but locally cut an older foliation of
the Bucaramanga Gneiss (Mantilla et al., 2012). These rocks have
generally been assigned a pre-Devonian age (Boinet et al., 1985)
and were emplaced synchronously with the early Ordovician
CaparonensiseFamatinian orogenic event (Restrepo-Pace and
Cediel, 2010).
The most prominent and volumetrically most important intru-
sive units observed in the study area are multiphase plutons and
dikes ranging in composition from tonalite and diorite to grano-
diorite, quartzemonzonite and granite (Fig. 2). These are all unaf-
fected by regional metamorphism. These intrusive rocks can be
classified into three groups on the basis of the observed cross-
cutting relationships and geochronology.
The oldest is an igneous muscoviteebiotite leucogranite, herein
referred to as Alaskite-I, following earlier nomenclature (Evans,
1977). Leucogranites of the Alaskite-I unit are usually medium-
grained and form dikes and intrusive bodies of modest size. The
dikes range in average thickness from about 30 cm to about 20 m
and their strike is dominantly WNW, dipping 80 SW (Fig. 3A), but
shallowly-dipping dikes have been recognized locally at Veta de
Barro Angostura Project (ENE, dipping 30 NW). Larger igneous
bodies assigned to this rock group can reach up to 2.5 km2 in map
view (Fig. 2).
The intermediate group of rocks are tonalite, diorite and
granodiorite and form large plutons up to 9 km2 (Fig. 2). Interme-
diate intrusive rocks locally contain centimetre-scale mafic sub-
rounded and rounded blocks that may be enclaves, restites or
xenoliths (Fig. 3B). The intermediate group of rocks cut Alaskite-I,
as observed at about 1.2 km to the east of the town of California.
At La Chorrera (Fig. 2), Alaskite-I forms centimetre-scale xenoliths
and meter-scale rafts within the more mafic lithologies (Fig. 3C).
The latter locally displays a weak tectonic foliation (Fig. 3D) and in
other places a magmatic flow alignment of mafic minerals.
Fine-grained, equigranular igneous muscovite-bearing quartze
monzogranites that are petrographically very similar to those
described above, intrude and contain xenoliths of the intrusions of
intermediate composition (Fig. 3E), indicating that there are at least
two separate episodes of muscovite-bearing granitoid emplace-
ment separated by the intrusion of intermediate magmas. These
younger granites are herein referred to as Alaskite-II. These rocks
occur as dykes and igneous bodies (Fig. 3F) similar to those of
Alaskite-I and the two alaskite units can only be distinguished with
confidence in outcrop if direct cross-cutting relationships with the
intermediate rocks are exposed.
4.2. UePb geochronology
Nine samples from late Triassic to early Jurassic igneous rocks
were collected from Alaskites (I and II) and intermediate igneous
240 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249

Fig. 3. Outcrop photographs of Mesozoic igneous rocks of the VCMD. A. Alaskite-I dyke cutting the Bucaramanga Gneiss (sample GE-20-M1); B. Diorite rocks containing centimetre-
scale mafic subrounded and rounded mafic enclaves, C. Centimetre-scale xenoliths and meter-scale rafts (composed of Alaskite-I leucogranite) within the more mafic litologies
(dioriteegranodiorite rocks); D. Dioriteegranodiorite rocks affected by tectonic foliation (Sample TQB-005, close to California town); E. Leucogranite of the Alaskite-II unit (dyke
covered by and FeeMn oxides on fracture planes) with granodiorite xenoliths; F. Road cut along the California-Vetas road of Alaskites-II leucogranite (sample TQB-004).

rocks (Fig. 2) and dated, following the methodologies described
above (see Table 1; Figs. 4e7; Appendix A).
4.2.1. Alaskites-I
Four Alaskite-I samples were collected from dikes and stocks
from El Cuatro (along the La Baja Creek, Sample ALR035); Violetal
Hill (in the central part of the study area; sample GI-47-M1) and
along the California-Vetas road (samples GE-20-M1 and TQB-002;
Fig. 2, Table 1).
Sample ALR035 is an illite/sericite-altered fine-grained equi-
granular granite dike containing primary muscovite. Samples GI-
47-M1, GE-20-M1 and TQB-002 are from alkaliefeldspar granite
but are affected by moderate quartzesericite hydrothermal alter-
ation and cut by quartzepyrite veins. Sample GE-20-M1, is an al-
kaliefeldspar granite with biotite and muscovite from a fractured
dike of about 20 m thickness with a west north westerly strike and
80 dip to the Southwest. This dyke cuts the Bucaramanga Gneiss
and has not been affected by macroscopically recognizable hydro-
thermal alteration. The other two samples (GI-47-M1 and TQB-002)
were collected from stocks of alkaliefeldspar granites (Fig. 2).
Sample TQB-002 has been affected by macroscopically recognizable
hydrothermal alteration.
Zircons from all samples are euhedral and display concentric
oscillatory zoning, indicating a magmatic origin.
Sample ALR035, the only one dated by the UePb TIMS method
on zircon, presents significant inherited zircons. Three of five
analyzed zircons are discordant. The two youngest grains define a
206
Pb/207Pb age of 210.6
3.5 Ma. A lower Concordia intercept at
w201 Ma defines a minimum age (Fig. 4).
Samples GE-20-M1, GI-47-M1 and TQB-002 were all dated by
zircon UePb LA-MC-ICPMS (Fig. 5AeC; Appendix A). The UePb
juvenile ages for these samples are: 204.3 þ 2.7/3.3 Ma for sample
GE-20-M1; 202.2 þ 5.3/3.0 Ma for sample GI-47-M1 and;
199.1 þ 2.5/2.6 Ma for sample TQB-002. All of these samples
 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249 241

Table 1
Summary of zircons UePb geochronology results (see Appendix A).

Sample Coordinates Local Coordinatesb Geographic location Rock type Age

Latitude Longitude X Y Z (mosl)

ALR035a 7 220 38.700 72 540 21.1 1.307.735 1.129.357 w2496 El Cuatro (along the Alaskite-I 210.6 ± 3.5 Ma
‘La Baja’ Creek) minimum lower intercept
age of w201 Ma
GE-20-M1 7 190 00.300 72 530 56.400 1.301.027 1.130.134 w2704 California-Vetas road Alaskite-I 204.3 D 2.7/L3.3 Ma
GI-47-M1 7 210 21.100 72 540 25.800 1.305.351 1.129.222 w3113 Violetal Hill Alaskite-I 202.2 D 5.3/L3.0 Ma
TQB-002 7 200 55.600 72 560 04.600 1.304.559 1.126.193 w2171 California-Vetas road Alaskite-I 199.1 D 2.5/L2.6 Ma
TPD-71 7 190 18.600 72 540 10.900 1.301.589 1.129.689 w2622 California-Vetas road DioriteeGranodiorite 199.2 D 2.8/L2.7 Ma
TQB-005 7 200 57.100 72 560 49.200 1.304.604 1.124.824 w2037 Just outside the town of Diorite-Granodiorite 199.0 D 2.5/L2.6 Ma
California on the road to
Bucaramanga
TQB-003 7 200 55.600 72 560 04.600 1.304.559 1.126.193 w2171 California-Vetas road Diorite-Granodiorite 198.4 D 2.5/L2.6 Ma
TQB-004 7 210 01.700 72 560 16.000 1.304.746 1.125.843 w2182 California-Vetas road Alaskite-II 198.7 D 2.6/L2.9 Ma
TQB-001 7 190 55.100 72 540 56.800 1.302.707 1.128.275 w2393 California-Vetas road Alaskite-II 196.7 D 2.9/2.8 Ma
a
Sample dated by TIMS. All other samples were dated by LA-ICPMS.
b
Bogotá as origin of the reference system; Plane Gauss Krüger projected coordinates.

contain significant inherited zircon populations (Fig. 8). Out of 103
analyzed points, 20 are considered inherited or mixed ages because
they yield apparent ages ranging from Proterozoic to Carboniferous,
whereas the remaining 83 point analyses yield ages between 245.7
and 187.2 (Appendix A).
4.2.2. Intermediate rocks
Three samples of intermediate rocks were dated. One was taken
just outside the town of California on the road to Bucaramanga
(sample TQB-005, Fig. 6B), and two additional samples were
collected along the California-Vetas road (TPD-71 and TQB-003,
Table 1; Fig. 6A and C; Appendix A). These samples are unaltered
dioriteegranodiorite rocks with quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase,
biotite and hornblende and no muscovite (the total estimated
content of mafic mineral is 30%).
Zircons are euhedral and display concentric oscillatory zoning,
indicating a magmatic origin. The obtained UePb juvenile ages for
these samples are: 199.2 þ 2.8/2.7 Ma for sample TPD-71;
199.0 þ 2.5/2.6 Ma for sample TQB-005 and; 198.4 þ 2.4/
2.4 Ma for sample TQB-003 (Table 1). All of these samples also
contain significant inherited zircon populations (Fig. 8). Out of 118
analyzed points, 14 are considered inherited (or mixed ages) with
ages ranging from Proterozoic to Carboniferous, whereas the
remaining 104 point analyses yield ages between 253.0 and
119.7 Ma (Appendix A).
4.2.3. Alaskites-II
Two samples from Alaskite-II rocks were dated in this study
(samples TQB-004, TQB-001 Table 1, Fig. 3E and F). These rocks
are quartzeplagioclaseeKefeldspar granite with biotite and
muscovite, very similar to Alaskite-I but distinguished from
those in that they contain xenoliths of intermediate rocks.
These samples were collected along the California-Vetas road
(Fig. 2).
Zircons are euhedral and display concentric oscillatory zoning,
indicating again their magmatic origin. The UePb juvenile ages
obtained from these samples are 198.7 þ 2.6/2.9 Ma for sample
TQB-004 and 196.7 þ 2.9/2.8 Ma for sample TQB-001 (Table 1;
Fig. 7A and B).
Both of these samples also contain inherited zircon pop-
ulations, but significantly less Grenvillian and older zircons,
comparing with the Alaskite-I and Intermediate rocks (Fig. 8). Out
of 84 analyzed points, 16 are considered inherited (or mixed ages)
with ages ranging from Proterozoic to Permian, whereas the
remaining 68 point analyses yield ages between 245.6 and
130.7 Ma (Appendix A).
4.3. Detrital zircons UePb geochronology
A sample of quartz-rich sandstone of lower Cretaceous Tambor
Formation was taken from west of the town of California. This

Fig. 4. Zircon UePb TIMS age from sample ALR035 (Alaskite-I from a dyke cutting La Bodega). The two youngest grains define a 206Pb/207Pb age of 210.6
3.5 Ma. A lower Concordia
intercept at w201 Ma defines a minimum age for this sample.
242 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249

Fig. 5. Zircon UePb LA-MC-ICPMS ages for Alaskite-I rocks. Concordia and distribution diagrams, respectively, for the samples: A. GE-20-M1; B. GI-47-M1 and; C. TQB-002.

sedimentary unit unconformably overlies the Bucaramanga Gneiss 4.4. Geochemistry

and the igneous Mesozoic rocks. Sixty-three detrital zircons grains
were analyzed (sample TB-CV-008, Fig. 2), out of these only a single
analysis was discordant and is not further considered. The
following age populations are recognized (Fig. 9AeD; Appendix A):
1) nine analysis define an early to middle Proterozoic age group
from 1810 to 1338 Ma; 2) twenty-six points yielded middle Pro-
terozoic ages of 1298e939 Ma; 3) one zircon was dated at
756.6 Ma; 4) six zircons have ages between 494 and 473 Ma; 5)
twelve analyses fall between 466 and 436 Ma and; 6) nine analyses
represent ages from 209 to 195 Ma (Appendix A). The most
important groups of ages are represented in the probabilistic age
peaks shown in Fig. 9B.
Given that rocks in the Vetas-California district are commonly
affected by hydrothermal alteration due to proximal hydrothermal
mineral deposits, the geochemical data were evaluated using a
number of standard alteration evaluation diagrams (e.g., Davies and
Whitehead, 2006; not shown here) to check for the degree of
mobility of the large ion lithophile elements (LILE) which include
mainly K, Na and Ca. The geochemical data and petrographic ob-
servations in 5 out of 16 analyzed samples indicate hydrothermal
alteration, mainly the destruction of plagioclase and replacement
by muscovite
quartz assemblages, silicification and the addition
of iron from pyrite. Elevated P2O5 and TiO2 in one specimen was
 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249 243

Fig. 6. Zircon UePb LA-MC-ICPMS ages from Mesozoic intermediate igneous rocks. Concordia and distribution diagrams, respectively, for the samples: A. TPD-71; B. TQB-005; C.
TQB-003.

also an indication that these elements may not have been immobile
during alteration in some samples. The altered samples are not
further discussed below. Widely used classification plots readily
identify the Mesozoic igneous rocks of the Santander Massif as
subalkaline (Fig. 10A) and as high-K calcealkaline rocks. The in-
termediate late Triassic to early Jurassic rocks have dioritic com-
positions with SiO2 contents of 54.9e60.4 wt.%. The Alaskites all
plot as alkali granites and granites but no distinction between
Alaskite-I and -II can be made. The immobile trace element dia-
grams Zr/TiO2 vs Nb/Y and SiO2 vs Zr/TiO2 (Winchester and Floyd,
1977; Fig. 10C and D) also identify the intermediate rocks as sub-
alkaline diorite whereas the alaskites plot in the monzonite/
quartzemonzonite fields.
In the Aluminum saturation index diagram by Maniar and
Piccoli (1989), all Alaskite rocks (I and II) plot in the per-
aluminous field, whereas the five intermediate rock samples
(Appendix B) are metaluminous (Fig. 10B).
Chondrite normalized patterns for rare earth elements (REE) for
the Alaskite-I and -II units (Fig. 10E), display relatively flat HREE
patterns although some scatter in the degree of HREE enrichment
relative to chondrite is evident, especially in Alaskite-II samples.
However all Alaskites show a pronounced negative Eu anomaly
which is indicative for plagioclase fractionation. The late Triassic to
early Jurassic diorites are more enriched in heavy REE relative to
chondrite and their negative Eu anomaly is less pronounced when
compared to the Alaskites (Fig. 10E). The Ta vs. Yb diagram (Pearce
244 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249

Fig. 7. Zircon UePb LA-MC-ICPMS ages from Alaskite-II rocks. Concordia and distribution diagrams, respectively, for the samples: A. TQB-004 and B. TQB-001.

et al., 1984) reveals that all rocks plot as a tight cluster within the
volcanic arc field, although the granites have slightly higher Ta
contents and straddle the border to the syn-collisional granite field
(Fig. 10F).
5. Discussion
5.1. Juvenile UePb zircons ages from late Triassiceearly Jurassic
Igneous rocks
The UePb LA-MC-ICPMS zircon geochronology shows that
Triassic to Jurassic magmatism occurred over a relatively restricted
time interval between w210 and 196 Ma. The three intrusive units
Alaskite-I, Intermediate and Alaskite-II can be distinguished
geochronologically, although some age overlap exists between
them. Besides the significant inherited age component, crystalli-
zation ages of Alaskite-I are between 204.3 þ 2.7/3.3 Ma and
199.1 þ 2.5/2.6 Ma. The w210
3.5 Ma 206Pb/207Pb TIMS age of
sample ALR035 is possibly an inherited component but the mini-
mum age estimate of 201 Ma for this sample is consistent with the
age range for Alaskite-I established by LA-MC-ICPMS geochro-
nology. The intermediate igneous rocks are slightly younger and
have UePb zircon ages from 199.2 þ 2.8/2.7 Ma to 198.4 þ 2.4/
2.4 Ma although the errors overlap with the Alaskite-I and -II
units. The latter has ages of 198.7 þ 2.6/2.9 Ma and 196.7 þ 2.9/
2.8 Ma. The late Triassiceearly Jurassic magmatism reported here
for the VCMD is the volumetrically most important igneous episode
recognized in the Colombian eastern Cordillera. Rocks of this age

Fig. 8. Zircon UePb LA-MC-ICPMS age distribution in Alaskites-I, Intermediate and Alaskites-II rocks, from a total of 305 analyzed points (103 in Alaskites-I; 118 in intermediate
rocks and; 84 in Alaskites-II rocks). Inherited Grenvillian and older zircons are significantly less abundant in Alaskite-II rocks, than in Alaskite-I and Intermediate rocks.
 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249
Fig. 9. Ages of detrital zircons from the lower Cretaceous siliciclastic Tambor formation. A. Concordia diagram. B. Probability density plot of UePb ages. C. Close-up of Concordia
diagram showing early Ordovician UePb ages of detrital zircons derived from early Ordovician orthogneisses. D. Late Triassiceearly Jurassic UePb age population, derived from
detrital zircons from Mesozoic igneous rocks.
are present across the entire Santander Massif (SM) as batholiths,
stocks and dykes (Ward et al., 1973; Clavijo, 1994; Fig. 1). Limited
age equivalent stocks, dikes, lava flows and volcanoclastic materials
have also been reported west of the SMBF in the Magdalena River
Valley domain.
The late Triassic to early Jurassic magmatism in the SM includes
both, peraluminous rocks with a large crustal component and
metaluminous intermediate-mantle-derived intrusions in tempo-
ral and spatial proximity.
5.2. Detrital and inhered UePb zircons ages
The detrital zircons of the Tambor Formation record all previous
known igneous and major metamorphic events in the Santander
Massif previously documented by mapping and igneous geochro-
nology (Goldsmith et al., 1971; Ward et al., 1973; Dörr et al., 1995;
Cordani et al., 2005; Mantilla et al., 2012). These include Proterozoic
zircons, most importantly dated at w1300e940 Ma, but also some
older grains between w1810 and w1340 Ma. The younger of these
two episodes can readily be related to the Grenvillian orogeny and
includes the age of the peak metamorphism of the Bucaramanga
Gneiss (Cordani et al., 2005), whereas the oldest group of ages are
probably inherited from the protolith of the Bucaramanga Gneiss
which, on the basis of SmeNd model ages, has been estimated at
1760e1710 Ma (Ordoñez-Cardona et al., 2006). An alternate
explanation for this Paleoproterozoic age population would be that
these zircons may have been derived from upper Paleozoic sedi-
mentary rocks, shedding off the Amazonian craton, after the
Chibcha Terrane accretion (Restrepo et al., 2011). However, given
245
the absence of documented upper Paleozoic sedimentary rocks in
the study area, we interpret the oldest zircon population as derived
from the Bucaramanga Gneiss. The single 756.6 Ma zircon recorded
in the Tambor Formation cannot be related to a specific mapped
geologic unit in the district but is here interpreted as derived from
the post Grenvillian Silgará formation. An early Ordovician age
population of 494e472 Ma can readily be matched to the meta-
morphosed meta-diorites documented by Restrepo-Pace and
Cediel (2010) and Mantilla et al. (2012). Magmatism of late Cale-
donian age (Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010) can be matched to
detrital zircon ages of 466e436 Ma, whereas the detrital age pop-
ulation of 209e195 Ma matches the late Triassic to early Jurassic
magmatic episode documented above well. Overall, the detrital
zircon data indicate that all igneous and metamorphic units pres-
ently exposed in the study area were already subject to erosion in
the lower Cretaceous, as previously suggested by Juliver (1963a, b);
Fabre and Delaloye, 1983), and Sarmiento (2001).
Inherited zircon grains from Mesozoic igneous rocks record, in
broad terms, the same pre-Mesozoic age populations as the detrital
zircons of the Tambor Formation. The oldest zircon ages from 1740
to 1334 Ma (8 analyses) recorded by studied Mesozoic igneous
rocks, are interpreted as inherited from the host Bucaramanga
Gneiss and likely correspond to its protolith age; as was interpreted
in previous studies (Cordani et al., 2005; Ordóñez-Cardona et al.,
2006; Mantilla et al., 2012). Inherited zircon ages of 1240e
958 Ma (5 analyses) are also interpreted as derived from the host
Bucaramanga Gneiss, and likely corresponding to the Grenvillian
metamorphic peak (Cordani et al., 2005; Mantilla et al., 2012). The
older ages within the age group from 920 to 500 Ma (8 analyses),
246 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249

Fig. 10. Geochemical classification diagrams for Mesozoic igneous rocks of the VCMD. A. Irvine and Baragar (1971) discrimination diagram; B. Al/(Ca þ Na þ K) vs. Al/(Na þ K)
diagram from Maniar and Piccoli (1989) which readily identifies the Alaskites-I and -II as peraluminous, whereas the intermediate rocks fall into the metaluminous field; C and D.
Zr/TiO2 vs. Nb/Y and SiO2 vs. Zr/TiO2 classification diagram after Winchester and Floyd (1977); E. Chondrite normalized REE spider diagram. Chondrite normalization values from
Sun and McDonough (1989). F. Ta vs. Yb tectonic discrimination diagrams for granitoid rocks, after Pearce et al. (1984). Empty squares: Intermediate igneous Mesozoic rocks; filled
squares: Mesozoic Alaskite-I rocks; filled triangles: Mesozoic Alaskite-II rocks.

may correspond to late metamorphic events of the Grenvillian metamorphic events, mixing ages or alternatively (?) may be
orogeny as documented by Cordani et al. (2005) and Restrepo-Pace related to undated diabase (dolerite) dikes outcropping in the SM,
(1995), the latter using 40Ar/39Ar hornblende from amphibolite. The which have been interpreted to have intruded during the opening
younger ages in the range, may also be related to post Grenvillian of the western Iapetus Ocean (Pisarevsky et al., 2008).
 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249
The age groups from 475 to 302 Ma (27 analyses) may be
interpreted as inhered from the early Ordovician meta-igneous
rocks (ages >470 Ma) present in the study area (Mantilla et al.,
2012) and also from igneous rocks without regional meta-
morphism (470e370 Ma in age) that were emplaced in different
areas of the SM, as has been documented by Restrepo-Pace and
Cediel (2010). The latter magmatic event has not been docu-
mented but may be represented by scarce granitic pegmatite dykes
observed in the study area. Younger ages (<370 Ma), likely repre-
sent mixed ages, but in cannot be excluded that they represent
presently unknown rocks units.
The two Permian ages of 287 and 270 Ma reported for zircons in
Alaskite-II rocks, are also interpreted as mixed ages although they
may also represent inhered zircons from unknown Permian
igneous rocks, which, however, have not been reported from the
Santander Massif.
5.3. Paleotectonic implications
The existence of a proto-Andean Orogenic system during the
Grenvillian (1.0 Ga) and Famatinian (0.47 Ga), have been reported
for the SM (Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997; Cordani et al., 2005; Chew
et al., 2007; Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010). The granitoids
emplaced during the CaparonensiseFamatinian Orogeny
(Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010), are related to mantle-derived
magmas emplaced in a supra-subduction paleotectonic setting,
are affected by a regional metamorphic foliation and have been
dated at 477
2 Ma in the study area (Mantilla et al., 2012). The
Mesozoic leucogranites of the Alaskite-I and Alaskite-II units are
geochemically similar to each other despite the fact that they can be
distinguished by cross-cutting relationships and are separated in
time by the intrusion of intermediate rocks. The Alaskites are per-
aluminous as they contain magmatic muscovite and their subduc-
tion signature in the trace elements is subdued. The Alaskite-I unit
is interpreted to have been emplaced in a relatively continent-ward
position during late Triassic eastward subduction of the Pan-
thalassa oceanic plate (or Paleo-Pacific; Farallon Plate) beneath
Pangea (Fig. 11). A slight tectonic change, potentially related to the
initial rifting of the central Atlantic Ocean may have provided a
locally more extensional setting for the emplacement of the inter-
mediate rocks. The latter are not peraluminous and exhibit no
geochemical evidence for major crustal assimilation although some
A in the study area are narrow granodiorite porphyry dikes and,
MEXICAN BLOCKS
B 1993; Kellogg and Vega, 1995). The presence of even younger
Study area
FARALLON PLATE
Magmatic Arc
Subduction margin
Bucaramanga Fault
Volcano-plutonic arc
of the Santander Massif.
Upper Triassic-Lower Jurassic
Fig. 11. A. Simplified map of late Triassiceearly Jurassic Pangea showing the approx-
imate location of the Colombia Territory (modified from Lucas and Tanner, 2007). B.
Simplified geotectonic reconstruction of the study area, in which the oblique late
Triassiceearly Jurassic subduction margin is shown (modified from Bayona et al.,
2006).
247
inherited zircons indicate that limited crustal contamination must
have occurred. The early Jurassic intermediate rocks are followed
by peraluminous granitic rocks (Alaskite-II) with similar charac-
teristics to those which pre-date the intermediate rocks indicating
a return to a similar tectonic configuration as prior to the
emplacement of the intermediate rocks. Magmatism probably
ceased in the region after w190 Ma, potentially due to initiation of
rifting related to the opening of the Proto-Caribbean Ocean and
westward retreat of the subduction zone, as also suggested by
Bayona et al. (2006).
The reported geochemical data from late Triassiceearly Jurassic
Magmatic rocks support continental margin magmatism, but the
sedimentary succession from this time interval indicates deposition
in an extensional setting (Bayona et al., 2006). Restrepo et al. (2011),
supported by zircon UePb SHRIMP ages, obtained from Nechí
Gneiss (Tahami Terrane, core of the Colombian Central Cordillera),
pointed out that the metamorphism of this terrane has likely taken
place in an Andean-type orogenesis (about 226 Ma age in the late
Triassic), on the western side of Pangea (not by the collision of
Laurentia and Gondwana to form Pangea).
The late Triassiceearly Jurassic magmatism in the SM is
consistent with an oblique supra-subduction setting, as proposed
by Aspden et al. (1987) and documented by Bayona et al. (2006) on
the basis of paleomagnetic data. The tectonic changes required for
the shift from peraluminous to metaluminous and then again to
peraluminous magmatism, reported also for other areas affected by
oblique subduction (e.g., Collins and Hobbs, 2001) is here inter-
preted as a function of crustal residency time during ongoing
subduction. In this scenario, peraluminous magmatism would be
the result of a more extensive interaction between the mantle-
derived magma and the metasedimentary material of the crust
during episodes of contractional tectonics and crustal thickening in
the upper plate. Metaluminous granite magmatism, in contrast,
may be explained by some degree of relaxation of the crust and the
subsequent ascent of mantle-derived magmas. These tectonic shifts
are interpreted to have taken place in the context of an oblique
subduction of the Farallon Plate and episodic reactivations of the
Paleo-SMBF which controlled the basin evolution to the west of the
Santander Massif. Deformation during the emplacement of the
metaluminous intermediate rocks is also evidenced by the weak
foliation and alignment of mafic minerals of some of these igneous
bodies.
Magmatic activity in the Santander Massif resumed in the late
Miocene (Mantilla et al., 2009, 2011). The late Miocene intrusions
locally, up to 1 km diameter intrusions. The generation of these
melts was probably related to the subduction of the Caribbean
plate beneath this part of the northern Andes and coincided with
the collision of the Baudó-Panama terrane (Dengo and Covey,
igneous rocks cannot be ruled out, since magmaticehydrothermal
alteration, presumably related to intrusions at depth, post-dating
the late Miocene granodiorite porphyries has affected the area.
Late Pliocene volcanism has been documented locally at the Paipa
volcano some 180 km south of VCMD in the eastern Cordillera
(Pardo et al., 2005).
6. Conclusions
The Vetas-California Mining District (VCMD) records a series of
tectono-magmatic events that took place during Proterozoic and
lower Paleozoic. All pre-Devonian rocks have a regional meta-
morphic foliation related to the Grenvillian and Famatiniane
Caparonensis orogenies. A limited number of age determinations
on inherited zircons in the late Triassic and early Jurassic igneous
248 L.C. Mantilla Figueroa et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 45 (2013) 235e249
rocks, and on detrital zircons from the lower Cretaceous Tambor
Formation sandstone fall in the interval between 470 and 360 Ma.
These dates suggest the presence of subordinate igneous rocks of
this age range although only limited field evidence for such rocks
has been reported. Volumetrically important igneous activity took
place in the late Triassic to early Jurassic interval (204.3e196.7 Ma,
Retiense-Pliensbachiense). Leucogranite emplacement was sepa-
rated by intrusion of dioritic to granodioritic rocks reflecting subtle
changes in the crustal stress in a setting above an oblique sub-
duction of the Panthalassa plate beneath Pangea.
The detrital zircons in the lower Cretaceous Tambor Formation,
suggest that their provenance is related to the erosion of the
igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Santander Massif recog-
nized locally in the study area. This implies that the Santander
Massif was subject to erosion and localized deposition of the sili-
ciclastic detritus which gave rise to the Tambor Formation during
the BerriasianeValanginian time interval. The tectonic foliation
that locally affects the intermediate rocks from late Triassic and
early Jurassic igneous rocks is considered the result of deformation
along the proto-SMBF and other crustal scale faults that affected the
study area during the middle-late Jurassic and early Cretaceous.
These structures were re-activated later in the Neogene, leading to
the most recent uplift pulses in the northeastern Cordillera Oriental
of Colombia.
Acknowledgments
We express our thanks to the Industrial University of Santander
(UIS), for giving the opportunity to pursue geological fieldwork
aimed at creating new geologic knowledge on the Colombian Ge-
ology. We would like to thank Sara Jenkins, Arne Toma, Karie Smith,
students and colleagues at the Mineral Deposit Research Unit
(MDRU), at the Earth and Ocean Sciences Department (University of
British Columbia), for all their support and help. To Hernando
Mendoza and Humberto León Amaya, for their support and help
during the fieldworks. To the community of California, Vetas and
surrounding areas, for their permanent kindness and cooperation.
A special thanks to all those students from the School of Geology at
the UIS, who have done their geological fieldwork practices in the
VCMD. We gratefully acknowledge our colleagues and staff from
Eco-Oro Minerals Corp., CVS Explorations Ltd., AUX Colombia Ltda
and other sponsors, for their financial contribution to the MDRU
Colombia gold and porphyry project which enabled the senior
author to take a sabbatical leave to work on the project, but also for
their continuing support to the School of Geology (UIS), especially
during its geological fieldworks activities.
Appendices A and B. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2013.03.006.
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